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A Study on Local Resident’s Acceptance to Driving Tourist by Focusing on Tourist’s Aggressive Driving
Behaviour – A Case in Bali, Indonesia
旅行者の攻撃的運転行動に着目した地域住民による観 光客受容の研究-インドネシア・バリ島を例に
Arranged by:
Nicholas 16942405
Supervised by:
Prof. Tetsuo Shimizu
Department of Tourism Science
Graduate School of Urban and Environmental Sciences Tokyo Metropolitan University
首都大学東京
2019
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i ABSTRACT
Background
Bali is very important destination for Indonesia tourism industry, its share around 40% of total Indonesia industry and number of foreign tourists to Bali has been increasing every year. Bali’s economy heavily depends on tourism, around 80% from tourism industry, and usually national government regards as a role model for tourism development in Indonesia.
As an island, Bali has dozens of tourist attractions that are scattered in several tourist areas and most of them can only be accessed by land. Unfortunately, Bali still has an insufficient integrated system of land transportation.
In general, the provision of road infrastructure emphasizes increase of quantity of road services such as speed, service level and travel time. A different approach must be taken by the government to serve tourism activities especially drive tourism which will directly place foreign tourists as drivers of vehicles on the road. Therefore, the government needs some feasible strategies for road development as an available option of transportation in Bali Island, particularly in order to support self-drive tourism. The limited number of transportation options makes most of the tourists choose rental cars or motorcycles as their main mode of transportation when they travel in Bali. Many foreign tourists choose to drive themselves on their vacations in Bali. Naturally, they will utilize the driving knowledge, skill, and attitude learned from their countries of origin and at same time be exposed to a different road environment. This combination may create aggressive driving behaviour and become potential risk for local resident.
Objectives
This study has two main objectives. First, it identifies possible road development strategies to support drive tourism activities. Second, it identifies the influence of driving behaviour of foreign tourists on the acceptance of local residents in Bali which covers aggressive driving behaviour (ADB) factor, factor of acceptance (FA), relation between ADB and FA to local acceptance (LA), and propose recommendation for increase the local resident acceptance to driving tourist.
ii Result
SWOT analysis is applied to identify possible road development strategies. A qualitative approach that employs the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats to examine the internal and external factors comprehensively is used. The results show that the strategy in road development is not only focused on conventional road development that relates to the physical road, access, routes and modes of transport but must be adapted to the social aspects that promote and maintain local values such preserve local tolerance.
This study also uses different approach from previous studies to identify the factors of aggressive driving behaviour by tourists. Questionnaires were distributed to local residents to assess aggressive driving behaviour using 5-point Likert scale in three measured variables;
aggressiveness (severity), frequency (likelihood), and weight (importance). The data are analysed with factor analysis method, using IBM SPSS 25 software as the statistical tool.
Analysis shows that according to local residents of Bali, tourists’ aggressive driving behaviours comprises five factors: negative intention and emotion, risky driving, physical threat, psychological threat, and improper driving.
Questionnaires were also distributed to assess factors that affect local resident acceptance to driving tourist using 5-point Likert scale to acceptance factor based on previous literature.
By using structural equation model (SEM), factors that influence the acceptance of local residents and the relationship between factors can be identified in a basic model based on local residents’ perception. Analysis show there are several factors affected local resident acceptance consist of; social cost, risk, benefit, fairness, trust to government, competition, involvement. All this FA are used to construct basic model using SEM and generate a good fit of structural model with chi-squared/df (397.067/160) = 2.482 < 3, GFI = 0.921 > 0.9, AGFI = 0.896 > 0.8, CFI = 0.921 > 0.9 and RSMEA = 0.056 < 0.07.
In this study, ADB factor combines into the basic model of acceptance to find out its influence on the FA. the model based on SEM indicates a good fit of structural model with chi-squared/df (636.844/310) = 2.054 < 3, GFI = 0.907 > 0.9, AGFI = 0.886 > 0.8, CFI = 0.934 > 0.9 and RSMEA = 0.048 < 0.07. The results of the analysis show some relationships that occur between ADB factor and FA factor which are indicated by the results of hypothesis testing and how it affects to local resident acceptance to driving tourist.
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In the final stage, the relationship between the factors in the model is used as material to recommend intervention that can increase local resident acceptance. The approach taken is to carry out an intervention that includes the four E's of intervention including engineering, education, enforcement and engagement (4E) between related stakeholder consist of government, local resident and foreign tourist.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Praise the Almighty God because of His love and grace; author can complete this dissertation. It is my great pleasure and honour to express gratitude and appreciation to those who have helped during my study and preparation of this dissertation.
First and foremost, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my advisor, Professor Tetsuo SHIMIZU, for his valuable guidance during 3 years of my study. I can learn and develop myself by learning about transportation and tourism in a new perspective.
I am very grateful to all examiner; Professor Hiroyuki ONEYAMA, Associate Professor Taketo NAOI, and Associate Professor Yu OKAMURA for their useful comments and advise on my research.
I am very grateful to Tokyo Metropolitan Government for providing me the Tokyo Human Resources Fund for City Diplomacy Scholarship. With this scholarship I can focus on studying and participating in academic activities related to my research.
I am very grateful to all colleagues from Indonesia Ministry of Public Work and Housing (MPWH), and National Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management-Japan (NILIM) for opportunity and support during my study.
I would like to express my appreciations and gratitude to all my colleagues at laboratory and university for their kind helps and friendships, to Indonesia community (GIII-Nishi Tokyo) for being a supporting family in Japan, and my family in Indonesia for pray and support during my study.
Last but not least, I am very grateful for my beloved wife, Martha Debora Friska and my lovely daughter Bella Gracia Eldora for their support and love. And finally, for my expected baby who provided encouragement and happiness at the end of my study period.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract i
Acknowledgements iv
Table of contents v
List of Figure vii
List of Table ix
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Problem Identification 6
1.3 Research Questions and Objectives 7
1.4 Importance of Research 9
1.5 Scope of Study 9
1.6 Thesis Organization 10
Chapter 2 Research Framework and Literature Review 12
2.1 Conceptual Framework 12
2.2 Road Development and Tourism 14
2.3 Self-Drive Tourism 16
2.4 Aggressive Driving Behaviour 18
2.5 Local Acceptance 21
2.6 Determinant and Hypothesis 23
Chapter 3 Methods and Data Collection 29
3.1 Research Flow 29
3.2 Methods 30
3.2.1 Data Collection 30
3.2.2 Analysis Methods 30
3.3 Data Collecting 34
3.3.1 Survey Framework 34
3.3.2 Study Area 35
3.3.3 Preliminary Survey 38
3.3.4 Main Survey 40
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Chapter 4 Potential of Drive Tourism in Bali 42
4.1 Road Development Direction 43
4.2 Driving Tourist in Bali 43
4.3 SWOT Analysis 45
4.4 Chapter Summary 54
Chapter 5 Factor of Aggressive Driving Behaviour (ADB) Recognition 56 5.1 Aggressive Driving Behaviour (ADB) Phenomena 57
5.2 Factors of ADB 58
5.3 ADB Value 59
5.4 Factor Analysis 66
5.5 Chapter Summary 70
Chapter 6 Local Acceptance (LA) to Driving Tourist 72
6.1. Local Acceptance to Driving Tourist 72
6.2 Acceptance Factor 73
6.3 Questionnaire 75
6.4 Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) 81
6.5 Effect of ADB to Basic Model of Local Acceptance (LA) 89
6.6 Chapter Summary 86
Chapter 7 Conclusion and Recommendation 98
7.1 Summary 98
7.2 Implication 102
7.3 Recommendation 103
Reference 109
Appendix 115
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1-1 Projected foreign exchange earnings from major sectors in the economy (Pusdatin, 2014)
1 Figure 1-2 Tourism object and tourism area in Bali Island (MPWH, 2015) 2
Figure 1-3 Number of Foreign Visitor come to Bali 4
Figure 1-4 Number of Vehicle in Bali 4
Figure 1-5 Number of Traffic Accident in Bali 5
Figure 2-1 Conceptual Framework 12
Figure 2-2 Detail Framework for Acceptance to Driving Tourist 14
Figure 2-3 SDT model (Fjelstul, 2015) 17
Figure 2-4 Type of acceptance (Schweizer-Reis, 2008 and IEA Wind Task 28, 2012)
22 Figure 2-5 Resident acceptance to driving tourist affected by ADB 27 Figure 2-6 Basic model of local resident acceptance to driving tourist 28
Figure 3-1 Flow of research 29
Figure 3-2 Framework of Surveys 35
Figure 3-3 Location Bali in Indonesia 36
Figure 3-4 Map of location of survey in Bali based on number of accidents 37
Figure 3-5 Road in Tabanan (Semi urban – rural) 37
Figure 3-6 Road in Denpasar (Urban) and Kuta (Beach-Urban) 38
Figure 3-7 Road in Nusa Dua (Rural-Hills) 38
Figure 3-8 Road in Ubud – Gianyar (Urban-Mountainous) 38
Figure 4-1 Flow of Chapter Four 42
Figure 5-1 Flow of Chapter Five 56
Figure 5-2 Gender Composition (Survey 2) 60
Figure 5-3 Age Composition (Survey 2) 60
Figure 5-4 Education Composition (Survey 2) 61
Figure 5-5 Income Composition (Survey 2) 61
Figure 5-6 Mode Composition (Survey 2) 62
Figure 5-7 Tourist Violation and Conflict (Survey 2) 62
Figure 5-8 Driving Behaviour (Survey 2) 63
Figure 5-9 Acceptance to Driving Tourist (Survey 2) 63
Figure 6-1 Flow of Chapter Six 72
Figure 6-2 Gender Composition (Survey 3) 75
Figure 6-3 Age Composition (Survey 3) 75
Figure 6-4 Education Composition (Survey 3) 76
Figure 6-5 Occupancy Composition (Survey 3) 76
Figure 6-6 Annual Income Composition (Survey 3) 77
Figure 6-7 Traffic and infrastructure Condition (Survey 3) 77
Figure 6-8 Tourism Condition (Survey 3) 78
Figure 6-9 Bali Need Alternative. (Survey 3) 78
Figure 6-10 Model for testing 82
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Figure 6-11 Basic model of Local Acceptance toward driving tourist 85 Figure 6-12 Relation ADB to Basic model of Local Acceptance toward
driving tourist
89 Figure 6-13 Model of Local Acceptance toward driving tourist 92 Figure 7-1 Model of Local Acceptance toward driving tourist 101
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2-1 Factors representing aggressive behaviour by Dula and Geller (2003).
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Table 2-2 Factors Affecting Acceptance 23
Table 3-1 Model fit and their level of acceptance 33
Table 3-2 Expert respondent 39
Table 4-1 SWOT Matrix 45
Table 4-2 Possible strategies for road development in Bali 53
Table 4-3 Gap of acceptance study to driving tourist 55
Table 5-1 Factor of aggressive driving behaviour (Survey 2) 58
Table 5-2 Comparison Value 1, 2 and 3 65
Table 5-3 Loading Factor ADB (Survey 2) 66
Table 5-4 Factor analysis result (24 factors) 68
Table 5-5 Aggressive driving factor based on local perception 69
Table 6-1 Acceptance factor questions 73
Table 6-2 Acceptance factor 79
Table 6-3 Factor loadings, average variance extracted, and composite reliability of the measurement model
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Table 6-4 Test of Hypotheses 84
Table 6-5 Factor effect to acceptance in Basic Model 89
Table 6-6 Result of Hypotheses Test 90
Table 6-7 Factor affected acceptance 93
Table 6-8 Factor effect to acceptance in Final Model 95
Table 7-1 Factor effect to acceptance in Final Model 102
Table 7-2 Action can be taken to manage acceptance factor 104 Table 7-3 Action can be taken to manage aggressive driving behaviour 105
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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
The tourism sector had a positive trend every year despite the global crisis several times. Recorded in the number of international tourists traveling from year to year (WTTC, Jan 2015) namely; 25 million (1950), 278 million (1980), 528 Million (1995), and 1.138 billion (2014). It is driven by world population growth and the increased access and mobility from one region to another. Tourism also has expanded and diversification which makes it as one of the largest economic sectors and experienced the fastest growth compared to other economic sectors (UNWTO World Tourism Barometer, Jan. 2015).
Indonesian government began to use tourism sector as a contributor to GDP until 2025. While in 2014, tourist arrivals to Indonesia reached 9.3 million and 251 million domestic tourist trips in the year 2014 that contributes to the economy (GDP) was 4.01 percent (down from 2008) earnings of 10.69 billion US dollars, total employment in this field is also quite high, namely 10.3 million (Arief Yahya, Ministry of Tourism in 2014).
Tourism is one of the potential sectors to improve the Indonesia economy besides oil, gas and mining. This sector is expected to contribute the largest foreign exchange for Indonesia in 2020 (Centre of Data and Information Technology-Pusdatin, Ministry of Tourism 2014) surpass the coal sector, oil and gas, palm oil and rubber processing as shown in Figure 1-1.
Figure 1-1 Projected foreign exchange earnings from major sectors in the economy (Pusdatin, 2014)
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In early 2016, President of Indonesia signed President Regulation No 3 about Acceleration for Implementation National Strategic Projects. This regulation pushed the transportation, water and electricity infrastructure project to be finessed until 2019 and focusing in support the development in 10 National Tourism Strategic Region (KSPN) which become known as “10 New Bali” and use Bali as role model to developed tourism in each location. Bali has become one of famous tourism destination in Asia and one of the favourable tourist destinations in South East Asia. Bali is one of the Indonesian provinces that is famous for its beautiful and unique nature and culture and earned the title ‘The Island of God’ (Prajnawrdhia, 2014) has total area reaches 5,634.40 km2, with its length of beach stretching along 529 km (Bali Government, 2010). In terms of natural landscape, Bali has various types of tourist destinations from beach to mountainous areas. As an island, Bali has dozens of tourist attractions that are scattered in several tourist areas and most of them can only be accessed by land as show in Figure 1-2.
Figure 1-2 Tourism object and tourism area in Bali Island (MPWH, 2015)
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In terms of culture, Hindu religion forms Balinese way of life that offers colourful and exotic experiences to tourists. Other cultural sites are temples, rites offering, music, dances, ceremonies, and rich craft heritage (Wall, 1996). This advantage is used by the government to make Bali as main destination for tourism industry and in year 2015, Bali share contribute to 40% National Tourism Income (US$ 12.225 Billion).
Bali which is used as a model for develop other tourism destination has a positive and negative side due to the development of tourism. The positive impact of tourism in Bali mainly improvement in the economy sector. In the past, Bali's economy was supported by the agricultural sector which was then taken over by the tourism sector that had a major impact on the changing welfare of the Balinese people. The negative impacts due to the development of tourism are social, cultural and environmental problems. Some of the issues include traffic congestion, tourist behaviour, local culture degradation and conflict between local. All of these problems must be dealt with so that Government can guarantee the sustainability of tourism in Bali. In present day, traffic congestion become major issue happened in Bali with increasing number of private vehicles. It not only has obstructed the development of tourism but also other sector and because of this reason the Central Government and Regional Government made a policy to encourage improved transportation performance to support mobility in Bali.
In general, land transportation is divided into rail-based transportation and road- based transportation. Since Bali does not have a rail-based transportation system, it heavily depends on road-based transportation such as passenger cars and motorcycles. But road- based transportation system has not been optimally developed in Bali. The low level of public transportation service is further worsening by the very limited availability of bus or other public transportations. The limited number of transportation options makes most of the tourists choose rental cars or motorcycles as their main mode of transportation when they travel in Bali. Number of foreign tourists coming to Bali has grown every year as shown in Figure 1-3 and number of vehicles especially in private vehicle has also grown every year as shown in Figure 1-4. This condition encourages foreign tourists to drive vehicles in Bali because of the easier access to rental vehicles and the lack of public transportation and open opens a chance to promote drive tourism as a promising market as one of option in tourism industry in Bali
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Figure 1-3 Number of Foreign Visitor come to Bali
Figure 1-4 Number of Vehicle in Bali 0
1,000,000 2,000,000 3,000,000 4,000,000 5,000,000 6,000,000
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Foreign tourist
0 500,000 1,000,000 1,500,000 2,000,000 2,500,000 3,000,000 3,500,000
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Car Truck Motorcycle Bus
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Increase in the number of vehicles led to an increase in the number of accidents, especially those involving motorcycle. Traffic accidents have become one of the causes of accidents in the world reach 1.34 Million deaths and Indonesia place in no 3 in Asia. (WHO, 2015). In 2017, there are 105.374 cases and 24.213 died with ratio 3 deaths every hour and 73% involve motorcycle (Indonesia Police, 2017). 90% of accidents are caused by human factors which dominated by driving behaviour. Driving behaviour is how drivers respond to actual driving environments and a major factor for road traffic safety (Lee and Jang, 2017).
With the increasing number of tourists driving vehicles, the risk of accidents will increase due to more varied and interacting behavioural factors. Police data shows that out of 4000 violations, 1,000 were carried out by foreign tourists in Denpasar (Denpasar Police, 2015).
Figure 1-5 shown number accident in Bali as follows.
Figure 1-5 Number of Traffic Accident in Bali 0
500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Cases Death Heavy Injured Light Injured
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An increase in the number of tourists encourages changes in the tourism industry in Bali to be able to accommodate the needs of tourists. But in the course of its development, the tourism industry in Bali has several problems caused by an increase in the number of tourism, namely changes in tourist types from quality tourism to mass tourism, tourist behaviour that does not respect culture and local wisdom, aggressive, drunk, noisy and rude tourist behaviour , and there is social jealousy between regions that have different benefits from tourism
1.2 Problem Identification
The increase in the number of tourists coming and the increase in the number of vehicles has led to the birth of drive tourism as a way out of the conditions of transportation and tourism in Bali.The positive side that results from this is that there is an alternative of tourism activities in Bali that will provide benefits and experience in traveling in Bali.
Foreign tourists can have more freedom to be able to determine when, where and which mode will be used to get around in Bali not bounded by the available routes and modes of transportation. This can provide a higher value and reach a wider place for foreign tourists to travel in Bali. On the other hand, this has the potential to have a very large negative impact on transportation activities in Bali. One of the major impacts is the increase in congestion due to the growth in the number of vehicles that are not balanced by the development of transportation infrastructure, especially road infrastructure and the increasing number of foreign tourists driving vehicles during tours will increase interaction and potential conflict with local residents. These two negative impacts need to be identified and handled so that drive tourism can develop into one of the tourism alternatives in Bali.
First negative impact is related to the provision of road infrastructure that can support tourism activities both at the central government level and at the regional level. therefore, it is necessary to identify whether the road infrastructure planning that has been carried out has taken into account the needs of the tourism sector which has a different approach compared to the provision of infrastructure in other sectors. In general, the provision of road infrastructure is emphasized on increasing the quantity of road services such as speed, service level and travel time. Whereas the tourism sector focuses on the satisfaction and experience gained by tourists. A different approach must be taken by the government to
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serve tourism activities especially drive tourism which will directly place foreign tourists as drivers of vehicles on the road.
Second negative impact is related to driving tourist. with the increasing number of tourists and the increasing choice of vehicles will encourage tourists to drive vehicles in Bali.
In many media, it is said that tourist behaviour is not suitable with the rules and norms in Balinese society while driving.to how local residents can accept driving tourists. The increasing number of tourists and the increasing choice of vehicles will encourage tourists to drive vehicles in Bali. Tourist behaviour tends to be inconsequential in itself and gives a bad impression to other road users. the next challenge is how to get local residents to accept more tourists driving so that drive tourism can develop in Bali. Local resident acceptance is one of the important things that can determine the sustainability of tourism activities. As long as tourists will have behaviour that may be different from the driving behaviour of local residents. This behaviour is an adaptation or response from tourists to the road environment based on their abilities, knowledge, attitude and driving experience. Because it’s involved the perception, driving behaviour can considered aggressive by local people (Ames and Fiske, 2013) based on their perception. With a lot of negative news about the bad behaviour of foreign tourists in Bali, local residents assume that driving behaviour carried out by foreign tourists is included in the category of aggressive driving behaviour that has a tendency not to be accepted by local residents because of the large number of foreign tourists driving and do not comply with traffic regulations. This condition is also hampered by the issuance of warnings to foreign tourists by the local police to be able to comply with traffic regulations or be subject to criminal charge. For this reason, it is necessary to conduct a study of aggressive behaviour and how this affects the acceptance of local residents to the driving tourist. Of the many studies that have been carried out there are various kinds of definitions and factors that influence aggressive behaviour and do not focus on tourists as the object of research.
1.3 Research Questions and Objectives
Based on identification of problems some questions related to how to deal with the negative impacts of tourism development on transportation are as follows:
1. Has the road infrastructure development strategy in Bali considered the need to support tourism activities, especially in drive tourism activities?
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2. can driving behaviour from foreign tourists be categorized as aggressive driving behaviour?
3. What factors are indicative of a tourist doing aggressive driving behaviour?
4. Are there influences from aggressive driver behaviour by foreign tourists with public acceptance of driving tourists? and what factors influence local resident acceptance to driving tourist?
5. What policies or counter measure should be taken to reduce the negative impact of tourists driving?
Based on research questions, the goals and objectives of the research are divided as follows:
1. Identify possible road development strategies to support drive tourism activities, This is to find out the choice of strategies that can be used or added to the strategies that have been implemented in Bali. besides that, at this stage things can be identified priorities in the road development strategy and show gap that need to examine further to supporting tourism drives.
2. Identify the influence of driving behaviour of foreign tourists on the acceptance of local residents in Bali, which includes the following:
a. Define Factors of Aggressive Driving Behaviour (ADB),
This section is conducted to determine the factors that cause an aggressive behaviour that is based on the perceptions of local residents.
b. Define Factors of Local Acceptance (FA),
This section is done to determine the factors that influence local residents to accept the driving tourist
c. Relation Aggressive Driving Behaviour (ADB) to Factors of Local Acceptance (FA),
This section is to find out the effect of the aggressive behaviour of the tourist on the acceptance of local residents in accepting the driving tourist
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d. Proposed policy or recommendations as countermeasure
This section provides an overview of things that can be done and becomes a recommendation for decision-making and policy by considering reducing the impact of tourist's aggressive behaviour and increasing acceptability of local residents to the driving tourist
1.4 Importance of Research
The increasing number of tourists who come will increase the number of tourists who will drive in Bali. This will encourage an increase in the economy at the same time by creating social and economic problems. Bali, which is concentrated in the southern region where there is an airport, will grow further and north of Bali will be left behind. Drive tourism is very likely to encourage equitable improvement in the economy and reduce the burden in southern Bali. Besides economic, the impact of tourist behaviour must overcome to increase the chances of local residents to accept and support drive tourism
There are some gaps in the effort to implement tourist-based tourism driving in Bali, namely:
1. Academic
There no literature or reference regarding acceptance to drive tourism, and reference about drive tourism also very limited, for that approach in transportation studies was carried out to identify tourist driving behaviour and acceptance of local residents towards the driving tourist.
2. Practical
The current Government (road, transport and tourism) authority as main stakeholder need a new way of thinking to how provide batter infrastructure and to encourage drive tourism and handle problem caused by drive tourism.
1.5 Scope of Study
The things that become the scope and limitations of this research study are as follows:
1. Research location
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The location of the study is Bali, which is a famous tourist destination in Indonesia.
The selection of Bali as a research location is because tourism is the main contributor to economic growth in Bali and Bali has Bi role in Indonesia tourism industry. In Bali it is very easy to find foreign tourists who drive vehicles while traveling. This can provide better results, because local residents who are the subject of research are very familiar with driving tourists.
2. Assessor and assessed parties
In this study there were assessor and assessed parties, local residents became assessor who gave an assessment based on their perceptions to driving tourist behaviour and the party that becomes the assessed is a foreign tourist who drives a vehicle while traveling in Bali.
3. Research approach
In this study, a quantitative method of research approach was carried out to find out in detail and comprehensively about the phenomenon of foreign tourists driving through data collection that was directly carried out at the research site.
1.6 Thesis Organization
In this study there are eight chapters as follows:
1. Chapter 1 contains background, identification of problems that occur, goals and objectives of the research, importance of research and the scope of the research.
2. Chapter 2 contains a research framework and comprehensive literature review of tourist driving on drive tourism activities, aggressive driving behaviour and the factors that shape it, local acceptance of driving drivers, and preparation of research hypotheses.
3. Chapter 3 contains the methodology and data collection of the research conducted.
Beginning with forming a research flow that will become a reference in completing research. then proceed with data collection methods and methods in analysed data that has been obtained. data collection consisting of preliminary data collection aimed at identifying the factors that form aggressive driving information and
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collecting primary data to determine the relationship between local residents' acceptance and aggressive driving behaviour
4. Chapter 4 contains the first objective of identifying the road infrastructure development strategies implemented in Bali and using the SWOT method. This is done to be able to show things that have not become a concern and need to be examined further.
5. Chapter 5 contains definitions and factors that represent aggressive driver behaviour, and how to assess foreign tourist aggressive driving behaviour with an approach to assessing potential risks.
6. Chapter 6 contains definitions and factors that influence the acceptance of local residents towards tourists who drive. continued with the introduction of a basic SEM model of acceptance of local residents and a SEM model regarding the effect of aggressive behaviour on community acceptance.
7. Chapter 7 contains conclusions from the study, the contribution of research to the development of policies and the limitations of research for future research
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CHAPTER 2
RESEARCH FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Conceptual Frameworks
Conceptual framework is a structure that describes the theoretical linkages used in research.
In this study the conceptual framework consists of several important elements as shown in the following figure
Figure 2-1 Conceptual Framework
Based on the structure above, there are four important parts in the conceptual framework, namely:
A. Relation Transportation and Tourism
The development of transportation and tourism is closely related to each other. Today the development of transportation faces challenges not only in technical aspects but also must consider non-technical aspects which include social, economic and cultural. By taking into account the non-technical aspects, it is expected that the transportation sector can support the development of other sectors, especially the tourism sector which faces sustainability issues.
13 B. Self-Drive Tourism (SDT)
The availability of many choices of private transportation modes but not accompanied by the development of public transportation modes in tourism areas will encourage tourists to drive private vehicles obtained by renting. This will encourage the creation of tourism activities called drive tourism and has potential to encourage economic activities, especially in rural areas. In Drive tourism theory is influenced by two main factors, the first factor is the driving factor that arises from outside the tourist area (external) and tourist driving behaviour is become an important factor that will be discussed in this study. The second factor is the pull factor originating from within the tourism area (internal) and local residents become a key factor to observe since local resident have important role to ensure the sustainability of tourism activities
C. Aggressive Driving Behaviour (ADB)
Aggressive driving behaviour is a behaviour that occurs when foreign tourists who have the ability, knowledge, and experience in driving in their origin must adapt to the environment of the road in the tourist area. The different mode, regulation, and traffic characteristic lead foreign tourist to drive different compare to local resident.
The response to the road environment is sometimes considered as a behaviour that is not in accordance with the habits of local residents and tends to be categorized as aggressive behaviour by local residents. The road environment is formed by the behaviour of local residents in driving, traffic regulations and availability of infrastructure
D. Local Acceptance (LA)
Local residents have an important role in the sustainability of tourism activities so that local residents' acceptance of tourists who drive becomes very important for the sustainability of drive tourism activities. This acceptance will be greatly influenced by tourist behaviour in driving which is considered aggressive by local residents. For this reason, it is needed a handling or control to be able to increase the acceptance of local residents to tourists who drive and reduce the aggressive level of tourist driving.
the action that can be taken is to formulate a policy based on the relationship between local resident acceptance and the influence of tourist driving aggression behaviour.
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Figure 2-2 Detail Framework for Acceptance to Driving Tourist
Figure 2-2 shown the detail of research framework relate to research objective. Tourist driving behaviour (O.2) and local perception (O.3) become main part in this research to be identify and understand. Interaction between the two main part construct a new relation (O.4) that will affect each other. Based on this relation, an intervention can be conducted in form of suggestion, program, regulation or policy to increase local residents’ acceptance to driving tourist.
2.2 Road Development and Tourism
Transportation and tourism have a co-dependent relation (Hall, 1999) and should be considered simultaneously by the government (Lohman & Duval, 2014). Focusing only on the development of transportation will be an inefficient policy because of the large investment needed to build various facilities and infrastructures that are only used in certain periods like weekends or holidays season. On the other hand, focusing only on the tourism will stagnate the development of tourism industry due to the limited accessibility and
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mobility that should have been supported by transportation sector. The parallels between both sectors characterized as follow (Lohman, 2014):
1. Regulatory synergies
Both have meaningful and direct impact to other. Ex: marketing campaign affected competition between transport service provider, recognition home drive licence boosted self-drive destination
2. Objective function
Both largely involve in personal mobility, although different end result. Tourism offer experience and value. Transport provide fare structure and onboard amenities to match tourism expectation
3. Shared emphasis on sustainability
Both have been fundamentally transformed in recent years by the drive toward sustainable operation, environment friendly, and for transport can be challenging social, economic and cultural perspectives
Transportation and tourism affect personal mobility. Tourism provides experiences and transportation provides facilities as expected by tourists (Lohman & Duval, 2014).
Transportation sector is built not only to accommodate the tourism industry. Some considerations or adjustments are needed because tourism industry’s characteristic is different from the other industries. In road transport-based tourism industry, such as self- drive tourism, the tourists expect more satisfaction (Wu et al, 2017) rather than reducing distance and time travel, as they are expected at the other industries.
Road as one part of transportation plays an important role in the development of tourism industry. Road serves as a link between the centre of activity in tourist destinations and forms a hierarchical network. In general, road as a part of hierarchical network is classified based on the priority for mobility, access, and residential function (Goto &
Nakamura, 2016). Every road will be designed based on its function to reach the expected performance while, at the same time, taking mobility and safety into consideration.
Regarding tourism activities, road development does not only consider the factors of accessibility and mobility in designing roads but also must consider the aspects of satisfaction and experiences expected by tourists. So that the road development needs to pay
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attention to road facilities (Fjelstul & Fyall, 2015), ‘forgiving roadside concept’ (Yannis et al, 2007), types of road users who are unfamiliar with the road environment (Choocharakul
& Sriroongvikrai, 2017) and sustainable issues (Murjanto, 2015).
2.3 Self-Drive Tourism
Self-drive Tourism is described as traveling using any form of mechanically powered passenger-carrying road transport with the exclusion coaches and bicycles (Prideaux &
Carson, 2011). It is often seen as a tourism activity that has potentials to assist economic development in rural and regional areas (Rolfe & Flint, 2017). The model of self-drive tourism has two main factors. The first factor is push factor that consists of existing vehicle, motivations, decision criteria, marketing, policies, insurance and safety, and auto clubs. The second factor is pull factor that consists of new vehicle, lease vehicle, attractions, destination, accommodation, highways networks, general infrastructure, and specific infrastructure (Fjelstul & Fyall, 2015) as shown in figure 2.3. The ability to manage the push and pull factors will determine the success and sustainability of self-drive tourism.
Self-drive tourism also emerges in several regions in Europe and Australia. The tourists can drive from one point to the other and they can pass through several attractions in which they can freely stop and choose their own routes. Some companies also offer some packages for tourists. They can choose various types of driving options including the type of vehicles to use, the choice of destinations, and the choice of accommodations. Self-drive tourism is also defined as a multi destination trip rather than just one (Shih, 2006). It is not tied into a single route or specific route and offers freedom of movement as well as experience in driving. Available resources and attractions become other factors that motivate the tourists to take routes other than the road condition (Shih, 2005). The tourists will move freely to each destination they want to visit, and they can drive through high quality road to poor quality road. As drive tourism becomes popular, road networks, facilities, and themed routes rise to be important elements for promotion (Shih, 2005). Hardy (2003) suggests that there are eight components forming drive tourism: (1) the road and all of facilities; (2) accommodation; (3) information; (4) refuelling and roadside services; (5) enforcement of traffic regulations; (6) vehicle repairs and recovery; (7) attractions for driving tourists; and (8) promotion of on-road attractions
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Figure 2-3 SDT model (Fjelstul, 2015)
an increase in the number of vehicles in a tourism area is one of the important points that drives the creation of self-drive tourism (Hardy, 2011). The increase will make it easier for foreign tourists to get access to private vehicles so that they no longer depend on public transportation and foreign tourists have a large choice of vehicles they want according to their needs and willingness while in tourist areas.
Tourist usually tend to move freely about the area by a personal travel mode, rather by specific route via transportation. (Nakamura, 2016). With the availability of varied types of vehicles and the desire of tourists to be able to move freely will encourage tourists to choose rental vehicles. Rental vehicle (one of personal travel mode) have three advantages (Nakamura, 2016):
1. It can be used empirically and temporary for such purposes as sightseeing in a tourism destination,
2. An uncommon type of transportation mode can be used and then compare to other travel mode,
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3. Users can choose a travel mode from a variety of option without committing to purchase.
2.4 Aggressive Driving Behaviour
Thing that becomes a phenomenon in this study is the behaviour of drivers who are considered by local residents as aggressive driving behaviour. Aggressive driving has many different definitions and broad meaning, ranging from less severe behaviours to extreme actions (Vanlaar et all, 2008), and personal perceptions may create different definitions to aggressive driving behaviour factors.Aggressive driving behaviour also devine as behaviour an individual who "commits a combination of moving traffic offences so as to endanger other persons or property” (National Highway Traffic Safety Administration)
Dula and Geller (2003) has categorized three major classes of aggressive driving based on several study related to aggressive driving behaviour: (1) intentional act of bodily and/or psychologically aggressive behaviour toward other drivers; (2) negative emotion felt while driving; and (3) risk-taking behaviour. These three classes are constructed from factors that represent aggressive behaviours as shown in Table 2-1. In this study, 36 factors representing aggressive driving behaviour are gathered from Dula and Geller (2003)
Table 2-1. Factors representing aggressive behaviour by Dula and Geller (2003).
No Factor representing
aggressive behaviour Source
1 Running stop/ red light signal
James & Nahl (2000), Tasca (2000), Sarkat et al (2000), Lajunen et al (1998), Shinar (1998), Ellison-Potter et al (2001)
2 Blocking intersection James & Nahl (2000), Mizell (1997)
3 Failing to yield right of way James & Nahl (2000), Stradling and Meadow (2000), Tasca (2000), The Steel Alliance (1999 & 2000), Sarkat et al (2000) 4 Weaving in and out of
traffic
James & Nahl (2000), Tasca (2000), Sarkat et al (2000), Shinar (1998), Ellison-Potter et al (2001)
5 Speeding James & Nahl (2000), The Steel Alliance (1999 & 2000), Sarkar et al (2000), Lajunen et al (1998), Hannessy and Wiesental (1999), Ellison-Potter et al (2001)
19 No Factor representing
aggressive behaviour Source
6 Tailgating James & Nahl (2000), Tasca (2000), Joint (1995), Mizell (1997), The Steel Alliance (1999 & 2000), Sarkar et al (2000), Ellison, et al, (1995), Shinar (1998), Ellison-Potter et al (2001)
7 Failure to use signal James & Nahl (2000), Mizell (1997), The Steel Alliance (1999 & 2000)
8 Changing speed erratically James & Nahl (2000), Tasca (2000), Joint (1995), Ellison- Potter et al (2001)
9 Blocking others’ vehicles James & Nahl (2000), Tasca (2000), Mizell (1997), The Steel Alliance (1999 & 2000), Sarkat et al (2000), Ellison-Potter et al (2001)
10 Throwing threat or insulting language
James & Nahl (2000), Lowenstein (1997), Tasca (2000), Sarkar et al (2000), Lajunen et al (1998), Parker (1998), Hannessy and Wiesental (1999)
11 Gestures James & Nahl (2000), Lowenstein (1997), Tasca (2000), Joint (1995), Mizell (1997), The Steel Alliance (1999 &
2000), Sarkar et al (2000), Lajunen et al (1998), Parker (1998), Turner (1975), Kenrick & MacFarlane (1986), Ellison, et al, (1995), Shinar (1998), Ellison-Potter et al (2001)
12 Horn-honking James & Nahl (2000), Stradling and Meadow (2000), Mizell (1997), The Steel Alliance (1999 & 2000), Sarkar et al (2000), Doob & Gross (1968), Turner (1975), Kenrick &
MacFarlane (1986), Ellison, et al, (1995), Diekmann et al (1996), Shinar (1998), Hannessy and Wiesental (1999), Ellison-Potter et al (2001)
13 Intentional sudden barking James & Nahl (2000), Lowenstein (1997), Sarkar et al (2000) 14 Chasing others vehicle James & Nahl (2000), Stradling and Meadow (2000), Sarkar
et al (2000), Turner (1975) 15 Actual use or gesture of
using gun/ weapon
James & Nahl (2000), Mizell (1997), Sarkar et al (2000), Hannessy and Wiesental (1999)
16 Using vehicle as battering object
James & Nahl (2000), Mizell (1997), Sarkar et al (2000), Hannessy and Wiesental (1999), Ellison-Potter et al (2001) 17 Overtaking the opposite James & Nahl (2000), Stradling and Meadow (2000),
20 No Factor representing
aggressive behaviour Source
lane Hannessy and Wiesental (1999)
18 Thinking hostile Lowenstein (1997) 19 Failure to stop for
pedestrian
Lowenstein (1997)
20 Improper passing and lane changing
Tasca (2000), The Steel Alliance (1999 & 2000), Sarkar et al (2000), Lajunen et al (1998), Parker (1998), Shinar (1998) 21 Flashing headlight Tasca (2000), Joint (1995), Mizell (1997), The Steel Alliance
(1999 & 2000), Sarkar et al (2000), Turner (1975), Diekmann et al (1996), Shinar (1998), Hannessy and Wiesental (1999), Ellison-Potter et al (2001)
22 Physical assault Joint (1995), Mizell (1997), Ellison, et al, (1995) 23 Taking space in parking
(more than 1 space)
Mizell (1997), The Steel Alliance (1999 & 2000)
24 Cellular phone usage Mizell (1997) 25 Offensive bumper sticker Mizell (1997) 26 Making direct eye contact Mizell (1997)
27 Overtaking parking space The Steel Alliance (1999 & 2000) 28 Running yellow light The Steel Alliance (1999 & 2000) 29 Racing away from traffic
light
Lajunen et al (1998)
30 Racing Parker (1998)
31 Easy to be provoked Turner (1975), Gulian et al (1989) 32 Quickly seek for vengeance Turner (1975)
33 Losing Temper Gulian et al (1989) 34 Annoyed in Intersection Gulian et al (1989)
35 Impatient Gulian et al (1989)
36 Sense of power / overcapacity
Gulian et al (1989)
Human factor is very important in driving because it determines how motorists adjust to vehicles, traffic, and the road environment when they drive certain vehicles that will shape their driving behaviour. Some driving behaviour are considered aggressive by local residents. This aggressive driving behaviour become important factors to consider related to traffic safety (Kaiser et al, 2016; AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety, 2009), and, on the
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other perspective, they greatly impact people’s lives and economy (McTish and Park, 2016)., and the major cause is human factor.
Aggressive driving behaviours are related to the increasing risk of traffic accident (Rowden et al, 2016) and the local residents also regard foreign tourists’ driving behaviours as a potential risk to traffic conflict or accident. Although local people see driving tourists as an opportunity to boost tourism, on other side, they do not want to be involved in traffic conflict or accident. Since driving tourists are considered as a potential risk, it should be measured using risk analysis approach and evaluated not only based on single aggressive variable to get the exact value of aggressive driving behaviour. As a potential risk, aggressive behaviour can be assessed to figure out its potential severity and its likelihood of happening (Anghel, 2014). Potential severity is defined as level of aggressiveness (agr) of driving behaviour and likelihood is defined as potential frequency (fre) of driving behaviour. In this study, the importance level, represented as weight (wei), is also considered to get more precise value of aggressive driving behaviour
2.5 Local Acceptance
Acceptance is seen as an essential aspect to consider when developing a successful planning, decision-making and implementation, in terms of innovations, measures, or projects (Stika et al, 2014; Hitzeroth and Meerle, 2013) and defined as an act of agreement (active or passive) towards a development, implementation or technology (Arning et al, 2019; Dethloff, 2004). Tolerance is one of possible strategy that can implement in Bali and its one type of acceptance (Schweizer-Reis, 2008 and IEA Wind Task 28, 2012). Tolerance is a type of acceptance that only considers the assessment of a policy, project, or activity and without considering the action of the assessor as show in figure 2-4.
There are three type of acceptance based on the object and subject of acceptance (Wustenhagen et al, 2007; Li et al, 2019):
• Social-political acceptance: the acceptance object is a certain technology or policy and the acceptance subject are general public, central stakeholders, and politicians.
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• Local acceptance: The acceptance object is a specific technology project at a local level. The acceptance subjects are local, stakeholders, the local population (particularly affected citizens), and the local administration.
• Market acceptance: the acceptance objects are technological products or services associated with the respective technologies. The acceptance subjects are the potential consumers, investors, and companies.
Figure 2-4 Type of acceptance (Schweizer-Reis, 2008 and IEA Wind Task 28, 2012)
In this study, acceptance is defined as local acceptance of driving tourist as an object and local residents in Bali as a subject. Driving tourist is a leading indicator that represents self- drive tourism in Bali because locals as subjects naturally see and interact with tourists driving when they do daily activities. Based on several literature, factors affecting acceptance are shown in Table 2-2:
Approval Tolerance
Connivance Ignorance
Support
Resistance
Active Passive
Rejection Adaptation
ACTION
VALUATION
