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(1)AN ACOUSTIC STUDY OFISOCHRONAL FEET IN ENGLISH SPEECH. by Atsunori Kamiya 神谷. 厚徳. AE)issertation Presented to. The Graduate School of Language,ConlmILniCation,and Culture Kwansei Gakuin University. In Partial Fulf11lⅡLent. ofthe Requirelnents for the Degree DoctOr of Philosophy. Apri1 2010.

(2) Doctor of Philosophy Dissel,tation. An Acoustic Study oflsochronal Feet in English Speech. by Atsunori KaⅡ liya. Members of Evaluation CoΠ llnittee. MttorAd宙 sOr:. Associate Advisor:. 縣― ヽ c― Associate Advisor: ι Zl∠ 蘊∠ (. AssOciate Advisor: ″ 〃. ′. ん・ィ. /t為. 1」. ￨.

(3) ABSTRACT. An Acoustic Study oflsochronal Feet in English Speech. by Atsunori Kamiya. Conventionally it is said that the world'〔〕languages can be divided. into two different types from a rhythⅡ lic point of view: stress‐ tilned languages and syllable‐ tilned languages. English is often referred to as a stress・ tilned. language, and is contrasted with syllable‐ tilned languages. such as French. In English,inter… stress intervals are clailned to have equal duration due to a periodicity of regulalily spaced stresses in feet. This regular tilning pattern is called“ isochrony'' and is often cited as evidence that English is a stress‐ tiHled language.. With the advent Of speech‐ analysis so乱 ware, Inany production experilnents have been performed which investigate isochrony according to foot duration.. HOwever, the results are lDitten contradictory. As a. result,linguists are far froΠ l unanilnous about the discussion ofisochrony. in English.. I conducted several production experilnents to consider the validity of isochronal feet.. The ailn of lny experiHlents is to provide supportive. evidence fOr isOchrony Of feet in English. Finalltt the last two chapters of. this paper are devoted to claritting the factors which impede strict.

(4) isochrony in English. In Chapter l,past studies about the isochrony of feet in English are. summarized.In particulaL mttor prOduction experiments which claimed to show evidence against isOcrhony are reviewed. In Chapter 2,the notiOn ofisochrony is considered ioIIl phonologlcal, syntactic,and psychological viewpoints.. In Chapters 3, 4, and 5,production experilnents are conducted to. study the relationship between the nucleus and English rhythm. The isochronal tendency between English feet is conflrmed.]Ⅵ oreovet the maxilnum number of syllables ofisOchrOnal feet is revealed.. In Chapter 6,a coIIlparative experimentt between native English speakers and proflcient Japanese speakers of English is perforIIled to consider the validity of the theory Of stress… tilned languages.. In Chapter 7, a questionnaire survey is conducted to conirm a hypothesis that the choice of comparat市 e attect市e fOrm is affected by the surrounding foot structure.. In Chapters 8 and 9,production experiⅡ lents are conducted which reveal that the inherent duration of phonemes and syllable structure are two factors which prevent perfect isochrony in English..

(5) Contents Members of EvaluatiOn CoIIIHlittee.… ………………………………………………………。i AbstractⅢ ………….… ………Ⅲ ・…‥…Ⅲ ・… ・………… ・……・・… ・…Ⅲ ・……… ・…… ・… ・… ・…… 五 … ……… ……. Introduction.… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………。1. Chapterl Previous Studies on the lsochrol■ y of Feet in English。 …………………………………………………………………・・……………………… 5. 1.1.Isochrony in English.… ………………………………………………………………………・5. 1.2.Isochrony in Production.… ………………………………………………………………… 6 1.3.Isochrony in Perception.… ………………………………………………………………・9 1.4. Arguments in Favor of lsochrony… ……………………………………………・11 Chapter 2 1sochrOnal Phenolnena in English.… ……………‥………………・ 14 2. 1.Overview.… …….… .… ………・……Ⅲ…………・…・…・…………・…………・…………………… 14. 2.2.The Evidence for lsOchrony in English.… ………………………………… 14. 2.2.1. The lsOchronal Tendency at the Phonological Level.… ……………………………¨……………………… 15. 2.2.2.The lsochronal Tendency at the Syntactical Level.… … 18. 2.2.2. 1.Word(Order.…. ・………………………。・………… ・… 18 …・………… ……….… ・. 2.2.2.2.InsertiOn of Redundant Syllables.… …………………‥…… 21. 2.2.2.3.Word Choice.… ‥………………………………………………………………… 23 2.2.3.The lsochronal Tendency at the Psychological Level.27 2.3.Chapter Sunllnary… ………………………………………………………………・・………… 29 Chapter 3 The Relationship between theヽ「ucleus and Rhythm in English.… ……………………Ⅲ ・……………………………………… 31 3. 1.Overview。 ………………………・……………………・…。・……・31 …Ⅲ ………………… ……………。 3.2.Experilnent 3.1.… ………………………………・Ⅲ ・ 32 ……‥……………………………………. 3.2.1.Subjects.… ………………………………………… ・Ⅲ ………………………………………。32 lV.

(6) 3.2.2.ExperiIIlental LIethOd.…. 3.2.3.Results.…. …………………………………………………………・ 32. ………………………………………………………………………………………・ 36. 3.2.4.E)iscusslon.…. ………………………………………………………………………………… 38. 3.2.4.1.The Length of a Nucleic Foot.…. …………………………………・ 38. 3.2.4.2.The Lengthening of the Nucleic Foot.…. ………………‥・ 42. 3.2.4.3.The Foot Fo1lowing the Nucleic FootⅢ. ・ 46 ……………………. 3.2.4.4.The Nucleus and Final Lengthening…. ・ 48 ……………………. 3.2.5.Repeating the Experilnent with a Different Sentence.… ……………………………………………………………………………………・ 51. 3.3.Experilnent 3.2.…. …………………………‥…………………………………………………Ⅲ54. 3.3.1.Types of Nuclei.…. ・ 54 ………………………………………………………………………. 3.3.2.Experilnental MethOd.… …………………………………………………………・ 55 3.3.3.Results.…. ・ 57 ………………………………………………………………………………………. 3.3.4.I)iscusslon.…. ………………………………………………………………………………… 57. 3.4.Chapter SunlIIlary…. …………………………………………………………………………… 58. Chapter 4 1sochrony between Feet in English.… 4. 1.Overview.…. ・ 60 ……………………………. …………………………………………………………………………………………… ・ 60. 4.2.Experilnent 4.1.… ……………………………………‥………………………………………・ 61 4.2.1.Results.…. …………………………………………………………………………………………… 62. 4.3.ExperiIIlent 4。 2.… ………………………………………………………………………………・ 64. 4.3.1.Results.…. ・ 65 ………………………………………………………………………………………. 4.4.Experilllllent 4.3.… ………………………………………………………………………………・ 66 4.4。 4.5。. 1.Results.… ………………………………………………………………………………………・ 68. Chapter Summary…. …………………………‥……………………………………………… 70. Chapter 5 1sochrony between Feet:Focused on the Number of Syllables per Foot.… ………‥……………………… 72 ５ . 1.Overview。 ……………………………………………………・Ⅲ ・ 72 ………………………………………. ５. 2.The Maxinlum Number of Syllables of.

(7) the lsochrOnal Foot.… ………………………………………………………………………・ 73. 5.3.Results.…. ……………………‥………………………………………………………………………… 75. 5.4.E)iscuss10n.… …………………………………………………………………………………………。76. 4.1.Comparison of Sentence. ①. and Sentence. ②. .…. …..… ….76. 5.4.2.ComparisOn of Sentence. ③. and Sentence. ④. .…. ・ 76 …………. 4.3.Comparison of Sentence. ⑤. and Sentence. ⑥. .…. ・ 78 …………. 5。. 5。. 5.5.Future Study… ……………………………………………………………………………………… 80 5.6.The Ratio of the Relative Foot Duration.…. ……………………………・ 80. 5.6.1.Experilnental Method.… ………………………………………‥………………・ 81 5.6.2.Results.…. ・ 82 ………………………………………………………………………………………. 5.6.3.I)iscusslon.…. ………………………………………………………………………………… 84. Chapter 6 1sochrony in English Feet ComI)ared with Speaking Rate.… ………………………………………………………………………・ 86. 6.1.Overvlew.… ……………………………………………………………………………………………。86 6.2.The Foot Analysis lssue.… ……………………………………………………………… 87 6.3.The Purpose of This Study.… 6.4.Hypothesis.… 6.5。. …‥…………………………………………………… 88. ………………………………………………………………………………………… 88. Subjects.… …………‥…………………………………………………………………………………88. 6.6.Experilnental NIaterials.…. ……………………………………………………………… 89. 6.7.NIethods and PrOcedures.…. ……………………………………………………………。90. 6.8.Analysis 6.9.Results.…. Ⅲ ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 91 ………………………………………………………。・……………………………………… 92. 6.10.E)iscussion.… ……………………………………………………………………………‥………。98. 6.11.Chapter Sun■. IIlary.… ………………………………………………………………………100. Chapter 7 The Relationship between COllnparative Adjectives and Rhythm in English.… …………..… …………………………………・104 ７７. 1.Overview.… ……………………………………………………………………………………………104 2.The Regular ForHl of Adjective Comparative.… ……………………105 Vl.

(8) 7.3.Nakajilna(2005).…. ……………………………………………………………………………109. 7.4.About This Study.… …………………………………………………………………………・110 7.5。. The Questionnaire Survey… …………………………………………‥……………・111. 7.6.Prediction of the Results.… ……………………………………………………………113 7.7.Results.… ………………………………………………………………………………………………・116 7.8.E)iscussion.… …………………………………………………………………………………………120. 7.9.Chapter Sunlmary… ………………‥………………………………………………………・123 Chapter 8 An Acoustic lnvestigation of the Relationship between the lntrinsic Duration of Sounds and Foot Duration in English.… …………………………………………………126. 8.1.Overview.… ……………………………………………………………………………………………126 8.2.The Purpose of This Study.… ………………………………………………………。126 8.3.ExperiHlental IⅦ ethOd.… …………………………………………………………………。127. 8.4.Subjects.… ………‥…………………………………………………………………………………・129 8.5.Experilnent 8。 1.… ……‥………………………………………………………………………129 8.5。. 1.Results and DiscussiOn.… ……………………………………………………・129. 8.5。. 1.1,Duration of Consonants.… ……………………………………………129. 8.5.1。 2.Voiced COnsonant vs.Voiceless Consonant.…. …….132. 8.5.1.3.Manner Of Articulation.… ……………………………………………・133 8.5。. 1.4.Place of Articulation.… …………………………………………………。134. 8.6.Experilnent 8.2.… ……………………‥………………………………………………………136 8.6.1.Results and DiscussiOn.… ……………………………………………………・136. 8.6.1.1.Duration of VOwels.… ……………………………………………………。136 8.6.1.2.Short VOwels vs.Long Vowels vs,Diphthongs.…. 138. 8.6.1.3.Closed VOwels vs,Central Vowels vs. Open VOwels.… …………・…・…・…・…… …・………………・……………・…139. 8.6.1.4_Front Vowels vs.Central Vowels vs. Back Vowels.… ………………………………………・・…………………………141 Vll.

(9) 8.7.Colnparison between ConsOnants and Vowels.…. 141 …………………。. 8.8.Chapter SunlIIlary… …………………………………Ⅲ ・142 ・……………………………………. Chapter 9 The Relationship between Syllable Structure and Foot Duration in English。 ………………………………………148 .Ⅲ. 9.1.Overview.… …………………………………………………・Ⅲ…………‥…………‥……………148 9.2.Syllable Structure.… ………………………………・Ⅲ ………………………………………148. 9.3.The Purpose of This Study.… ………………………………………………………・150 9.4.Subjects.… ……………………………………………………………………………………………・150. 9.5.Method and PrOcedure.… ………………………………………………………………・151 9.6.Results and Discussion.… ………………………………………………………………152 9。. 7.Chapter Sunlnlary… …………………………………………………………………………・155. ConclusiOn. 158. References.… ………………・・…………………………………………・・……………………………‥………161. Vlll.

(10) Introduction. All spoken languages are classified as either stress‥. tiIIled. languages or syllable‐ tiIIled languages(Jones, 1918; Pike, 1945;. Abercrombie,1967,etc.).. In stress‐ tiHled languages,the intervals. between stresses theoretically have equal length regardless of the. number of syllables within each f00t, whereas in syllable‐ timed languages,successive syllables are of equal duration regardless of. the segmental makeup of the syllable (Abercrombie, 1964)。 English,Russian,and Arabic fall into the fir'st category,and French,. Spanish,Telugu,and Yoruba are examples of the second category (Dauer,1983)。. A third category,known as“. II10 r a‐. timed"languages,. exemplified by Japanese and Ancient GreeL[,has been proposed by. many linguists(Han, 1962; Ladefoged, 1975)。. been pointed out that mora‐ syllable‐. ti】. However, it has. med languages are silnilar to. tiIIled languages;therefore,they can be subsumed into the. class of syllable‐. timed languages(Kubozono&Honma,2002).. In stress‐ tiIIled languages, the intervals between stressed. syllables have equal duration, and the duration of each syllable. lengthens or cOmpresses, according to the number of unstressed syllables within each foot(Teschner&Whitley,2004). This means that the duration of each interval is alIIlost the saIIle,even though. the numbers of syllables in each foot are different(Dauer, 1983).. On the contrary, in syllable‐ tillled languages, the temporal adjustHlent seen in stress‐ tiIIled languages is not Observed and each. syllable is produced at an even interval of tilne.. Therefore, the. duration of each utterance is deterⅡ lined by the number of syllables.

(11) within each utterance. Up to the present tiHle,twO rhythⅡ LiC Classifications proposed. by Pike(1945)and later elaborated by Abercrombie(1964)have been widely accepted aIIlong linguists(Bolinger, 1965; 0'Connor, 1967; Halliday, 1970; Uldall, 1971; Corde]r, 1973; Catford, 1977; Major,1981)。. Abercrombie(1964)introduced the concept of“ fOot". as an isochronous unit,specifying that each English foot consists of a stressed syllable followed Optionally by weak syllables,up to but not including the next stressed syllable.. Consecutive feet are of. equal duration,regardless of the number of syllables in each foot.. For example,the sentence“ Walk down the path to the end of the canal."is divided into feet as f01lows(Roach, 2009): I Walk ldown the lpath tO the l end ofthe calnal.￨. However,Abercrombie's theory does not a1low weak syllables to be included in a foot ifthey appear at the beginning of a sentence.. For example,“ The"in Example(1)below is considered to be an “anacrusis"(i.e.,a redundant eleIIlent)because it is not included in. Abercrombie's foot(Takebayashi,1996).. Example(1) Thel boy be1longs to the llnusic lclub.￨ foot. f00t. fOot. foot. The most important point of Abercrombie's theory is that feet. are independent of syntax. occur within a word.. Thus a foot boundary is a1lowed to. For example,the word“ belongs"in the above. example can be a1located to two separate feet.. Abercrombie's foot concept was inherited by Halliday(1970),.

(12) who introduced the idea of“ silent stress,"、 vhich carries the stress before an anacrusis,producing a foot at the beginning of a sentence.. Therefore,Halliday's theory regards the word“ the"in Example(2) below as part of the first f00t.. Example(2) 1士. Thel boy be1longs to the lIIlusic lclub。 foot. f00t. fOot. f00t. ￨(十 indicates a silent stress). f00t. Although many Other linguists have proposed theories of English rhythm (GimsOn, 1985; 0'Connor, 1967; Jassem, Hill & Witten, 1984), etc., there is no definite consensus among them.. However, AbercrOmbie's theOry now receives widespread support.. For example, Yamauchi(2000)compared three major theories developed by Abercrombie, 0'COnnor, and Bolingero. She divided. several sentences into rhythm units according to the lllethods. proposed by them.. The measurement of the duration of each. rhythHl unit shOwed that Abercrombie's theOry is lnost appropriate as an isochronous way of deterIIlining the rhythm unit of English.. Moreover, many rhythm studies have been reported based on Abercrombie's theory,providing an impressive body of evidence in his favor(Cutler,1980).. AbercrOmbie's support.. theory. has. clearly. attracted. widespread. Yet lnany linguists are skeptical about it because many. studies have failed tO shOw an isOchronal tendency among English feet when inter‐ stress intervals were measured(See Chapter l).. The purpose ofthis study is to provide supportive evidence for. isochrony of feet in English,. This study is also guided by.

(13) Abercrombie's theory(1967),but l do nOt colnpare the size oflnetric. feet because my interest is to shOw evidence for isochrony rather than to judge the validity of perfect isochrony.. Moreover, I will. consider a normative foOt frOIIl the point of view of the number of syllables in each English foOt. It is speculated that each English speaker tends to adjust every foot to his/her normative foot which. yields isOchrony between English feet.. I conducted production. experilIIlents which provide evidence for isochrony, but the experilnent methods which l used differ from previous studies. Thus, I will consider isochrony froШ L neW angles.. Finally,in the. last two chapters, I will shed light on the factors which illlpede perfect isOchrony in English speech..

(14) Chapterl Previous Studies on the lsOchrony of Feet in English. l.1.Isochrony in English lt has traditionally been claiIIled that English utterances have. a regular timing of stressed syllables(Abercrombie, 1964). This. isochronal phenomenon can easily be observed and many arguments have been made in its favor.. For example,in idiomatic. phrases such as“ ′θ′Or σθJlee"Or“ θ ′ and θ′″cer,''itis not common “ for the word order to be reversed like``θ θFee or′ θ′"or``sa口 cer and θ P''・. ThiS is because the forIIler consists of repetitions of strong. “ and weak syllables, unlike the lattere. So the former is more. appropriate for a stress‐ tiIIled language◆. Similarly, lexical. stresses on certain words and compounds tend to move so that there. is lnore regularity between feet. Thus ``Japanese. ι θ′". and. “rhitteen ιθ/s"are heard frequently instead of“ Japaコ θJθ ′ θ′"and “Thirι θθコわθ/ゴ '(See chapter 2).. With the advance of techn010gy in recent years, many linguists have used empirical lnethods to investigate the validity of. isochrony. from. the. viewpOint. of production.. The first. technological experiment on isochrony was performed by Classe (1939), who lneasured inter¨ stress intervals (ISIs) using a kylnograph(a scientific instruIIlent which measures changes in sound pressure)。. AlthOugh Classe failed to show absolute. isochrony either in production or perception,he did not disIIliss the. notion of isochrony, but regarded it as a tendency to speak in rhythⅡlic units that are perceived as isochronous(Lehiste,1977)..

(15) 1.2.Isochrony in Production AlthOugh IIlany studies of English rhythnl have been reported, the concept ofisochrony remains elusive.. This is partly because of. the wide range of IIlethods used by researchers, which makes it difficult to cOmpare the results. I will now review several experiIIlents which have clailned to. show evidence against isochrony in English.. (1)Shen&Peterson(1962) In this experinlent,subjects were asked tO read written prose,. and the intervals between succeeding prilnary stresses were measured by using a machine.. There were three subjects, and. each subject read a different prose.. The intervals between the. primary stresses ranged from 410 to 1820 ms for the first subject, from 380 to 2500 1■ s for the second subject,and from 550 to 3610 1ns. fOr the third subject.. The intervals were too variable to support. isochrony,even when the secondary stress was considered to carry. the unit Of rhythm. Thus,Shen&Peterson rejected the notion of isochrOny in English.. (2)Bolinger(1965) Six subjects were asked tO read two very long sentences. The. intervals betlween the stresses were measured, which showed considerable variation among inter‐ stress intervals(ISIs).. One. fOurth Of the intervals(13 out ofthe 53 intervals)were particularly long in duration.. They had approxilnately twice the length of the. shortest interval. Bolinger suggested that syllable structures and.

(16) semantic factors affected the length of the inter‐ stress intervals. Bolinger therefore also found the theory of isochrony untenable.. (3)0'ConnOr(1965,1968) 0'Connor (1965) investigated. isochrony. under. regular. conditions, recording by hand and making a click sound at each stress.. The average of 15 inter‐ stress intervals was 518 ms.. The. difference between the longest and the shortest interval was 88 ms. In spite of these results which seeⅡ l to support isochrony, strict. isochrony was not observed.. MOreover,0'Connor(1968)analyzed. seven utterances, each cOnsisting of three monosyllabic feet. 0'Conner changed the seglnental length of the second foot from three segments to nine segments,while the length of the first foot and the third f00t remained constant.. The“ cOmpression effect,''in. which syllables in polysyllabic feet are squeezed together in order. to maintain equal spacing of stresses, was not observed in his results.. In fact, the duration of each foot increased almost. linearly as the number of syllables in each foot increased.. On. these grounds,0'Connor expressed his doubts about the existence Of isOchrony in prOduction.. (4)Lea(1974) In this study,the inter‐ stress intervals(ISIs)of 31 sentences. read by eight subjects were lneasured in order to test the isochronal. hypothesis proposed by Pike(1945).. Six out Of the eight subjects. were asked tO read a script which was a IIlixture of various genres,. while tw0 0ther subjects read a]monosyllabic script.. The results. were that the average ISIs increased in proportion to the number of.

(17) intervening syllables. Therefore, he clailned that there was no support for the theory of isochrony◆. (5)Nakatani,L.H.,0'ConnOr,K.D。 &Aston,C.H.(1981) Nakatani et al.(1981) exaΠ lined isochrony in American English speech by using twO‥ wOrd adjective‐ noun phrases which were each 3 to 5 syllables long.. They tried to find evidence to. support a more liberal interpretation of isochrony in English. However, they failed to shOw the tendency for metrical feet to compress in duration.. In fact, foot duration increased alIIlost. linearly with f00t size, cOntrary to the hypothesis that the relationship between foot size and foot duration should be inversely. proportional.. This result led Nakatani et al.(1981)to reject the. theory of isochrony in AInerican English speech。. (6)Roach(1982) Syllable durations of three stress‐. til■. ed languages were. compared with thOse of three syllable¨ tilned languages, and it turned out that the standard deviations of the syllable durations for both types Of languages did not differ significantly.. Moreover,. Roach (1982)compared the standard deviations of inter‐ stress intervals(ISIs)amOng the saIIle six languages and found,contrary to his predictions,that the deviations from isochrony were greater in English than in any Ofthe Other five languages.. On the basis of. these results,he dismissed the concept of isochrony in English.. (7)Dauer(1983) To investigate isochrony of different languages,Dauer(1983) 8.

(18) compared five languages which include stress‐ timed languages and syllable‥. tiIIled languages: English, Thai, Spanish, Italian, and. Modern{Greek. For each language,inforlnants were asked to read a passage from a nOvel or play. general claiIIl.. Inter‐. The results did not support the. stress intervals were no more constant in. English than they were in any other language.. Furthermore,she. clailned that a1l of these languages are more or less stress‐ based and the degree of how much they are stress‐ based is decided by how. much each language depends On stresses. According to the linear graph prOvided by Dauer(1983),English is the IIlost stress‐. based. language, in which stress plays an iIIlportant role, while in Japanese,stress is the least important among these six languages. Therefore,her graph indicates that the world's languages can not be classified based On a rhythⅡ lic dichotomy.. Stress‐ based Japanese. French. Spanish. Greek. POrtuguese. Figure l.1:Stress‐ based languages. English. (Dauer,1983:60). 1.3. Isochrony in Perception. The. negative. results. depending on. ISIs (inter‐ stress. intervals)IIlentioned above led some researchers to suspect that isochrony,rather than being a feature of production,is actually a. characteristic of perception (Lehiste, 1977; Donovan & Darwin. 1979;Benguerel&D'Arcy,1986)。. Among the skeptics,Lehiste. (1977)is presumably the lmost influential. She ran a perceptual experiIIlent to find the noticeable differences in duration.. In her.

(19) experiment,four‐ f00t sentences were chosen and the length of each foot was manipulated. The length of one ofthe four feet was either decreased or increased by only 10 111s. Thirty listeners were asked. to judge which intervals were the longest and the shortest.. She. discussed the results as fo1lows:. “I. reasoned that if listeners cannot identify the actual. longest Or shortest measures in spoken English sentences, the measures must seeIIl to theIIl to have equal duratiOn.If you cannot tell thenl apart,they IIlust. be alike. IsOchrony would then be a perceptual phenonlenon.'. (Lehiste,1977:256) FurtherII10re,she added that:. “The. results showed that tO get significant agreeIIlent. among listeners that a given interval was``longest,''an increment was needed that ranged fron1 30 to lnore than. 100 ms. Differences smaller than 30 ms were never reliably identified.The decrement needed for significant. `shortest'judgments ranged also from 30 to 100 ms.". (Lehiste,1977:257) These statements IIlean that listeners heard the utterances as. more isochronous than they really wereo Also,they suggest that the threshold of human perception lies at about 100 111s and thus ISIs below 100 111s are not distinguishable。. 10.

(20) Although her findings were from the viewpoint of perception, they persuaded us to further investigate the isochronal tendency in production.. “The. Cutler(1980)indicated this point as fo1lows:. perceptual reality of isochrony naturally leads one. to suspect that there is indeed an underlying regular rhythn■ in production, and that it is this underlying. rhythIIl which the listener picks up in spite of the multiple. perturbatiOns. resulting. froEL. Segmental. variations which obscure it in the acoustic signal.". (Cutler,1980:183) TherefOre,the main purpose of my production experi]ment is to. shed light on the underlying regular rhythⅡ l in English speech. production and investigate to what. extent English speech is. lsochronous.. 1.4. Arguments in Favor of lsochrony AlthOugh a strict interpretation ofisochrony has been rejected. through numerOus production experilnents, Inany linguists still support the notion of isochrony in English. The isochrony debate is centered around defining the maximuln acceptable differences. between the durations Of feet which are regarded as being isochronal(Yamauchi,2000).. Based On Lehiste (1977), I propOSe that 100 ms is the perceptual threshOld between isochronal feet,and that differences under loO Ins can be ignored. If that is the case,then the result Of.

(21) 0'Connor (1965), for example, would be in favor of isochrony because the difference between the longest and the shortest. interval in his experilnent was 88 ms, which is below this perceptual threshold.. The number of intervening syllables is another factor lwhich needs to be taken intO account.. According to Halliday(1985), a. two syllable foot is about one fifth as 10ng as a one syllable foot and. the relative duration of a foot cOntaining one to four syllables is as f0110w:. The number Of syllables in the foot:. 1. The relative duratiOn of the foot:. 1.2. 1. 2. 3. 4. 1.4 1.6. (Halliday,1985:272) A tendency towards isochrony exists because syllables in polysyllabic feet are squeezed together in order to maintain equal spacing of stresses,which is called the“ compression effect." Yet it. turns out that feet are empirically longer when they contain more syllableso. We can thus treat these data as evidence for rejecting a. strict interpretation of isochrony in English. Cross‐ linguistic. research is helpful when evaluating the. validity of this argument. For example,in a cross¨ linguistic study. in which English (a stress‐ tiIIled language) and French (a syllable‐. timed language)were cOmpared, Grosjean & Deschamps. (1975)showed that the pause tiIIle ratio in each of the two languages is alIIlost identical, but this equal pause tilne is organized differently in the two languages:in English,many short. pauses tend to appear irregularly,whereas in French,pauses are 12.

(22) fewer but 10nger, and in definite positions.. This difference. between the two languages is reasonable froIIl a phonological point of view because English speakers tend to use pauses as parts of feet to regulate stress‐ tiIIled rhythm,but French speakers use pauses to. avoid disturbing syllable‐ tiIIle rhythm.. However, without more. co]mparative studies, it is difficult to decide whether or not this feature is characteristic of all stress‐ timed languages.. 13.

(23) Chapter 2 1sochronal Phenomena in English. 2.1。. Overview Technological prOgress in recent years has given scholars. many modern tools tO measure the intervals between successive stressed syllables.. As seen in the previous chapter, the results. often shOw considerable variation among the duration of feet, leading many linguists to reject the validity ofisochrOny in English. (Shen & Peterson, 1962; 0'Connor, 1965; Lea, 1975; Nakatani,. 0'Connor&Aston, 1981)。. Nevertheless, there remain several. reasons to suggest that it is unwise to completely reject the notion. of isochrony in English feet. IsOchrony in English is not only the. object of acoustic study, but has also been investigated from phonological, syntactic, and psychological points of view, and in fact, lnany studies in these fields have supported the notion of isochrony in English. The ailln of this chapter is tO provide a clear account of the. notion of isochrony by considering some isochronal phenomena at the phonological,syntactic,and psychological levels.1. 2.2.The Evidence fOr lsOchrOny in English lf English is a stress‐ tiIIled language in which stressed syllables are prOduced isOchrOnously, then the intervals between. feet shOuld be either cOmpressed or stretched in order for the stressed syllables t0 0ccur at regular intervals. 14. Therefore, the.

(24) question of English rhythm is that of stress placement.. English speaking peOple have a tendency to avoid adjacent stressed syllables and to place stresses at regular intervals.. This. manipulation of stress placement is regarded as a key factor which supports the notion of isochrony in English feet.. 2.2.1. The lsochrOnal Tendency at the Phonological Level From the phonological point of view,stress shift is cited as the prilnary indicator of isochronal feet.2. 1n Order for stresses to be. placed isochronously, one of two phenomena occurs.. Nearby. stresses lnove away froHl a surrounding stress if they are too close (“. stress clash"), while, On the contrary, they shift towards the. surrounding foot if the interval between them is too wide(“. stress. lapse").This stress pattern which results from stress shifts is. known as rhyth“ ゴθsι rθ ss(Ishibashi, 1995), and this supports the notion of isochrOny in English from the phonological point of view.. However, stress shift occurs only from a priIIlary stressed. syllable to a secondary stressed syllable.. Secondary stress. normally occurs in a long wOrd or phrase which has several syllables and can remove the stress clash between two successive. prilllary stresses(Kelly&Bock,1988). For example,Jap′. ″θsθ ″ θ′. causes a stress clash between the third syllable of Jap′ ′θsθ and the first syllable of′ θ′. Thus the stress shifts from the third syllable ofノ ♭′′′θsθ tO the first syllable,which was originally the secondary. stressed syllable.. 15.

(25) Although stress placeIIlent is flexible(not rigid)in English,. stress shift is dOminated by two rhythmic rules(Liberman&Prince,. 1977)which can be explained as f0110ws(Tanaka,2005:58):. The Stress Clash Rule:If the number of weak syllables between two stressed syllables is two or less, then stress shift can be observed due to stress clash.. The Stress Lapse Rule: If the number of consecutive weak syllables is lnore than three,then stress shift can be observed due to stress lapse。. As is discussed above,stress shift is the phenomenon which is phonologically observed between a priIIlary stressed syllable and a. secondary stressed syllable. Thus, the difference between a secondary stressed syllable and a weak syllable needs to be expressed differently.. HOwever,these two types of stresses are not. differentiated here because the purpose of this study is only to. show stress movement.. Moreover, as the fo1lowing examples. suggest, stress shift is usually produced by the movement of the prilnary stress in an utterance. In other words,a stress usually shifts froⅡ l a later syllable to an earlier syllable in the same word.. (1).Stress clash(士 irregular form) 士. Thirteen IIIlen. トレ. >. Thirteen IIlen. →. ト. 16. レ. ト.

(26) *Waterloo. Station. トレト. レ. 士. Mississippi ト. レ. レ. ト. Waterloo. >. >レ. →. →. トレ. トレトレトレ. →. Apalachicola Ri ver. レ. >>ト. > >ト. ttApalachicola River(Tanaka,2005:59). レレトレトレトレ →. (3)。. irregular form). ■Winnipesaukee River(Tanaka,2005:58). Winnipesaukee River. >卜. >ト. ト. Mississippi River. River. (2).Stress clash and Stress lapse(士. トレトトレ. Station. ト. レトレトレ. ト. レ. Stress lapse(・ irregular forIIl). Minneapolis River >ト. ト. レレ. >. レ. 'Minneapolis River(Tanaka,2005:59) ー→. >ト. トレ. >. ト. ト. Stress clash is Observed in(1)because the number of weak syllables betlween the stressed syllables is not lnore than two;hence stress shift occurs.. Stress clash in(2)is suppOsed to produce stress shift, but, this in turn causes stress lapse.. Therefore, stress shift is not. observed in(2),which suggests that the avoidance of stress lapse is. more Hnportant than stress clash(Tanaka,2005). In(3), since the original forllll does not break any rhythⅡ lic rules, stress shift. does nOt Occur. This is because if stress shift. occurs ln(3),then stress lapse would occur.. AlthOugh the rhythIIlic rules mentioned abOve are not always 17.

(27) applied in English speech, they are clailned to be evidence for isochrony in English.. 2。 2。. 2.The lsochronal Tendency at the Syntactical Level The isochronal tendency between feet can also be explained. from the syntactical point of view.. be considered in this study: 3y■■abノ θs,. The following three points will. ″θrご θrご θ4 1′ sθ rj」 iθ ″ θF rθ ごzfrご ′″ι. and θ力θゴθθ θF″ θrゴ s.. BOlinger(1965)argues that they. can all be accounted for simply by the speaker's desire to avoid stress clash,which results in feet which are lnore isochronal.. 2.2.2。. 1。. Word{Order. ln the following idiomatic phrases,the word order in(a)is more appropriate than that in(b). This is because the number of syllables within each foot is more regular in(a)than(b),which. suggests that wOrd order in English tends to be governed by English rhythm.. (a) cup and saucer. >. 卜. (b) saucer and cup. >ト. トレ. (a) bread and butter レ. ト. (b) butter and bread. >ト. トレ. (a) bed and breakfast > 〕. ト. トい. > >. レ. >. (b) breakfast and bed. レ. ト〕. 18. レ. 卜. ト〕.

(28) (a) tea and coffee. >. トレ. (b)coffee and tea. >ト. >. (a) part and parcel. >. ト. (b) parcel and part. >ト. トレ. (a) ladies and gentlemen トレ. >. (a)men and ト. レ. トレ. >ト. レ. (b)women. women. >ト. トレ. >>. トレ. ト〕. レ. ト. トレ. Dト. ト. レ. and IIlen >. > 〕. and tiIIle. レ〕 >. (b)arrOws and bow. arrows. トレ. (a) bags and baggage > 〕. >. レ. >ト. (b) money. (a)bow and. トロ. (b) gentlemen and ladies. (a)time and money. > >. ト. 卜. ￨>. (b) baggage and bags. >. レ. ト. レ. >. In addition to these idiomatic phrases, rhythIIl is also the cause of variations in wOrd order.. This rhythIIlic rule can explain. the reason why soIIle words like. “quite". or “enough" take an. irregular word order(Bohnger,1965).. One instance of this phenomenon is that when an adverb modifies the fol10wing adjective, the article should normally precede the adverb. Thus the word order in(b)below is considered 19.

(29) to be gramlnatically incorrect:. (e.g。. (a)a very pretty トトレ >ト. ・リト. ,very+pretty). 士(b)very a pretty girl トレレトレト. In the case ofthe l■ Onosyllabic adverb``quite,''however,it can. take both wOrd Orders between. the article and the adverb. (Kubozono&MizokOshi,2000):. (e.g。. ,quite+pretty). >>. ｇ. 卜>. ︲ｒ＞ｉ. (c)a quite pretty. (d)quite a pretty girl ト. レトレ. ト. This word Order can be explained by rhythⅡ lic rules which are used to IIlaintain isOchrony.. As is shown above,the word order in. (c)causes stress clash between“ quite"and“ pretty.'' Therefore(d) tends to be much IIlore conlIIlon than(c)because in(d),stress clash is avoided,which results a l■ ore regular rhythlnic pattern.. SiIIlilarly,KubozonO&MizokOshi(2000)pointed out that the word“ enough"also tends to be affected by rhythm. AlthOugh the synonym ``sufficiently" norIIlally takes the word order which is 20.

(30) shown in(a)be10w, the ``enough" + adjective order in(b)is not perⅡ litted. because that Order usually causes stress clash.. TherefOre, in Order to avoid stress clash and to produce a more regular rhythIIlic pattern,the positiOns of``enough''and“ good"are likely to be inverted as in(c).. (a)a sufficiently good reason. >トレトレ. >ト. レ. '(b)an enOugh good reason. >. トレ. >. トレ. (c)a good enough reason レ. >>> >ト. 2.2.2.2.InsertiOn of Redundant Syllables When wOrds are arranged based on graIIIInatical rules and the. resultant word order causes stress clash,redundant eleIIlents can. be inserted(KubozOno & MizokOshi, 2000). As is shown in(a) below, the causative verb“ make" does not take “to"in the active. voice.. word. However, in the case of the passive voice, the redundant “made". to" is inserted after “. regular rhythmic pattern; e.g。 than“ ■She was IIlade study.り. She , “. ,. (a)He made her study。レ. ト. ト. in order to produce a more. トト. 21. was made to study.'' rather.

(31) (b)She was made to study. ト. レ. ト. レ. >ト. ナ(c)She was made study. ト. >. レ. トレ. The same explanatiOn can be applied to the causative verb “let.". In order to avOid stress clash and to produce a better. rhythIIlic pattern, the expression is usually replaced by the synonymic phrase“ be a1lowed tO"(Kubozono&Mizokoshi,2000). For example: (a)He let her dance. レト. レ. >. 十(b)She was let dance. レ. レ. >. レ. (c)She was a1lowed tO dance.. >. 卜. Silnilarly,. > >卜. >. although both expressiOns in the. following. examples are grammatically correct,(a)is preferred to(b)be10w in. order to produce a mOre isochronous English rhythm (Bolinger, 1965:151):. (a)without a dOubt レ>. トト. (b)without doubt レト 22. レ.

(32) (a)outside of these レ>. 2。. (b)outside these. トト. レト. >. 2.2.3.Word ChOice Word choice is alsO a phenoIIllenon which shows evidence for. isochrony in English.. For example,adjectives with the prefix a―. are usually liIIlited only to the predicative use and not used attributively (Kubozono &5 Mizokoshi, 2000)。. Accordingly, the. fO110wing(b)examples are regarded as wrong usage from the gralnllatical point of vievバ. 士(b)It was an alive bird.. (a)The bird was alive. レ. >. ト. ト>. トト. (a)The brOthers look alike. レ. >. ト. レ. トレ>. >. ■(b)The brOthers have alike looks.. トト. レ. ト. レ. >. トレ. ト. In order to convey the IIleaning of the sentences above with attributive adjectives, these adjectives need to be replaced with different Ones:. (C)It was a living animal。ト. ト. レ. >>ト. レト. (C)The brOthers have silnilar looks. 卜. > >. ト. レ >卜. 23. >.

(33) These syntactic phenomena can be explained from the rhythmic point of viewo MOst Of the adjectives with the prefix′ 一. are disyllabic wOrds and the stress of these words tends to be. placed On the second syllable (B01inger, 1965; Kubozono & Mizokoshi, 2000).. TherefOre, stress clash between the adjective. and the fo110wing nOun is very likely.. A similar syntactic tendency can be observed in the case of past participle adjectives.. past participle forms,. For example,the verb“. “drunk". and. “drunken,". drink"has two. and they have. specific uses:“ drunk"fOr predicative adjectives and“ drunken"for. attributive adjective(Cutler,1980):. drunk:. レ. Ｓレ. (a)He. drunk。. 士(b)He is drunken.. >. トレト. ト. drunken.. (b)Look. the drunk IIlan. トレ. ト. ト. ｔトａ. >. ｔ. (a)Look. ａト. 士. the drunken IIlan. レト. レト. The use of two different past participle adjectives is logical. from the rhythⅡ lic point of viewo. lf “drunk" is used as an. attributive adjective, there wOuld be a stress clash between the. adjective and the fol10wing nOun. In the case of. “drunken,". however, the risk of causing stress clash is elilninated because of the weak syllable“ 一en''lying between the two stressed syllables.. Bolinger(1965:146)cited these examples of Other past participle adjectives:. 24.

(34) The case is prOved;a proven case. They had hid(den)the treasures;hidden treasures He had brOke(n)the stick;a brOken stick. His skin had shrunk;shrunken skin The head was】 ■lsshapedi a lnlsshapen head. The garden was sunk ten feet below the surrounding area,a sunken garden. (Bolinger,1965:146). The. 一θ″. suffix exhibits redundant forms.. However, it. ilnpedes the stress clashes, yielding a more rhythlnic pattern between feet。. Moreover, adjectives of the comparative degree and the superlative degree are also affected by English rhythm.3 There. are two types of comparative and superlative adjectives: the inflectional comparison with the inflectional suffix. ―θr and 一θsち. and the periphrastic cOmparison with the adverbs″. θrθ. and″ θsι. .. Although there are somte exceptions,4 the Choice of an adjective's. form is usually determined by the number of syllables in the atteCtiVe. Adjectives with three or more syllables take the periphrastic comparative forⅡ l and one‐ syllable adjectives take the. inflectiOnal comparative form.. However, there is no readily. applicable rule fOr twO‐ syllable adjectives(Kubozono&]Ⅵ izokoshi,. 2000).. The choice of the twO different types above can also be. explained by rhythⅡ lic analysis(Nakajima,2005).. As is shown in the fo1lowing examples, the inflectional suffixes 一θF. and ―θsr. in One‐ syllable adjectives typically avoid. stress clash between stressed syllables:. 25.

(35) For example,the. one‐ syllable. ナ(b)a. (a)a bigger shoe 卜 D>ト. mOre big shoe ト. ト. >. レ. レ. > >. 士(b)the mOst big shoes. (a)the biggest shoes トト. adjective biJ. ト. レ. >. >. On the other hand,the chance of causing stress clash between two stressed syllables is very small in the case of adjectives with three or more syllables. Thus it is not necessary for the adjectives. to add the weak syllable 一θr Or― θsι between stressed syllables in order to avoid stress clash.. This is the reason why they take the. periphrastic comparison with the adverbs“ more"and“ most.". Here ls an 士. (a)a. example with the. three‐. beautifuler girl トレレ. (b)a lnOre beautiful girl. > >. トレ. 士. (a)the beautifulest girl ト. ト. レト. レ. しr syllable adjectiveわ θ ′υ″ゴ. >ト. レ. >. (b)the II10st beautiful girl. レ. ト. > >レ. トレ. Therefore, in the case of two‐ syllable adjectives, it can be assumed that the choice of adjective forIIIs is not invariable,but is. likely to be influenced by the surrounding foot structure. This point will be investigated further via a questionnaire survey in Chapter 7.. 26.

(36) 2.2.3.The lsOchronal Tendency at the Psychological Level Speech errOrs also prOvide psychological evidence that there is a natural tendency for speakers to aim for isochrony between feet。. An error in speech performance in which one or IIlore syllables are. added Or deleted can change the rhythmic pattern of an utterance (Cutler, 1980). AlthOugh speech errors frequently produce wrong sentences,these errors often result in sentences more rhythIIlical than the strictly gran■ matically correct sentences.. The sentence in(b)be10w shows an example of an insertion of an extra syllable(BOlinger, 1965: 153).. (b)is regarded as a redundant elelnent.. The weak syllable“ a"in. However, it plays an. ilnportant role in avoiding stress clash between two stressed syllables.. (a)It's as ttDod water as you'll find anywhere.. >. トレ. (b)士 It's as good a water as you'1l find anywhere.. >. トトレ. In addition, Cutler (1980)investigated syllable oⅡ lission errors,and proved that one or two weak syllables tend to be deleted. when there are many weak syllables between stressed syllables. The resultant sentence,although granlIIlatically wrong,has a more rhythⅡlic foot structure than the intended one.. The pairs be10w cited from Cutler(1980:185)are examples of syllable olnission errors.. Evidently,one weak syllable was deleted. 27.

(37) from(a),which prOduced the mOre rhythmic pattern in(b).. (a).…. can nOt be apprOpriatelv interpreted ト. (b).¨. ト. レ. ト. >ト. レ. レ. ト. can nOt be approprallv interpreted >>レ. ト. レ. ト. >レ. (a)...Next we have this bicentennial rug. >. (b)。. ト. レト. ト. レ. ト. ¨Next we have this bicential rug。. >. トレ>>レ. According to Cutler(1980),syllable omission errors are more frequently produced than syllable addition errors.. She pointed. out that:. “There. are few cOnstraints on how far a syllable can be. stretched to lengthen a f00t,but there are limits to the degree to which a syllable can be contracted to shorten a. foot _ in the extreme case, it is contracted out of existence and becomes a syllable olnission error.". (Cutler,1980:189) Although the frequency of every speech error is not identical, it is obvious that both kinds Of speech errors are inttuenced by the. speaker's intention to produce an isochronous rhythm in English。. 28.

(38) 2。. 3.Chapter Summary ln this chapter,several phenOmena were cited which support. the existence of isochrony in English at the phonological, syntactical, and psychological levels. The devices which were considered here are used by English speakers to adjust the rhythm of utterances.. AlthOugh the validity of isochrony in English has been criticized by many linguists based on experiIIlental evidence, the. evidence presented in this study strongly supports the contention that a strong tendency for isochrony exists in English.. Notes l This study is principally based On]Kubozono(L Mizokoshi(2000),Bolinger (1965),and Cutler(1980).. 2 Kelly&BOck(1988;389)pointed Out that“ Stress shift has been argued to occur in words such as口 ″力″θNn and`カゴrι θθ″ (as wen asJら rι θθ″,■ ■ θ″ ,θ. “ example,the. slxι θθ″,etc.)as. ,. a function Of the rhythnlic context.For word 12■ ″θ″″ usually has a stress on the second syllable in a phrase such as “ 口″■″θⅣn assaJゴ ′″ι ,but it sounds strange to stress the second syllable of υ」こ 2knθ ″″ in the phrase r♭ 」 θ∫′ ヵθ Un■″θ コ Sθ ■ diθ r.This is because in this phrase, stressing the "わ first syllable of"ア "″ knο ″″ yields a better. rhythlnic pattern.". 3B。 linger(1965;154)stated that“ if the adjective is placed after the noun, ′ the fornl with」 rθ is preferred:J′ 7θ ″θyθ r i″ θ″ ″ a gir■ ″θrθ ノ οyθ ヶ ,J'7θ "θ. 燿θyθ r士 ″θ″コ ′ ノο7θ f」 iθ r gir■_The. definite article with the superlative is probably selected partly on the basis Of accent:〃 ЪsaliFθ ご脅力″ んirttθ s′ vs. He sa」 iFθ ピ ι力θ Far′ 力θsι .The decision whether tO accent力 θ or s′ ノノθご of. course depends on information values in the sentence." Bolinger also investigated the preference of comparative forms. Five listeners were tested with the following sentences:. 29.

(39) (1)I've never known a more gay man. (2)I've never known a man more gay. (3)I've never known a IIlan gayer. (4)I've never known a gayer lnan. The result of Bolinger's study was that most subjects preferred the forms with separated stresses.. 4 Adjectives which have Germanic roots tend to take the inflectional. comparative form, while adjectives which originate from Romance languages tend to take the periphrastic comparative forIIl(Ishibashi, 1995).. 30.

(40) Chapter 3 The RelatiOnship between the Nucleus and Rhythm in English. 3.1.Overview ln English,the pattern of intonation in a sentence or phrase. can be deterlnined by the pitch pattern of the nucleus.l. For. example,0'ConnOr&Arnold(1973)argue that if a speaker uses an intonation pattern for the nucleus, other eleIIlents in intonation,. such as pre‐ head, head, and tail can often be automatically. determined.. For example,when a native speaker of English uses. an intonation with a fall‐ rise nucleus(:互 ),the head which precedes. the nucleus must be a falling head I:III, and the intonation pattern of this whole word group is I王. 正・三・三二互。 Similarly,English. rhythln can also be influenced by the intonation pattern of the nucleus because English rhythIIl is related to the strength and length Of syllables,and the strength of syllables is correlated with. pitch(Tanaka,2005). The ai]■ of this chapter is to study the relationship between. nucleus and English rhythm. TO date, many studies concerning English rhythm have fOcused only on the length of the utterances, while the nucleus has been treated as ifit was irrelevant to English. rhythm. In this chapter,we will conduct two experilnents to consider the relationship.. The first experiIIlent is to investigate the. relationship between nuclear placement and English feet. The relatiOnship between the foot and the duration of an utterance was analyzed by using the sentence“ JOyce bought a new Mexican glass 31.

(41) yesterday。 " uttered several tilnes, each tilne with a focus on a different foot.. In the second experiIIlent, we will examine the relationship. between nuclear types and English rhythm.. In this experilnent,. the elongation of a foOt will be analyzed when different types of nuclei are placed on the f00t. The relationship between the types Of nuclei and the e10ngatiOn of feet will be IIllade clear.. In English,each foOt cOnsists of a stressed syllable,fo1lowed optionally by one Or more weak syllables,but not including the next stressed syllable.. There are two types of feet:a monosyllabic foot. is composed of one stressed syllable, and a polysyllabic foot is composed of a stressed syllable and one or more weak syllables. Phonologists whO are in favor Of stress‐ tiIIled rhythHl of English. argue that feet are likely to occur at regular intervals.. This. isochrony,however,has not yet been proven acoustically.. ３ . 2.Experiment 3.1. ３. 2.1.Subjects Six native English speakers who were English teachers at. universities in Japan participated in this experiIIllent.2. A1l of. thelln were free of any speech or hearing problem,and they were all. monolingual speakers Of English who were raised in a variety of English speaking countries(See Note 2 at the end ofthis chapter).. 3。. 2.2.Experimental Method ln this experiment, the sentence,. Mexican glass yesterday.'' was used. 32. “Joyce. bought a new. Each subject was asked to.

(42) orally produce the sentence,changing the position of the nucleus in. each utterance.. For this purpose,. Ⅳh‐. interrogative sentences. were given to the subjects sO that they could respond to the questiOns by the sentence. Joyce “. bought a new Mexican glass. yesterday." with the nucleus placed on different words in each sentence.3. For example,the question``Who bought a new Mexican. glass yesterday?" was used to elicit the reply in which the word ノb/θ θ was given a sentential stress.. The six questions and the predicted reply to each question are. shown below. The utterances were recorded directly on a personal co】. mputer by using a IIlicrophOne(Sony F… V320)in a sound‐ proof. room, and subsequently were analyzed by using Sugi Speech Analyzer software(made by Animo Limited Corporation).Foot boundaries were deterIIlined based on the sound waves,broadband. spectrograms,and narrow band spectrograms.. Syllable duration,. defined here as the interval between the beginning of the initial consonant closure and the end Of the final consonant closure,was also ineasured.. QueStiOns l‐ 6. 1.Who bought a new Mexican glass yesterday? 2.What did JOyce do yesterday? 3.What kind of Mexican glass did」 oyce buy yesterday? 4.What kind of new glass did JOyce buy yesterday? 5。. What IⅦ exican thing did Joyce buy yesterday?. 6.When did JOyce buy a new Mexican glass?. 33.

(43) Replies ① ‐ ⑥ ① Jovce bOught a new Mexlcan. glass yesterday.. ② Joyce bOught a new Mexlcan. glass yesterday.. ③ Joyce bOught a new Mexlcan. glass yesterday.. ④ Joyce bOught a new. Mexlcan. glass yesterday.. ⑤ Joyce bOught a new. Mexlcan. glass yesterday.. ⑥ Joyce bOught a new. Mexlcan. glass vesterdav.. For example, the sound waves, broadband spectrogram, and narrow band spectrograln are shown below for two utterances of ``Joyce bought a new Mexican glass yesterday。 '':one utterance for the response to“ Who bought a new Mexican glass yesterday?"and one utterance for``What did JOyce do yesterday?". １. i500. 1650. 1800. :950. 2100. 2250. 2400. 2550 (● sec). ０２０４２. ■ 誕→ ■ ■ 贋一，，. ８. ﹂亀藝﹁一中﹁一ヽ・. ８２Ｈ. 鶴. ０. ぶ. 」oyce. ―. 聾. 詢. 芦. J轟. ,.. 詭時議群. _. ,1」. ■. ︰榊鰍︱. ４. Щ ‖ 1肥 I.‖. l. ︱り出︱ー︲︱︱トー. ６. ■. ■＝♂岬山ｉｆム／ヽ静. ８版. ＝Ｈ叫岬．冊﹁一鳳﹄. １・ I:￨:￨￨・. 砕. lbought al new l Mexican l glass i yesterday l. Figure 3.1:The spectrograIIls of a subject uttering Reply. 34. ①.

(44) １. 150. 100. 150. o00. 150. 100. 1050 1200 1350 i500 1650 '000 1950 2100 2250 2400 2550(osec). ０１ ¨ ３２Ｈ６４２０ｉ︺. ８版６. 〕４. 1. 説. “・. 1尋. =載尋. ２. ‐ ″毎サ. ￨. ０. …. ￨」 oyce l. bought a lnewl Mexican l glass l yesterday l. Figure 3.2:The spectrograms of a subject uttering Reply ②. Sound waves, broadband spectrograms, and narrow band spectrograms boundaries.. were. made. in. order. to. locate. segmentation. In Figure 3.l and Figure 3.2 above,foot boundaries. are indicated by the symbOl``￨"below the spectrograms.. In Figure. 3.1,the nucleus was placed On the word“ Joyce,"while in Figure 3.2,. it was On the phrase. bought “. a." The. ШLeaSurenlent of duration. was IIlade between the beginning of the initial consonant closure and the end of the final consonant closure.. However,fOr the first. foot,it was difficult to IIleasure the closure duration,and thus the. measuremLent Of duration of the first foot was lnade starting with the release Ofthe word``Joyce.''. 35.

(45) 3。. 2.3.Results The results Of this experiIIlent are tabulated below.. The. duration of each foot and the duration of the whole sentence were measured in lnilliseconds.. In the table below,the foot is shown in. shaded italics when the nucleus of the sentence is placed on this. foot.The numbers. ①. to. ⑥ in the left column show the expected. replies when the nucleus of the sentence changed from“ Joyce"to. yesterday.'' “. The numbers in the far right column indicate the. length Of whOle sentence.. For example,the duration of the word. 」oyce"in Table 3.l was 420 Hls in Reply ① ,but it was 273 111s in “. Reply(Э .In addition,the duration of the whole sentence was. 2444 msin Reply ① and 2494 msin Reply ②. .. Table 3.1(Subject l) 」oyce. ms. bought a. new. 389 ms. 207 ms. glass. yesterday. 554 ms. 332 ms. 542 ms. 2444 ms. Mexican. ①. イ′θ. ②. 273 ms. θθJ. ms. 156 ms. 554 ms. 318 ms. 528 ms. 2494 ms. ③. 289 ms. 405 ms. イ′′ ms. 586 ms. 346 ms. 483 ms. 2602 ms. ④. 293 ms. 341 ms. δθ′ ms. 320 ms. 515 ms. 2379 ms. ⑤. 277 ms. 334 ms. 540 ms. Jイイ. ms. 510 ms. 2382 ms. ⑥. 285 ms. 303 ms. 533 ms. 328 ms. Jθ J. 2176 ms. ms. 177 ms ms. ms. Table 3。 2(Subject 2) Joyce. bought a. new. Mexican. glass. yesterday. ①. J′. ams. 596ms. 261 ms. 530ms. 357ms. 465ms. 2739ms. ②. 378ms. ア2為 s. 187ms. 509ms. 363ms. 528ms. 2687ms. ③. 330ms. 644ms. θθ′ms. 569ms. 352ms. 494ms. 2752ms. 36.