0 6 1 1.1 9 1.2 10 2 1 2.1 2.1.1 14 2.1.2 15 2.1.3 16 2.1.4 21 2.1.5 24 2.1.6 25 2.1.7 27 2.1.8 31
2.2.1 32 2.2.2 32 2.2.3 34 2.3 2.3.1 39 2.3.2 39 2.4 2.4.1 41 2.4.2 45 3 3.1 3.1.1 47 3.1.2 50 3.1.3 52
3.1.6 salivary oxytocin; sOT 57 3.1.7 58 3.2 3.2.1 60 3.2.2 60 3.2.3 sOT 62 3.3 3.3.1 64 3.3.2 sOT 67 3.3.3 sOT 69 3.3.4 sOT 72 3.4 3.4.1 sOT 75 3.4.2 sOT 76 3.4.3 77
3.4.5 79
4 81
83 84
5
5
sOT sOT sOT
1.1 β 1 1 1 1 altruistic behavior Hamilton, 1963; Trivers, 1971; Nowak, & Sigmund, 1998
1.2 cost benefit β Trivers, 1971 Eisenberg Mussen 1989/ 1991 Batson 2010/ 2012 β Ridley Dawkins 1981 β
Fehr, & Zehnder, 2009
Sober Wilson 1998
1 β
Sober, & Wilson, 1998
2.1 2.1.1
β
Alexander, 1987; Nowak, & Sigmund, 1998
Kurzban, & Leary, 2001 1
Kato-Shimizu, Onishi, Kanazawa, & Hinobayashi, 2013
1
Rege, & Telle, 2004
Izuma, Saito, & Sadato, 2010
2.1.2
Izuma et al., 2010 × β 2.1.3 Dictator Game 2
Burnham 2003
2 ×
Burnham, 2003 Haley Fessler 2005
1-A
0
1 ×
Haley, & Fessler, 2005 3 1-B
Oda 2011 Haley Fessler 2005
Haley Fessler 2005
Oda, Niwa, Honma, & Hiraishi, 2011
1-C
Mifune, Hashimoto, & Yamagishi,
2010 β
1 ×
Nettle, Harper, Kidson, Stone, Penton-Voak, & Bateson, 2013
1-E
Bateson, Nettle, & Roberts, 2006 1-F
Ernest-Jones, Nettle, & Bateson, 2011
A Haley and Fessler 2005 B Rigdon et al. 2009 C Mifune et al. 2010 D Nettle et al. 2013 E Bateson et al. 2006 F Ernest-Jones et al. 2011 G Powell
D
E F
Eye (left) and control (right) images
G
Watching-eyes Configuration (left); Neutral Configuration (right)
B
C A
Oda 2011 β Mifiune 2010 β 2.1.4 Engelmann 2012 5 helping stealing
1
stealing helping
Engelmann, Herrmann, & Tomasello, 2012 Engelmann 2013 5
5
Engelmann, Over, Herrmann, &
Tomasello, 2013 5 β
Leimgruber, Shaw, Santos, & Olson, 2012
β Houser 2012 6-11 i.e., i.e., private public 9
1
9 higher-order
Theory of Mind 1
× Amodio & Frith, 2006; Frith &
Frith, 2008
2.1.5
Premack Woodruff 1978 1
Premack, & Woodruff, 1978
1
1 Wimmer Perner 1983
1
× 1
Perner, & Wimmer, 1985 A X Y 1
B
A B
Autistic Spectrum Disorder; ASD
ASD 1
Wellman 2001
× Wellman, Cross, & Watson, 2001
6−9
Perner & Wimmer, 1985; , 2002
1 1 Sullivan, Zaitchik,
& Tager-Flusberg, 1994 4 5 Coull, & Leekam, 2006
1 2002
6
,
2.1.7
Banerjee, 2002
1
1 2 2 A A A 1 0次 一次的表象 二次的表象 A A A A
5 Engelmann 2012; 2013 5
5
Ultimatum Game Güth, Schmittberger, & Schwarze, 1982 5
Takagishi, Kameshima, Schug, Koizumi, & Yamagishi, 2010; Takagishi, Koizumi, Fujii, Schug, Kameshima, & Yamagishi, 2014
2
β × β 1 5 5 Izuma 2011 ASD ASD
β Izuma, Matsumoto, Camerer, & Adolphs, 2011 ASD 1 ASD β 2.1.8 × 5 β 5 5 5
2.2 2.2.1 42 17 , 25 , 70.4 , = 3.7 2.2.2 10 3 23 1
Mifune et al., 2010
2.2.3 DIK Wimmer Perner 1983 Perner Wimmer 1985 4-1 4-2, 3 4-4, 5, 6 4-7 3 1 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
5-1 5-2 5-3 5-4 5-5 5-6
4-7, 8
5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
2.3 2.3.1 6 7 F(2, 82) = 10.15, p < .001, ηp2 = .198 Bonferroni t(41) = 3.01, p = .013, d = 0.59 t(41) = 1.59, p = .356, d = 0.17 2.3.2 76 32 / 42 12% 5 / 41 1 1 41
6 * p < .05 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 F re qu en cy of S am pl e Direct Monitoring Indirect Monitoring Non-Monitoring 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Direct
Monitoring MonitoringIndirect Non-Monitoring
T h e A m o u n t o f A llo ca tio n Condition
*
*
2.4 2.4.1 5 1 5 5 12 5 / 41 1 1 5 β 5 Takagishi et al., 2010; Takagishi et al., 2014 1
1 × 5
1
1
Bateson et al., 2006; Haley, & Fessler, 2005; Mifune et al., 2010; Nettle et al., 2013 Oda et al., 2011
β
4-5 1 1 8-9 1 8 1 1 1
8 5 β 8 β Age 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 Altruism Concern for one‘s own Reputation
Monitoring Condition
Concern for Direct Response
2.4.2
Tane, & Takezawa, 2011
β
Sparks, & Barclay, 2013
Matsugasaki, Tsukamoto, & Ohtsubo, 2015 1
1
3.1 3.1.1
×
1 9
1 Takahashi,
Diamond, Bieniarz, Yen, & Burd, 1980; Grewen, Davenport, & Light, 2010; Galbally, Lewis, IJzendoorn, & Permezel, 2011
Neumann & Slattery, 2015
Feldman, 2015 Insel, 2010; Feldman, 2012 Kosfeld, Heinrichs, Zak, Fischbacher, & Fehr, 2005; Baumgartner, Heinrichs, Vonlanthen, Fischbacher, & Fehr, 2008
Zak, Stanton, & Ahmadi, 2007
Domes, Heinrichs, Gläscher, Büchel, Braus, & Herpertz, 2007
Kirsch, Esslinger, Chen, Mier, Lis, Siddhanti, Gruppe, Mattay, Gallhofer, & Meyer-Lindenberg, 2005; Baumgartner et al., 2008
Adolphs, Tranel, Damasio, & Damasio, 1995; Rauch, Shin, & Wright, 2003; Killgore, & Yurgelun-Todd, 2005
Kirsch et al., 2005
9
3.1.2
1
De Dreu & Kret, 2015 De Dreu 2010
2
ingroup love
outgroup hate 1 egoist
ingroup love outgroup hate
Social value orientation SVO SVO
ingroup love De
Ma 2014 Chinese Taiwan, S Korea, and Japan
Ma, Luo, Geng, Zhao, Zhang, & Kendrick, 2014
fMRI
OXTR rs53576 GG
Caucasian Asian
ACC
Luo, Li, Ma, Zhang, Rao, & Han, 2015
3.1.3
Bales, 2014; Dumais, & Veenema, 2015
Champagne, Diorio, Sharma, & Meaney, 2001; Pedersen, Caldwell, Walker, Ayers, & Mason, 1994
Neumann & Slattery, 2015
Nagasawa, Mitsui, En, Ohtani, Ohta, Sakuma, Onaka, Mogi, & Kikusui, 2015
3.1.4
Rilling 2012; 2014
Rilling, DeMarco, Hackett, Thompson, Ditzen, Patel, & Pagnoni, 2012; Rilling, DeMarco, Hackett, Chen, Gautam, Stair, Haroon, Thompson, Ditzen, Patel, & Pagnoni, 2014
2
a b
c
1
1 Rilling et al.,
2014
Rilling et al., 2012
Scheele, Striepens, Kendrick, Schwering, Noelle, Wille, Schläpfer, Maier, & Hurlemann, 2014
3.1.5
6
2009 Buttelmann Böhm 2014 6 8 β i.e., β 6 8 6 8 6 8 8 6 Buttelmann, & Böhm, 2014 6 8 β 5-6
Schug et al., 2013 5-6 4-6 Friend 1 Non-friend 1 Stranger Friend 1 Non-friend 1 Moore, 2009 × β
1
3.1.6 salivary oxytocin; sOT
Szeto, McCabe, Nation, Tabak, Rossetti, McCullough, Schneiderman, & Mendez, 2011 Seltzer, Ziegler, & Pollak, 2010
Weisman, Delaherche, Rondeau, Chetouani, Cohen, & Feldman, 2013; Feldman, Gordon, Influs, Gutbir, & Ebstein, 2013; Feldman, Golan, Hirschler-Guttenberg, Ostfeld-Etzion, & Zagoory-Sharon, 2014; Fujisawa, Tanaka, Saito, Kosaka, & Tomoda, 2014 Feldman
2011 4-6
Fujisawa 2014 sOT
sOT Fujisawa et al., 2014
sOT
sOT Wesiman,
Zagoory-Sharon, & Feldman, 2012
× sOT
sOT
3.1.7
sOT
1
3.2 3.2.1 50 24 , 26 , 56.9 , = 11.6 3.2.2 10
10
2
3.2.3 sOT
sOT Saliva Collection Aid Salimetrics, Inc., State College,
PA 11
cryogenic vial 2ml 1ml × 6 1ml
× 44
9 11
-80
MACROPHI Inc., Japan, http://www.macrophi.co.jp/english/index.htm
column-based
purification 80
Assay Buffer 4
concentration ratio 5
800 g × supernatant ELISA assay
ELISA kit Enzo Life Sciences, Inc., Farmingdale, NY
SpectraMax ® Molecular Device, Sunnyvale, LLC, Sunnyvale, CA
3.3 3.3.1 12 13 3.24 SD = 2.48 3.68 SD = 2.49 1 1 t t (49) = 1.21, p = .234, d = 0.18 × r = .407, p = .003; r = 386, p = .006 14
12 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 classmate stranger M ea n di ct at or 's of fe r 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 D ist rib ut io n classmate stranger
14 ×
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
30
40
50
60
70
80
Di
ct
at
or
's
o
ffe
r
(I
ng
ro
up
)
Age (months)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
30
40
50
60
70
80
Di
ct
at
or
's
o
ffe
r
(O
ut
gr
ou
p)
Age (months)
3.3.2 sOT sOT sOT M = 3.24 pg/ml, SD = 1.52, range = 0.94–6.31, n = 21 M = 3.20 pg/ml, SD = 1.65, range = 0.80–6.09, n = 23 t(42) = 0.08, p = .934, d = .03 15 sOT : r = .048, p = .838; : r = .075, p = .734 16 15 sOT sOT 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 boys girls S al iva ry oxyt oci n le ve l
16 sOT ×
0
2
4
6
8
10
30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Sa
liv
a
ry
o
xy
to
ci
n
le
ve
l
Age (months)
0
2
4
6
8
10
30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Sa
liv
a
ry
o
xy
to
ci
n
le
ve
l
Age (months)
3.3.3 sOT
sOT
1
sOT sOT sOT
sOT Model 5 sOT sOT Model 4 = .866, p < .01 = 1.730, p < .05 sOT = -1.284, p < .0001 sOT × sOT sOT r = 0.44, p = .039 r = -0.57, p = .009 17
Classmate
Model1 Model2 Model3 Model4 Model5
Age months 0.348 * 0.378 ** 0.494 ** 0.866 ** 1.023 **
Gender female = 0, male = 1 0.075 1.088 ** 1.795 * 1.739 * 3.399
sOT -0.070 0.35 * 0.358 * 1.265 1.649 *
Gender × sOT -1.194 ** -1.196 ** -1.284 *** -3.052
Age months × Gender
-0.697 -0.552 -2.261
Age months × sOT
-0.969 -1.379
Age months × Gender × sOT 1.830
R .119 .348 .366 .399 .416
adjusted R2 .053 .281 .283 .301 .302
R2
F 1.798 5.203 ** 4.388 ** 4.087 ** 3.662 **
df 3, 40 4, 39 5, 38 6, 37 7, 36
17 sOT -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 R esi du al d ict at or 's off er (C la ssm at e)
Residual salivary oxytocin level
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 R esi du al d ict at or 's off er (C la ssm at e)
3.3.4 sOT
sOT
2 sOT
sOT sOT sOT
Model 5 sOT sOT Model 4 sOT β = -0.718, p < .05 sOT sOT sOT r = -0.02, p = .942 r = -0.70, p = .001 18
Stranger
Model1 Model2 Model3 Model4 Model5
Age months 0.280 0.298 * 0.253 0.249 0.209
Gender female = 0, male = 1 -0.282 0.328 0.052 0.053 -0.362
sOT -0.265 -0.012 -0.015 -0.026 -0.122
Gender × sOT -0.720 * -0.719 * -0.718 * -0.275
Age months × Gender 0.272 0.270 0.698
Age months × sOT
0.011 0.114
Age months × Gender × sOT -0.458
R .276 .359 .362 .362 .363
adjusted R2 .222 .293 .278 .259 .239
R2
18 sOT -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 R esi du al d ict at or 's off er (S tra ng er)
Residual salivary oxytocin level
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 R esi du al d ict at or 's off er (S tra ng er)
3.4 3.4.1 sOT sOT sOT sOT sOT sOT
De Dreu, 2012; De Dreu et al., 2010; De Dreu, Greer, VanKleef, & Handgraaf, 2011; De Dreu, Shalvi, Greer, Van Kleef, & Handgraaf, 2012; Van IJzendoorn & Bakermans-Kranenburg, 2012
Rilling et al., 2012; Rilling et al., 2014; Scheele et al., 2014
3.4.2 sOT
sOT
1 sOT i.e.,
Greig, Herrmann, & Zeckhauser, 2008; Bohnet, Herrmann, & Zeckhauser, 2009; Molm, Takahashi, & Peterson, 2000
Patel, Grillon, Pacletic, Rosen, Pine, & Emst, 2015 2
Fischer-Shofty,
LevKovitz, & Shamay-Tsoory, 2012
1
Moore 2009
Moore 2009
2
Buttelmann & Böhm, 2014; Schug et al.,
2013
sharing game Fehr 2008
Fehr, Bernhard, & Rockenbach, 2008
DLPFC
3.4.4 sOT Bales, 2014
Kramer, Ziegler, White-Traut, Bello, & Schwertz, 2007
Nagasawa et al., 2015; Seltzer et al., 2010
4
2
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