日本の幼児教育における自由と個性に関する一考察 ： 歴史的背景を中心に
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(2) 学校教育学研究, 2000,第12巻 education is caused by other factors.. Introduction. In order to speculate such cultural phenomena, these competing ideas in current Japanese early. In any of the educational reform movements in. childhood education should be understood more. Japan, there have been the issues of individuality. deeply and historically. Japanese education has. and freedom. At the turn of this century, Japanese. come to this point of drastic incongruity, both. educators face again the same issue recurring over. visibly and invisibly. The current flow of educational. and over. They hope to depart from a rigid,. movement aims for freer, more flexible, and more. regimentated method of teaching for a more. unique ways of teaching in school-based education.. individualized, freer practice. However, Japanese. However, not many educators really understand for. society in the late 1990's is experiencing harsh. themselves what individuality and freedom means,. realities. Many children now do not want to go. nor do they understand what it means to their. to school, Juvenile delinquency has increased in. students. At this juncture in Japanese history, it. number, bullying has become a major concern for. is crucial to investigate how individuality and. both teachers and students, and suicide cases appear. freedom are understood and acted upon by the. in the news media time to time. Recently, many. society.. teachers, both novice and experienced, have had. This study will focus on individuality and freedom. difficulty in dealing with children's behavior, to. in Japanese early childhood education, particularly. the extent that classrooms have become dysfunctional.. the historical development of these concepts,. Monbusho, Japanese Ministry of Education. relationship with policy-making processes, and current. released official notices, alerting teachers and. daily practices in school settings. As the study. parents regarding education for the heart and mind. concludes, the author hopes to connect history,. (1997). Among those documents, kindergarten. policy, and practice into one contextual web, and. education has been regarded as a key to the solution. present it in a way meaningful to both researchers. (Monbusho, 1998a).. and practitioners of early childhood education.. The bubble economy of the 1980's aroused. Japanese Education at Change. discussion of freer, more open-style educational practices. Educational reform movement in the. The image of Japanese education held by Western. 1980's looked toward freeing educational processes. observers has focused on the centrahty of group-. in early childhood settings. For emotional. consciousness. Many comparative studies have. development of children, such freer environment. pointed out that Japanese teachers put more. was thought to be the solution. However, some. emphasis on how group plays the most important. show concerns about such let-them-go approach in. role in children's lives (cf. Tobin et. al, 1989; Peak,. early childhood education due to the collapsed. 1991; Lewis, 1984). Also, the image of Japanese. classroom [gakkyu hokai] phenomena, in which. education held by the Japanese general public,. teachers lose control of their students. Some. interestingly enough, is similar to that of the. people assert that the reason why experienced. Western critics; in such an image, Japanese schools. teachers cannot control their students is because. are rigid and conformist.. yochien [kindergartens] and hoikuen [day nurseries] do not discipline children enough.. Not only the Western dispatchers of Japanese education, but also Japanese educators have argued. This indicates a movement counter to that of. the same question for decades. How can Japanese. the one in the 1980's. Criticism points out that. education include room for children's individuality. early childhood education now in Japan is too. and freedom? This question has driven many. individualistic and freedom oriented. On the other. Japanese educational reform movements up to the. hand, some argue that individuality and freedom. present. After World War II, the pragmatism of. should still be central to the early schooling to. Dewey s theory influenced Japanese education along. achieve education for the heart and mind, claiming. with promotion of democracy by the American. that the cause for the present turmoil in Japanese. occupational government. Until the 1950's, Japanese.
(3) Individuality and Freedom in Japanese Early Childhood Education. educators paid vigorous attention to core curriculum,. activities. In this context, the theme, how free and. project method, and other integrated curriculum.. unique the individual can be, appeared as a new. It was criticized as `crawling empiricism,'and later. topic in the held of education.. replaced by structured, discipline-centered curriculum.. Despite such perception by the general public,. Setsuo Tanaka (1997) pointed out that the. individuality and freedom have been the main. discourse on children's individuality has been derived. themes of education for an extended period of time. from the quest for diversity in the educational. in Japanese education. The discourse on children s. system. He also explains that the need for diversity. individuality in education started in the early 1900 s. came from industry and commerce groups, not from. when the Taisho Democracy Movement rose as sprit. the government, and its discussion originated from. of the time. In the Taisho Era (1912-1926), many. those who were seeking liberalization (namely, the. Japanese educators made their efforts toward. removal of restrictions on education). These. innovating new styles of education that allowed for. arguments began in the late 1980's, when the Ad-. freedom. This movement emerged in reaction to. Hoc Council for Education formed by Prime Minister. the long history of the nationalistic educational. Nakasone released its first report in 1985. Japanese. system, which began with the Meiji Restoration. society (and probably the Japanese government). (1868), and lasted until the Japanese Empire started. thought the goal of public education is to prepare. swinging back again to imperialism toward World. Japanese children for going into business. After. War II. Historical interpretation explains the. the World War II, credentialism permeated the. movement of Taisho Free Education as a derivation. country. The sense of social class disappeared as. of the larger social movement called the Taisho. the result of implementing Agricultural Land. Democracy Movement. However, Nakano (1969). Reform Act(decreed by the occupation force). Any. claims that elementary school teachers themselves. family became able to send their children to high. had long quested for freedom in their daily teaching. school and college if they could pass the entrance. activities, since the beginning of the Meiji Era.. examinations. This trend witnessed its maximum. There are a number of reasons why the rigid. point in the 1980's, and there has been long-term. image of Japanese education does not coincide with. criticism of this kind of credentialism.. the ideals of individuality and freedom sought. In addition, the rise of the economy allowed. by Japanese educators. Japanese imperialism,. Japanese nationals to give liberalization of education.. particularly during World War II, created a very. However, in the meetings of the Ad-hoc Council. nationalistic, militaristic image of public education. for Education, the term 'liberalization'became the. among Japanese themselves. Still, many people. central point in discussions (Tanaka. 1997). These. feel antagonism against the Japanese national flag,. discussions highlight the perspectives of the different. despite the edicts of both the Course of Studies in. groups: Those who seek to keep the power and. Elementary Schools and Guideline for Kindergarten. control of central government, and those who regard. Education stating that children should have a sense. government control of one s education as detrimental.. of respect for the Japanese national flag (Monbusho,. Finally both groups agreed that individualization. 1989, 1998b).. represents an essential aspect of the liberalization of education. Japanese society at that time enjoyed her booming. The second possible reason is that classrooms became over-crowded with the baby boom generation. entering the schools. With crowded classrooms,. economy with trade surplus against many other. instructional methods might have been limited. For. countries, and the Council reflected the demands. a period of time, the Japanese Teachers Union had. from economic circles and politicians. Richness in. fought to limit class size to less than 40. With. individuality enhances competitiveness in the global. these sorts of limitations, teaching methods tended. market, or so thought the business sector. Japanese. to be conformity-oriented. This still is one reason. educators had to comply with such demands, and. why teachers find it difficult to give individual. much discourse took place regarding how teachers. attention to students.. could focus on the individual child in educational. The third possible reason may be how Japanese.
(4) 学校教育学研究, 2000,第12巻. 10. perceive individuality in their cultural context.. system had a different but in some ways related. Being individualistic may not have positive meaning.. path of seeking freedom. Philosophy and method. Even if the teacher respects each student as an. of Japanese kindergarten education came from the. individual, what constitutes an `individual likely. American version of the Froebel method. Monbusho. differs from country to country. These differences. [Japanese Ministry of Education] published the first. may be more apparent between Japan and the. official document on kindergarten education in 1876.. Western countries. These points will be taken up. The book titled ``Kindergarten was actually a. in more detail in the dissertation that follows.. translation from the book published in England. The Fundamental Education Law (1947) states. ("A Practical Guide to the English Kindergarten,". that the purpose of education is the full development. 1877). The introduction discussed importance of. of personality of Japanese nationals, respecting the. freedom; "The biographies of our great men, show. value of individuals, and other aims. Japanese. that in their youthful days they enjoyed a freedom. education after World War II has looked at Japanese. of action not allowed to the children of the rich. nationals as individuals, not as subjects of the. in our times.. emperor. This became clearer when Japan recovered from the devastation of wartime.. Higashi Motoyoshi (1872-1958) had notable impact on Japanese kindergarten education in 1900 s.. The Central Council for Education tried to adopt. He learned from the movement in the Untied States,. the idea of fostering rich individuality in its report. which was lead by Patty Smith Hill. Hisphilosophy. of 1971. It was not well received by the public at. went against the traditional Froebelian kindergarten. that time. The result of discussion had to wait. teachers who believed in a rigid way of using. until Japanese economic condition proceeded more. Froebel s gifts. Higashi criticized how inappropriate. apart from the industrial structure.. it was to let children use those gifts in fixed. The movement toward individualized instruction started in Japanese schools again by American. patterns. Instead, he proposed free play as the central part of kindergarten curriculum.. influence. Late in 1970 s, Yukitsugu Kato and the. Kurahashi Sozo (1882-1955) followed the same. Ogawa Elementary School under Kato s supervision. line of philosophy as Higashi in terms of his method. became a pioneer for open-concept schools and. of teaching. He emphasized that kindergarten. individualized instruction. Kato studied IGE. should be equipped to allow freedom and self-. (individually Guided Education) in the United. fulfillment in children's lives (Kurahashi, 1934).. States, and modified it to fit Japanese schools.. He enjoyed playing with children in his kindergarten. Ogawa Elementary had an open-concept school. at Ochanomizu Women s University as a principal,. building, and adopted the individualized learning. and his theory and philosophy emerged from his. system as well as integrated studies into its. experience with children. His work had tremendous. curriculum. This was followed by the 1980's. influence on this field, and served as a base for. movement of individualization of education.. Japanese kindergarten education (Moriue, et. al,. As the Japanese economy turned into a global. 1998). His philosophy on children's self, fulfillment. power in the 1980's, internationalization and. of self and freedom, and how kindergarten can. individualization became two major key words for. support such fulfillment will be investigated more. educational reforms. There may be noted two. in the dissertation.. changes in Japanese society at that time. One is. As for the influence on Japanese kindergarten. Japan s booming economy supported by massive. education, Monbusho [Japanese ministry of Education]. international trade. The other is qualitative change. regulated kindergartens in Japan through its policy.. of social structure, namely from an industrial. Even though Kurahashi's practice in Ochanomizu. economy to an informational society.. University might have been the basis for Monbusho's. Historical Perspectives on Freedom in Japanese Kindergarten Education. decision making, the actual document was a little different. The Guideline for Kindergarten Education issued in 1964 was in force for the longest time in. Kindergarten education in the Japanese school. the history of post-war Japanese education. It had.
(5) Individuality and Freedom in Japanese Early Childhood Education. Ill. five areas as its aims of early childhood education:. References in Kindergarten Education [ Yochien. Health, Society, Nature, Language, Music &. Kyoiku Shido Siryo], Vol. 1 to 4) focus on one's. Rhythms, and Fine Arts. Throughout the document,. self and the individual child. Vol.3, Understandings. there is little description of child's self and their. and Evaluation of Children, reveals how teachers. individual differences. Especially in the area of. should understand children's behavior on the. Society, frequently the term 'others"- appeared. assumption that individuals differ. Vol. 4,. among the sentences as well as teachers and parents.. Instruction Responding to Each Individual Child,. The document did not include the word, self. It. also emphasize differences in each individuals;. mentioned once about individual differences, but. however, the point of view presented in each of. it was not as strong a statement as seen in the. these differed a little.. newer version issued in 1989_ Other than that, this. In Vol.3, the authors, those who renewed the. version was concerned more with what children. Guideline for Kindergarten Education in 1989, were. should do in terms of being socially successful in. the main forces of change in revising the contents. groups. The discussion of educational practices in. from the former Guideline issued in 1964. Sachio. larger scale of the educational field moved toward. Ohba and Masayuki Shibazaki were the main. individualization from the late 1970 s to 1980 s, and. members of this version of the booklet. On the. policy on kindergarten education followed a similar. other hand, the authors of Vol. 4 are Yutaka Oda. path.. and Mitsuko Kaminaga, current members of the. Current Movement in Early Childhood Education Through the discussion of implementing the Guideline for Kindergarten Education issued in 1989,. Kindergarten Division of Monbusho. They revised the newest version of the Guideline, published in 1998. It seems that even between the 1989 authors and. children's individual self was a main concern for. the current members who issued the new version. policy makers. They concluded the following three. of the Guideline for Kindergarten Education inl998,. fundamental points for kindergarten education:. there are differences in interpreting the meaning. (1) Minding that young children obtain necessary. of ones self and individual differences among. experiences for their development by bringing one s. young children. Vol. 4 was published in 1995,. self into full play with emotional stability, to. while Vol.3 was out in 1992. By the time Vol. 4. ensure optimal lives for early childhood and to. was out in the hands of early childhood educators,. encourage young children s autonomous activities.. the criticism may have been brought against the. (2) Considering that children's play as their. Monbusho. Therefore, one might find some changes. autonomous activities is an important learning. in basic philosophy or policy in those documents.. process. It fosters fundamentals of development,. This will need more careful investigation through. balance between body and mind. To make sure. research.. that these goals (presented in Chapter 2) are achieved,. As the common points among the former and. integrated instructions (of curriculum) should be. the 1989 Guideline (and even articles and opinions. done through play.. by the authors of new version such as Oda. (3) Considering that children's development is. Yutaka), there is no description about freedom in. accomplished through diverse processes, interrelating. kindergartens throughout the text. Even though. both mind and body, and that childrens living. the term, free play, is popular among practitioners. experiences are different for each child, instruction. of early childhood education, Monbusho documents. should be given according to the developmental. do not mention the word, free, but once. The. tasks and characteristics of each individual [hitori-. discussion in Ad-hoc Council of Education also. hirtori no] child.. concluded that freeing (liberalizing) the school. (Monbusho, 1989, p.1). system should not be included in their documents. The statement of "bringing one s self into full play" lead to various interpretations. Succeeding. documents from Monbusho (such as Instructional. as well.. Many teachers in early childhood programs use the term, free, but the closest word in the Monbusho.
(6) 学校教育学研究, 2000,第12巻. 12. documents would be [nobi-nobi], relaxed or stretched. [kosei-tekiJ often has negative connotation in. out. Children's freedom in early schooling is not. Japanese language. In the context of educational. yet recognized, and instead, the word `jibun nari. settings, nurturing individuality means to enhance. ni [in one's own way]'is used often in the document.. ones strong points, thus has positive meaning.. There must be some reasons for Monbusho to avoid. On the other hand, if a Japanese person were to. the word `freedom,'while individuality becomes a. say that someone is kosei-teki, that can mean S/. key word among sentences.. he is oddly different from ordinary people.. Absenteeism concerns Monbusho, many educators in schools, and most of all, parents. Monbusho. the meaning of individuality in both negative. puts rules on Japanese nationals for compulsory. and positive sides. This kind of research shows. education. If children's freedom is interpreted to. that, without clear definition of the meaning of. the extreme, Monbusho's authority does not stand. individuality, any discussion of education in the. anymore. It may be understandable that Monbusho. Japanese context may confuse participants of the. try to refrain from using the word, freedom.. discourse. If a survey sets the tone of meaning,. On the other hand, the economic sector of Japanese society has_ become to strive for. The study of Arai and his colleagues analyzed. for instance in a positive way, the results may differ from other ones. Sasaki et. al. (1990) surveyed researchers and. 1980s; the era of informational technology no. teachers of early childhood education to clarify. longer depends on an educational system for its. the structure of the concept of individuality. In. progress. Individuahzation and internationalization. this study, authors used factor analysis,. were two major slogans for educational reforms.. concluded with five factors in each group.. Monbusho adopted the idea from the needs of financial/industrial sectors.. researchers, the following five factors are:. T3>H apn>. individualdifferences among employees since late. autonomous attitudes, II.unique life styles, innate individual differences, IV. (unverified) ,. Research on Individuality in Early Childhood E ducation. acquired character. For teachers, those are:. tolerant judgment, II. uniqueness and competence. Hoiku Gakkai [Japan Society of Research on Early Childhood Care and Education] edited special. of self-expression, III. innate individual differences, IV. creative thinking, V. acquired character.. issue of its journal in 1990, titled "Kosei to Hoiku. In this study, teachers and researchers show. [Individuality and (Early Childhood) Care and. some differences in how they perceive individuality.. Education]. " This was published a year after. Teachers tend to see individuality as being. the 1989 revision of Monbusho's Guideline of. tolerantwith others, particularly those who are. Kindergarten Education.. different. Also, they emphasize creative thinking. Arai et. al (1990) had surveyed teachers,. and competence of expressing themselves. On the. administrators, and college students on their. other hand, researchers of early childhood education. understanding of children's individuality. According. put emphasis on autonomous attitudes, such as. to this study, there are 12 factors in traits of. being able to solve social/personal problems for. individuality: 1. temperament, 2. good personality,. oneself, or having autonomy and responsibility.. 3. lack of control, 4. high self-perception, 5.. However, both Japanese teachers and researchers. uniqueness of behavior, 6. high level of anxiety, 7.. think that individuality of children will be nurtured. knowledge/skill, 8. autonomy, 9. creativity, 10.. and developed in the group setting, and through. uniqueness of appearance, ll. isolation, and 12.. activities with groups. However, teachers rated. habit/hobby. Authors pointed out that these. those items more important, while researchers. items include, 1) innate and acquired traits, 2). tended to see individuality as more innate, genetic. internal and external, 3) adjusted and maladjusted. features.. to a particular social environment.. The interesting result here is that female. Such paradoxical results stem from the Japanese. researchers put more weight on abilities of. meaning of individuality - having individuality. expressing one's own opinion, openness of one's.
(7) Individuality and Freedom in Japanese Early Childhood Education. self, and flexible ideas. More so than their male. 13. Japanese teachers would say, if they have fewer. counterparts. Therefore, female researchers have. children, it might be possible for them to give. more positive attitudes toward self-expression, self-. more attention to each individual child.. openness, and flexibility than male researchers. Japanese Cultural Beliefs and Educational Practice. The study l3y Sasaki and his colleagues touched on mostly the positive aspects of childrens. Japanese teachers are more ambivalent about. individuality. Following the aims of Japanese. dealing with the size of groups. Tobin et al.. education, it provides educators with valuable. (1987) reported that many Japanese teachers. subject for discourse. As their study points out,. expressed some anxiety with having less number of. teachers see children's individuality in the group. children. They think children would develop. settings more than researchers, who may focus on. socially better among a lot of friends, and. each individual child as a research subject. The. unnecessary adults supervision may be more. classroom and research environments may lead one. harmful. Many Japanese believe that children s. to different conclusions regarding what is optimal. development should happen ideally through. for children's individuality, and what teachers can. interactions with their peers, not with adults.. do for it.. This does not mean that the existence of adults. Izumi (1990) studied how teachers prepare for. in early childhood education is useless, but rather. nurturing individuality in teaching. Teachers. requires more skilled teachers in schools. In some. answered that they consider the following to. discussion of how teachers interact with children,. be important: 1) facilitating environment, 2). authors will claim that it is important `to read. facilitating relationships between teachers and. movement of the child's mind (Nomura, 1997,. children, 3) helping children to be motivated, and. Takasugi, 1997).'It requires that teachers should. 4) improving wording and conversation. 40 % of. trace a child s thinking process, with much attention. teachers claimed that they are nurturing children's. to his/her feelings and emotions. To understand. individuality in various ways, such as making. one's individuality is not to list up the differences. environment to allow children's choices, to have. or levels of intelligence, but to grasp what this. children relaxed, or to have children express. child wants to do in a given situation. Also,. themselves. 20 % of teachers claim that they are. Japanese teachers will describe that they try to be. trying to have one-t0-one relationships more. attentive to each individual's interest when planning. frequently and deeper. Also, about 10 % of. lessons or activities. Those teachers seem to have. teachers make efforts to motivate children. more concern about children s interest than their. according to each child s interest and character.. developmental levels. Japanese kindergarten teachers. This kind of survey method has limits on how. regularly have their in-service research meetings in. accurately participants'claims describe what they. regions or communities, and host schools have. actually do in practice, so one should be cautious. printed booklets with lesson plans of the day. In. about interpreting the result as the authors argue.. those booklets, presenters may refer to the flow. On the other hand, they may show how teachers. of children s activities, and often times children's. feel about what should be done in daily practice.. interest overrules the teacher's original objectives. Japanese yochien and hoikuen had suffered from. for the activities. In the Japanese teachers'mind,. large class size, particularly when baby boomers. individual children are represented by how each. surged into spaces provided for them. In discussion. child feels, not what that child can do.. of comparative perspectives with American kindergartens and preschools, Japanese teachers. Many theorists and practitioners (cf. Takasugi, 1997) think that a relationship between a teacher. often express their envious feeling toward American. and a student with mutual trust is the key to. teachers with less number of children. It is. education for nurturing individuality. Japanese. particularly true that American teachers of 4- and. structure of an individual self does not stand. 5-years old children enjoy fewer numbers of children,. alone;it consists of a full range of interpersonal. almost half that of their Japanese counterparts.. experiences, relationships, and environmental.
(8) 学校教育学研究, 2000,第12巻. IE!. stimuli.. Nenpo [Annual Report of Japan Society of. To be or not to be an individual in Japanese society (or any other social setting) means, for. Research on Early Childhood Care and Education] , 1990, 49-58.. better or worse, to function as a member of a. Izumi, S. (1990). Hoikusha no Koseikan to Kosei. group. As in studies of teachers perception of. no Ikusei Houhou [Perception of Individuality by. individuality, Japanese think that the group makes. Early Childhood Educators and Method of. the child an individual entity in his/her life. This. Fostering Individuality]. Hoiku Gaku Nenpo. is very different from the Western tradition of. [Annual Report of Japan Society of Research. philosophy about individualism. Along side with discourse on individuality,. on Early Childhood Care and Education] , 1990, 59-68.. Japanese educators gave much attention to children s. Lewis, C. (1984). Cooperation and control in. freedom. Japanese feel that children are more. Japanese nursery schools. Comparative Education. and more restricted, in terms of their freedom.. Review, 28(1), 69-84.. According to the pilot interviews of student. Monbusho. (1876). Yochien [Kindergarten] , reprinted. teachers in a teacher training college, many of them. in Meiji Hoiku Bunkensyu. (Vols. 1-9). (1977).. felt that their childhood seemed much freer than. Tokyo: Ninon Library.. that of children in classrooms now. However, there is no evidence that reveals which is true. More. study should be done in this area for the future. Conclusion. Monbusho. (1964). Yochien Kyoiku Yoryo [Guideline for Kindergarten Education]. Monbusho. (1989). Yochien Kyoiku Yoryo [Guideline for Kindergarten Education]. Monbusho. (1997). 21 Seiki wo Tenbo shita Wagakuni. At the end of 1998, the renewed version of. no Kyoiku no Arikata ni Tsuite (Chuo Kyoiku-. Guideline for Kindergarten Education was released. Shingikai Dai 2 ji Toshin) [The model for. (Monbusho, 1998b). It has some points, which. Japanese education in the perspective of the 21st. askteachers to be more responsible for children's. Century (The 2nd Report by the Central Council. activities. Also, it suggests that teachers should. for Education)].. take more active roles to enhance children's. Monbusho. (1991). Shido Keikaku no Skausei to. intellectual development. Such revision may have. Hoiku no Tenkai [ Composing Instructional. occurred in response to the society s expectations. Plan and Conducting Early Childhood Care. for children to be taught'by early childhood. and Education]. Yochien Kyoiku Shido Siryo. educators, not being set to be free so much. This. [Instructional References in Kindergarten Education],. can be interpreted as a reaction to the former. Vol.1.. revision of guideline, but it is not so simple. The. Monbusho. (1992). Katei tono Renkei wo Hakaru. history of Japanese early childhood education. tameni [For Promoting Collabolation with. embraces the tradition of allowing children much. Families]. Yochien Kyoiku Shido Siryo. freedom and room to think by themselves. The. [ Instructional References in Kindergarten. current version of guideline issued in 1998 should. Education] , Vol.2.. be viewed as effort to balance between two opposing. Monbusho. (1992). Yoji Rikai to Hyoka. ideas: duty / freedom, group-mind / individuality,. [Understandings and Evaluation of Children].. and so on. Japanese early childhood educators. Yochien Kyoiku Shido Siryo [ Instructional. still have a long way to find what individuality and freedom mean to their children. Reference. References in Kindergarten Education] , Vol. 3. Monbusho. (1995). Hitori Hitori ni Ojiru Shido [Instruction Responding to Each Individual Child]. Yochien Kyoiku Shido Siryo [ Instructional. Arai, K., Shimura, Y., and Hayashi, S. (1990). Hoikusha no Kosei Rikai ni kansuru Kenkyu [A Study on Early Childhood Educators' Understanding of IndividualityJ. Hoiku Gaku. References in Kindergarten Education] , Vol. 4. Monbusho. (1998a). Kyoiku Kaikaku Program [Program for Educational Reform]. Monbusho. (1998b). Yochien Kyoiku Yoryo.
(9) Individuality and Freedom in Japanese Early Childhood Education. [Guideline for Kindergarten Education]. Nakano. A. (1969). Taisho Jiyu Kyoiku no Kenkyu. 15. Children, 38, 13-24. Takasugi. Y. (1997). Hitori Hitori ni Ojiru. [A Study of Free Education in the Taisho Era].. Shido wo Jitsugen sum Tameni [To Achieve. Nagoya: Reimei Shobo.. Instruction for Each Individual Child]. In Yochien. Nomura. M. (1997). Yoji Hitori Hitori no Sodachi. Kyoiku Kenkyukai (Ed.), Yoji Hitori Hitori no. wo Sasaeru Enjo no Arikata wo Kangaeru. Yosa to Kanosei wo Motomete [Seeking for Good. [Considering How to Help Children to Support. Quality and Possibility of Each Individual Young. Each Individual Child's Development]. In Yochien. Child]. Tokyo: Toyokan.. Kyoiku Kenkyukai (Ed.), Yoji Hitori Hitori no. Tanaka. S. (1997). Gakko wa Kodomo no Kosei. Yosa to Kanosei wo Motomete [Seeking for Good. wo Soncho suru Tokoro de aru [School is the. Quality and Possibility of Each Individual Young. Place to Respect Children's Individuality]. In K.. Child]. Tokyo: Toyokan.. Imazu and D. Higuchi (Eds.). Kyooiku Gensetcu. Peak, L. (1991). Learning to go to school in Japan: The transition from home to preschool life. Berkley, CA: University of California Press. Sasaki Y., Asami C, Takanashi, K., Asano, H.,. wo Do Yomuka [How to Read Educational Discourse]. Tokyo: Shinyosha. Tobin, J.J., Wu, D.Y.H., & Davidson, D.H. (1987). Class size and student/teacher ratios in the. and Ebisu, K. (1990). Kosei Gainen no Kozo. Japanese preschool. Comparative Education. wo Kitei sum Yoin no Kenkyu [A Study on. Review, 31(4), 533-549.. Factors Defining Structure of Concept of. Tobin, J.J., Wu, D.Y.H., & Davidson, D.H. (1989). Individuality]. Hoiku Gaku Nenpo [Annual. Preschool in three cultures: Japan, China, and. Report of Japan Society of Research on Early. the United States. New Haven, CT: Yale. Childhood Care and Education] , 1990, 81-91.. University Press.. Shigaki, I. (1983). Child care practices in Japan and the United States: How do they reflect cultural values in young children? Young. (Received July 30,1999 : accepted August 31,1999).
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