Principles for Teaching Writing in English to Beginner EFL Students
著者 ジャクソン ジョン, シェリダン ロバート
journal or
publication title
Journal of Research and Pedagogy
number 1
page range 105‑114
year 2015‑03‑26
URL http://id.nii.ac.jp/1160/00000845/
Creative Commons : 表示 ‑ 非営利 ‑ 改変禁止 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by‑nc‑nd/3.0/deed.ja
PrinciplesforTeachingWritinginEnglishto BeginnerEFLStudents
JohnJacksonandRobertSheridan
Abstract:Thispaperdrawstogethertwokeyeducationalframeworks,OtemaeUniversity'sC‑PLATS:A Problem‑SolvingAbilityDevelopmentSystem(Ashihara,2008,2011)andTheFourStrandsofaLanguage
Course(Nation,2001,2013),inordertocreateaguideforteachingpracticalwritingskillstobeginners.After describingtheseframeworks,theauthorspresentanumberoffundamentalprinciplestofacilitatethisprocess.
Keywords:EFL/ESLwritingcoursedesign,developmentofbeginners'writingskills,C‑PLATS
要 約
本 論 文 は 、 「問 題 解 決 開 発 メ ソ ッ ド ・C‑PLATS」(盧 原,2008,2011) Center(Nation,2001,2013)の 二 つ の 教 育 的 シ ス テ ム に つ い て 考 察 し 、 文 入 門 書 を 作 成 す る こ と を 最 終 的 な 目 的 と し て い る 。
とTheFourStrandsofaLanguage 初 心 者 を 対 象 と し た 実 践 的 英 作
キ ー ワ ー ド:EFL・ESLに お け る 英 作 文 授 業 の あ り か た 、 C‑PLATS
初 心 者 の 英 作 文 技 術 を 向 上 させ る こ と、
Thekeyframeworks
Thispaperbuildsupontwoeducationalmodelsto presenteffectiveandengagingwaystoteachwriting skillstobeginningEnglishlearners.Thefirstmodel, C‑PLATS,wasoriginallycreatedin2008atOtemae University,aprivateuniversityinwesternJapan,to developstudents'problem‑solvingskillsbyutilizing sixkeycompetencies:Creativity,Presentation,Logical Thinking,ArtisticSense,TeamworkandSelf‑control.
Ashihara(2011)considersthesecorecompetencies tobeessentialinpreparingstudentstosuccessfully functionasmembersinsociety.In2011,thisframework wasupdatedtoinclude10sub‑competencies(seeFigure
1)classifiedintothreegroupsrelatedtoThinking, Action,andSocialResponsibility.
Figure1:CompetencyPlaformsatOtemae
University(Ashihara,2011)
Thesecondmodel,andawell‑knownframeworkinEFLcoursedesign,istheTheFourStrands ofaLanguageCoursebyNation(2001,2013).AsdescribedbyNation(Laufer,Meara,&Nation, 2005)andfurtherexaminedbySheridan'spieceinthisvolume,itprovideslearnerswithoptimal opportunitiesforlearning.Itproposesthatanysuccessfullanguagecoursemustconsistoffour balancedstrands:meaningfulinput,meaningfuloutput,language‑focusedlearningandfluency development.AccordingtoNation(2013),whenapplyingthistheorytoteachingwriting,students shouldbegiventheopportunityto:
・performwritingactivitiesthatmatchtheirlevelofcurrentknowledge(meaning‑focusedoutput),
・integratereadingandlisteningactivities(meaning‑focusedinput)withwritingactivities(meaning‑
focusedoutput),
・practicewritingthatexplicitlyfocusesonaspectsofthewritingskill(language‑focusedlearning),
・uselanguagetheyarealreadyfamiliarwithtofreelyconveytheirmessagewithoutbeingmarked forerrors(fluencydevelopment).
Awell‑balancedlanguagecourseshouldplaceanequalamountofemphasisoneachofthesestrands.
Theauthorswillnowexaminethewaysinwhichtheaforementionedframeworkscontributeto theoverallsuccessofawritingprogramforbeginnersandestablishsixkeyprinciplesthatcontribute toaccomplishingthis.
Principle1:Teachwritingatthewordandsentencelevels
Laufer(1989)andNation(2001)haveshownthatasecondlanguagelearner'svocabularysize isstronglycorrelatedwiththeiroverallL2competence.Browne,Culligan,andPhillips(2013)reveal thatknowledgeofjustthefirst28011exicalitemsfoundontheirNewGeneralServiceList(NGSL) giveslearnersover90%coverageoftherunningwordsingeneralwrittentexts(seeTable1).Laufer (1989)definesafunctionallexiconas3,000wordfamiliesandpositsthatknowledgeofthese3,000 high‑frequencywordfamiliesisessentialforL21earnersattheuniversitylevel(Laufer,1992).From thisresearch,itisevidentthatconsiderabletimeandfocusonthissmallgroupofhigh‑frequency vocabularyisrecommended.
Table1:CoverageprovidedbytheNGSL
Ψ 日̀且bulalyLi:t 四umb6rof帽Word F且mili巳 ゴ
Numberof
㌦ 已mm且 ゴ
〔:01駈r嘲≡㎎ 已in〔:EC corpus
05L 164 3623 日4.24%
NFL 2368
....90.34%
∠メTowne,(,'u〃agan,and」phi〃aps̀ノUl.fノ
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Nation(2001)alsoadvocatesthatdirectinstruction(language‑focusedlearning)isparticularly effectiveinteachinghigh‑frequencylexicontobeginnersandlearnerswholackfunctionalvocabulary knowledge.Twopopularexplicittechniquesthattheauthorshavetestedintheirclassroomstoteach writingatboththewordandsentencelevelaretraditionalvocabularycardsanduser‑generatedflash cardscreatedonQuizlet(2005),andthecollaborativelearningstrategiesthataccompanythem.
Whencreatingtraditional(seeFigure2)orelectronicvocabularycards,learnersareinstructedto followtheguidelinesbelow(fromSheridanandMarkslag,2014),adaptedfromNation(2001,2005, 2013)tohelpmaximizetheirvocabularygains:
・choose10‑15unknownhigh‑frequencyvocabularyitemsperweek;
・besuretoselectitemsthatarenotrelatedinmeaningandstartwithdifferentlettersofthe alphabettoavoidinterference;
・promoteretrievalbyputtingtheEnglishwordandexamplesentenceonthefrontofthecardand
theLItranslationontheback;
・usepictureswhenpossible;
・includethevocabularyitem'spartofspeechandpronunciation;
・providecollocateswhenpossibletohelpunderstanddifferentwaysinwhichtheitemisused.
一 / /
幽 ご蝦oソ.¥→ 二壷
、 一 …̲一 一 ε二x):L戯 一(蜘 蘭.二働 以 一
oヒoss
蜘 艇 翫 継 薩 鯉 麺 搬
糊 彰 び レ酬 ・{ρ 脚 ・'撚 ・
Figure2:ASampleofatraditionalvocabularycard.
Byallowinglearnerstoassessthemselves,analyzeandplaninaccordancewiththeC‑PLATS
planningandanalysissub‑competencies,theyaregiventheopportunitytoautonomouslychoose
theirownvocabularyitemsandauthenticexamplesentences,thus,takingcontroloftheirown
learning.TsengandSchmitthaveshownthatinordertohelplearners"becomeself‑motivatedexperts
invocabularylearning"(2008,p.388),theyneedtobetaughtwhichstrategiestouse,andhowto
appropriatelyusethosestrategies.Vocabularycardsareaneffectivemethodtoassistlearnersin
identifyinggapsintheirL2knowledgeandworkingtowardsbridgingthesegaps.
Moreover,theuseofcollaborativevocabularygames,suchasConnections+and(Re)tellinga StogyasdiscussedinSheridanandMarkslag(2014),promotesteamworkthroughactivelearning,
whileprovidingtherepetitionnecessarytohelpstudentslearnhigh‑frequencyvocabularyanddevelop deeperconnectionswiththewordsbyfocusingonform,usageandmeaning.Theseactivitiesalso
encourageandmotivatestudentsthroughcollaborativelearning.
Principle2:Pre‑writingplanningandheuristictechniques
Priortoanycompositiontaskitisessentialthatwriters,andinparticular,beginnerwriters,are awareofwhattheyfundamentallywanttoexpress.Throughthoroughplanning,studentsarebetter
positionedtoproduceaneffectivedraftandexpressthemselvesmoremeaningfullyasdescribedin Nation's(2005)meaning‑focusedoutputstrand.
"Pre ‑writing"referstotheinitialstageofthewritingprocess ,whichisfollowedinturnby
drafting,revision,editing,andcompletion.Cotton(1997)hasshownthatencouraginglearnersto engageinavarietyofpre‑writingproceduresresultsinmuchgreaterwritingachievementthanwriting donewithoutthiskindofpreparation.
Theauthorshavefoundthatallowingstudentstofindordiscoverand,ultimately,clarifyideas throughexploratoryoreliminationprocesses‐thatis,adoptingaheuristicapproachtothepre‑writing stage‐producesexcellentresults.Heuristictechniquesinvolveexperiencesthataidproblem‑solving competencies:writerscontinuallygather,experimentwith,discardandmodifyinformation.
Brainstormingisahighlyeffectiveandcollaborativemethodofelicitingtopicsandformulating ideas.Allclassmembersshouldparticipateandtheprocessshouldnotinvolvecriticism‐itispurely aninformation‑gatheringexercise.
Additionally,thereareothermethodsthatstudentscanadopttosuccessfullygathercontentand applyittomeaningfulwriting.Theyshouldconsiderlookingatwaystoimproveandaskthemselves anumberofheuristicquestionsthataddressandaidthisgatheringprocess.Keyquestionsthestudent
shouldconsiderare:
●A〃21abletoeffectivelyincorpora旋3ん の ノvocoわ 〃oリ ノintomア 」ρ君の ゜θc'2
●Havels elec彪6〃hemos・ ちρπヲd5θ,(ffectiveα η61傷 ρPπ)Pπ ∫α'θwords・toε Ψ πヲ∬mア 〃zes・5・α9θ2
・Isthelevelofmywaitingrelevanttothecontextinwhichitisbeingused?
●AmIbeingrepetitiousintheuseρ ゾkeyvocα わ〃 αリノandphrases?
・Ismyworkinterestingtothereader?
Inmostcases,self‑assessmentandself‑editingstrategiessuchasreadingtextsaloudtopeersfor feedbackgreatlyassistsinthepre‑writingstage.Additionally,knowledgeofbasicgrammaticalrules, structures,andtheirapplicationtosentenceformation,contributesgreatlytoofferingandappreciating
1:
feedbackfrombothteachersandpeers.Thisgrammaticalunderstandingplaysanimportantroleinthe pre‑writingstage.
Asexemplifiedthroughoutthisstageofthewritingprocess,activitiessuchasbrainstorming, verballyandnon‑verballypresentingtextsforfeedbackalongwithotherheuristicpre‑writing techniquespromoteplanning,teamwork,logicalthinking,andanalysis,aswellaspresentation,which theC‑PLATSframeworkadvocatesasintegralfactorsintheproblemsolvingprocess.Moreover,this stagehelpstodrawlearnersattentiontotheformofthelanguagewhileprovidingopportunitiesfor meaningfulinputandoutputasdescribedasessentialcomponentsinNation's(2005)fourstrands.
Withthisinmind,letusnowexaminetherelevanceofgrammarinstructionaspartofasuccessful writingprogramforbeginners.
Principle3:Theinclusionofagrammaticalcomponent.
Onekeyfactorofgrammar‑based‑teaching(GBT)inwritingisthatitassistsstudentsinthe discoveryofthenatureandnuanceofagivenlanguage‐thatis;howaparticularlanguageuses
regularpatternsthatareconsistentand,moreimportantly,predictableinapplicationandpracticality.
AnotherimportantbenefitofGBTinbeginnerwritingisthatithelpsstudentsgainanunderstanding ofgrammaticalstructuresandconceptsandteachestheexpressionoftensesandtimerelationships throughpartsofspeech.Withoutthisgrammarcomponent,learnershaveonlyindividualvocabulary outputandthus,areunabletoexpressthemselvesinanymeaningfulway.Afocusongrammaralso representsafocusonform(FonF),asmeaningandformgenerallycannotbeseparated.FonFand GBTcombinebothcommunicativeteachingandgrammaticalconceptswhichNation(2005)identifies astwofundamentalcomponentsofanysuccessfulEFLcourse.
Researchinthisfieldstronglysuggeststhemosteffectivemethodinhelpinglearnersimprove theirunderstandingofgrammaticalrulesistoutilizethestudent'swrittenworkasthemodel fordiscussionofgrammaticalcomponents(Calkins,1980;DistefanoandKillion,1984).These researchersagreethatitissubstantiallymoreeffectivetoteachsentencestructure,punctuation andusageinthecontextofthestudent'sindividualwrittenworkthanbyteachingtheseskills independently.
Asthebeginnerwritersbegintoreviseandedittheirowncompositions,teacherscanthen
providemorepracticalgrammarinstructiontoguidethemtowardsidentifyingproblemsand correctingerrorsinsentencestructures.Thiscanbeachievedthroughintroducinggrammarteaching intothisprocessofrevisingandediting.Ithelpsstudentsapplythesechangesimmediatelyandallows themtoobservetherelevanceandimportanceofgrammarintheirownwrittenwork.
Becausewritingisachallenging,andinmanycases,complexactivityforbeginners, teachersneedtofocusspecificallyonthegrammaticalconceptsthatillustrateandpromoteclear
communicationandmeaningfuloutput.Weaver(1998,p.16)maintains"whatallstudentsneed isguidanceinunderstandingandapplyingthoseaspectsofgrammarthataremostrelevantto
writing."Sheproposesfivegrammaticalconceptsthatgreatlyassistbeginnerwriterstodemonstrate improvementintherevision,styleandeditingofsentenceforms.
1.Teachingconceptsonsubject,verb,sentence,clauseandphrase,andtheirrelatedpartsof speech.
2.Teachingstylethroughgeneratingandcombiningsentences.
3.Teachingsentencethroughtheadministrationofsyntacticelements.
4.Teachingboththedialectsofpowerandthepowerofdialects.
5.Teachingpunctuationandthemechanicsforconvention,styleandclarity.
Asrevealedinthisstageofthewritingprocess,learnersarerequiredtocriticallyassesstheir
contentgrammatically.Thisformofcomprehensiveanalysisiscriticalasshownintheanalysisand planningstagesofC‑PLATS.
Principle4:Teachingparagraphanddiscoursestructure
GBTinwritingalsoseekstoinvolveandengagestudentsinactivitiesthatpresentoppo血lnities tousetargetstructurescreativelyandmeaningfully.Thisalsoprovidesthelearnerwithstructure awareness,thatis,anawarenessofformandmeaningandhowtoappropriatelyandcorrectly formulateideasthatprovidethebuildingblocksfordiscourseandaidintheprogressionfromsentence toparagraphconstruction.InGBT,errorsbecomeopportunitiesforfurtherlearning.Corrective feedbackisahighlyimportantaspectofgrammar‑basedinstruction.Learnersshouldalwaysbe encouragedtoself‑correctandoffercorrectivefeedbacktoclassmatesorpeers.Furthermore,students naturallymakeuseoftheircognitiveskillsinthepursuitofsecondlanguageacquisition(SLA).In fact,manysecondlanguagelearnersfindithighlyadvantageoustocomprehendandappreciatehow theEnglishlanguageessentially"works."
Theseinductiveanddeductiveapproachesworkincombination,aslearnersareencouragedto deducegrammaticalpatternsbutarealsogivenspecificdetailsorinformationregardinggrammar.
However,neworunknownvocabularyshouldnotbeintroducedsimultaneouslywithanewstructure.
Unfamiliarvocabularycanconflictwiththestudents'existingunderstandingofthemeaningof aparticulargrammarform.Onlyafterthereisgenuinecomprehensionofastructureshouldnew vocabularybeintroduced,particularlyincontextualizedexercises.
Oneofthemostdifficulttasksforbeginnerwritersislearningtheprocessofcombiningsentences toformmeaningfulandstructuredparagraphs.Hillocks(1986)statesthat"sentencecombining
practiceprovideswriterswithsystematicknowledgeofsyntacticpossibilities,theaccesstowhich allowsthemtosortthroughalternativesintheirheadsaswellasonpaperandtochoosethosewhich
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aremostapt"(150).Whilestructuredsentence‑combiningproceduresprovidestudentswithguidance forcreatingnewsentences,unstructuredexercisesallowmorevariationbutstillrequirestudentsto createlogicalandmeaningfulsentences.Throughoralandwrittensentencecombinationactivities, learnersbetterperceivethewaysinwhichstructure,punctuationandusagecombineinsentencesto express,relateandaffectmeaning.
TheauthorsstronglyrecommendtheintegrationofGBTintobeginnerparagraphwritingat
university.Byincorporatinggrammarnaturallyintothewritingprocessandthesubsequentrevision, proofreadingandeditingstages,wecangreatlyassistbeginnerwritersingainingconfidenceand markedlyimprovingthequalityandquantityoftheirwork.
Principle5:Theintegrationofreadingandwriting
Therehasbeenextensiveresearchconcerningthevalueoftheintegrationofreadingand writingskillsinlearningcapacities.GrahamandHebertstateinthe2010WaitingtoReadreport"we believethatreadingandwritinginstructionwillbeevenmoreeffectivewhentheyaredesignedto worktogethertoachievecommongoalsandreinforcethereciprocalacquisitionofcentralliteracy knowledgeskills,andstrategies"(p.76).
Asuniversityteachers,howdoweassistourstudentsinestablishingmainideasandadditional supportingdetailsandapplyingthemtotheorganizationoflogicalparagraphs̀?Structuresintexts containsignalwordsassociatedwiththemthathelpstudentstosuccessfullyaddressthis(Neufeld, 2005).Sequenceparagraphsfrequentlyincludethesignalwordsfirst,next,andfinallytoindicatethe progressionofevents,whilewordssuchasbecause,sinceandconsequentlyconstitutecause‑and‑
effectparagraphs.Studentswhoarecompetentreadersareusuallyawareofthedifferentstylesand rolesofparagraphformattingandthecorrespondingandrelevantsignalwordscontained.Through thisrecognitiontheyareabletolocatemainideasandenhancetheirunderstandingofagiventext.
Oncestudentshavesuccessfullybeentaughtexpositorytextstructures,theycanthenapply themtogeneratingparagraphsoftheirown.Forexample,duringclasstimeinthefirstsemesterofa writingclass,studentsworkoncontext‑seekingexercises,allowingthemmoreprecisedefinitionsof newvocabularythroughtheuseofdictionaries.Theyarethenencouragedtocreateoriginalsentences fromthesewords.Asthestudentsprogress,theteacherintroducesGuidedWriting,thatis,guiding thestudentsincomposinglongersentencesorphrasesviacontrolledorrestrictedactivitiessuchas providingauthenticmodelsasexamples.
Theassimilationofreadingintobeginnerwritingclassroomscaninvolvegettingstudentstoread
anarticle,poster,ortextcontainingillustrations.Thisreadingcanbefollowedbyadiscussiononhow
thewordingwasorganizedandparagraphed.Infurtherreadingastrongemphasisshouldbeplacedon
thegrammatical,lexicalandphrasalstructureofagiventext.
Fromtheintroductionofreadingtasks,beginnerwriterscangaininvaluableknowledge
concerningthelayout,organization,grammaticalfeatures,tone,styleandoverallmessage,whichin turn,promoteslogicalthinkingandfosterstask‑based‑learning(TBL)throughmultipleandvaried approachestoexercisesandtasks.
Additionallyandconversely,writingaidscomprehensionofagivenreading,thusproviding teacherswithmoreopportunitiestogaugeormeasurestudents'progressandability,andfurther observeanymisconceptionsorareasthatareunclearorconfusing(Reid,1993)."Studentsbecome betterreaders,writersandthinkerswhentheylearnreadingandwritingtogether"(Carson,1993, Spack,1998,p.84).
Principle6:Developingwritingthroughfluency
AccordingtoNation's(2005)fourstrands,learnersshouldbegiventheopportunitytodevelop theirfluencyskillsthroughwritingfreelyusinglanguagetheyarealreadyfamiliarwith.Theyshould dothiswithoutanycorrectionfromthemselves,theirpeers,ortheteacher,inordertodevelop
proficiencyandpositiveattitudestowardswriting.Thefocusshouldbeontheflowoflanguageand thenumberofwordsproducedwithinaspecificperiod,regardlessofspelling,grammarandcontent (Fellner&Apple,2006,Brown,1994).
Writingfluencycanbeachievedthroughavarietyofwell‑establishedactivitiessuchasjournals, diaries,stories,letters,10‑minutewritings,andmore.However,usingtheInternetandcomputer‑
mediatedcommunication,asynchronouswritingplatformssuchasblogging,socialnetworkingand emailingarebecomingincreasinglyimportanttoolsforteacherstodevelopandimprovelearning (Fellneretal.,2006),collaborativeskills(Beldarrain,2006),onlineengagement(Lin&Yuan,2006), andcommunitybuildingintheclassroom(Arena,2008).
Blogginghasbeenshowntoincreasetheamountofoutput,thequalityofoutput,andtheuseof high‑frequencyvocabulary(Fellneretal.,2006).Itiseasyforteacherstotrackstudents'workand progress,includingthenumberofentriesandcommentsaswellasthelengthoftheirwork.Teachers canalsoeasilyeditordeleteanyinappropriatematerialandcreatenewpostsormaterialtohelp
furtherstimulatediscussionandinput.Bloggingintegratesreadingwithwritingasitprovideslearners withauthenticlearningopportunities.Onestudent'soutputbecomesanotherstudent'scomprehensible input,helpingthemtodevelopboththeirreadingandwritingskills(Zamel,1992,Nation,2001).
Theauthorshaveadoptedkidblog.orgasaneffectiveplatformfortheirstudentstoimprovetheir writingfluencyandallowthemthefreedomtoexpressandopenlycommunicatewiththeirpeersina privateandcompletelysecureenvironment.Studentsareaskedtowriteonepersonal20‑minuteblog onatopicrelatedtothein‑classlessonandmake3commentsonotherclassmates'blogsweeklyasa
tooltopromotewritingfluency,interestandself‑expression.Learnersshouldbeabletoprogressively
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produceanincreasingamountofwrittenlanguagewithinthis20‑minutetimeframethroughoutthe semester.
Inlinewiththeresearchresultsmentionedabove,theauthorshavefoundthistobeanextremely effectivemethodfordevelopingstudents'writingfluency.Moreover,blogging,inaccordanceto C‑PLATSprovidesstudentswithvaluableopportunitiestoexpresscreativitythroughwritingasfound inthecommunication,presentationandcreativitysub‑competencies.
Conclusion
Thispaperpresentedanddiscussedtheimportanceoftwomajoreducationalframeworks instrumentalintheimplementationofasuccessfulandpracticalteachingguideforbeginnerwriters usingOtemaeUniversity'sC‑PLATSandPaulNation'sTheFourStrandsofaLanguageCourse.
Italsoexaminedhowtheseframeworksinclude,complimentandsupportprinciplesthatare fundamentaltothesuccessofteachingwritingskillstolearnersatbeginninglevels.Theprinciples listedandelaboratedoninthispaperpromotetheacquisitionofsoundvocabularyandgrammarskills, encouragepre‑planningandheuristicapproachesandassiststudentsinimprovingsentence,paragraph anddiscoursestructure.Therelevanceofcollaborativeactivitiesandexercisesrequiringinductiveand deductiveskillsisalsostressedbytheauthors‐asistheimportanceofteamworkandpeerfeedback intheclassroom.
Thesesixelementsareverymuchanintegralpartofthephilosophyoftheframeworks
highlighted.Ratherthanactingindependentlyfromtheseframeworks,theyinfact,functioncohesively withthem.Theauthorsofthispaperalsofirmlybelievethattheintegrationofthekeyproblem‑solving competenciesoutlinedinC‑PLATS,blendharmoniouslywithNation'sstrandsconsistingofmeaning focusedoutput,meaning‑focusedinputlanguage‑focusedlearningandthedevelopmentoffluency.
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