The recent revival of interest in language policyresearch has been fileled, in
part, through researchers interest in the multilingual language policy of South
Africa.ln addition, language−policy research within a cr治cα/夕α詞64ノo 績has
accumulated a growing body of research that includes both theoretical and case
studies in a wide range of settings. Particularly important within critical language−
policy research has been a focus onhistorical and structural factors afTecting
language p011cy. This research includes several cIosely related approaches: the
historical−structural approach (Tonefson,1991),the ide010gical model (Street.
1993),Leibowitz s analysis of language as a means of social contro1 (1984),and
Phillipson s analysis of linguistic imperialism (1992).Critical approaches have
appeared in a wide range of work by scholars examining language p011cy in
Australia(May,2001,2004; Moore, 2002);Hong Kong (Pennycook,2002);Sub−
Saharan Africa (Alidou,2004; Mazrui, 2002);the UK (Jones&Martin−Jones,
2004; Martin−Jones, 1995);the US (McCarty,2004);the Pacific (Watson−Gegeo&
Gege0,1995),and Sri Lanka(Canagar4jah,1999).
Tania Hossain TheoreticaI Framework in Language and
Education Policy in Bangladesh
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一 一 一 一 一
This essay combines a theory with a discussion of carelilUy selected case studies,summarize the main pnnciples of the histonca1−structural approach. And
then it discusses how the approach may be usenll in the Bangladeshi conteχt.
The term historical−stnlctural 叩proach is nrst mentioned by T011efson (1991)
and Street(1993)in Critieal Language policy research. The approach focuses on
the innuence of the social and historical factors on language policy and language
use(ToIlefson,2005).ln this approach, it is presumed that the initial goaI of
research is to analyze and discover the historical and structural pressure that leads
to particular plans and p011cies. Structural factors have an efkctonpla皿ingbodies,
the composition of pla皿ing bodies and also the economic interest ofthe planners.
ln this approach, historical processes are inseparable from structural factors. lnthe
historical−structural approach, thecountry s r01e in the intemational division of
labor,the socioeconomic deveIopment of the country, the decision making of the
politicaI organization and other factors afTect a wide range of language planning
and p011cy (T011efson,1991).ln this approach, it seems that the interest of the
dominant sociopolitical groups are maintained in the language p011cy. So one aim
ofthis p011cyreseafch is to find out the historical basis ofthe policy and to eχplicate
clearly how this policy supports political andecononlic interests. The primary
insights of this process are derived fiom critical theory. This paper examines the
historica1°strlIctural approach, and then uses its main tenets to analyze language
p011cy in Bangladesh.
Critieal Theory
Critical theory includes works by thinkers such as Bourdieu (1991),
Foucault(1972,1979),Gramsci(1988),Habermas(1979,1985,1987,1988)・
Although there are disagreements between the various critical thinkers and
their works aIso vary in dif秘rent aspects, normally critical theory investigates
the process through which inequality is creatcd and sustained. lt also trics to
reduce the social inequality and tries to bring social justice (ToIlefson,2005)・
Critical theory includes a broad range of work eχamining the processes by
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Theoretical Framework in Language and Education Policy in Ban9ladesh
which systems of social inequality are created and sustained. 0f particular
interest is inequality that is largely invisible, due to ide010gical processes that
make inequality seem to be the natufal condition of human social systems.
Criticat theory highlights the concepl of power, particularly in institutions,
such as schooIsjnv01ved in reproducing inequality (ToIlefson,2005:3).
Similarly,WoI氏on and Manes (1985)pointout, language use rdects and indeed
inf!uences social, economic,or political inequality (quoted in Riccnt0, 2000:15)・
ln this approach, the connection between the language p011cy and the attitudes of
the community is discussed, i.e.,why some langu昭es have higher status in the
society compared to others. ln this approach, it is discussed that the socio−economic
status of a speaker is related with the use of language. lt is assumed that the choice
ofomcial language is deterTnine by each conteχt. The historical inequalities 皿d
connicts would not be diminished with the selection ofthe indigenous language as
a Iow variety function and the selection of the European language as the high
variety function which is accessed by the dominant class of the society and also
i㎡!uenced because of the gIobal economic interest. Sometimes the choice of a
European language could have a bad innuence in the society and the indigenous
languages would be helpful for the national development.
The key ideas of critical theory Me power, struggle, colonizalion, hegemony
ideology,and resistance.ln CLP research, power expresses the ability to control
events to achieve one s aim which seems as implicit in all social relations. Atthe
time of discussing power, CLP research focuses on the dynamic relation between
social structure and individual agency especially institutions. Power,which is
actually implicit in the policy making process and it is the language policies which
seems to be most important mechanism through which the state and other policy
making institutions locate the innuenceoflanguage behavior(ToIlef§on,2005).
Struggle is for social change and social justice. Many CLP researchers point
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二IO
out that the world is consisting of dominant groups which control the statc as well
as the oppressed groups. Many language policies adopted by the state and the
institutions which are govemed by the dominant group seem to serve the interest of
the oppressors. For eχample Pennycook (2002)mention that sometimes promoting
mother tongue education can be parl of the dominant groups to maintain their
system ofprivilege. 0ppressed groups may also expand their power through these
policies.Generally CLP research presumes this sort of model for social changes
which actually involves struggle for social justice (T011ef1;on,2005)。
CLP research investigates the processes through which the ethnocultulal
groups are impacted by the dominant institutions such as schools, corporations,
intemational agencies and other powerfilI sources. Habermans points out, the day−
to−day communicative interactions of people living within identinable cultural
traditions are characterized by fllce−to−face interaction in the family and other
primary institutions; but these primarysourcesof identity are increasingly subject
to encroachment by the market mechanisms and bureaucratic controIs of capitalist
societies−a process called coIonization (Habermas,1978,p.355,quoted in 1011ef1son,
2005).ln the CLP research the r01e of language p011cies refers in the process of
c010nization.The spread ofEnglish is not only because ofone s willingness to leam
a new language for wel1−being rather it is one ofthe systems that destroy the cultural
identity. Habermas mentioned co10nization actually takes part through language
shift which is a mi!jor social problem of ouf age (ToIlefson,2005)。
Hegemony refbrs to the institutional practices which gives power to the fbw
people and disadvantages the other. CLP research tries to discuss hegemonic
practices.For example, Tollefson(1989)eχamines that for the refugees and
immigrants survivaI English contributes to their economic marginalization. CLP
research gives importance these sorts ofpractices (ToIleflson,2005)。
ldeoIogy means the unconscious belief and presumptions which contribute to
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Theoretical Framework in Language and Education Policy in Ban9ladesh
hegemony. Bourdieu(1991)mentioned that the inequality between the cultural and
linguistic capitaI of dominant and non−dominant group is made by the structure of
social institutions. CLP research tried to reduce the inequality of the society and
also tries to disclose the explicit and implicit policies which contribute to the
hegemony(ToIlefson,2005)・
CLP research investigates the way through which the ethnic minorities may
undermine the existing Iogic of sociaI system by maintaining altemative social
system. For eχample,African American school children use vemacular English
rather than standard English not only to sustain their cultural identity but also to
challenge the social hierarchy. But in the appropriate social conteχts, it is imponant
to accept and leam standard English. Though language p011cy may support the
dominant groups, 0ppressed ethnolinguistic group may practice resistance by
creating and maintaining social system where the dominant language is the non−
standard language. To bring a sociaUustice there is also an ongoing struggle to
adopt the altemative polieies (To11砥on,2005).
OneeχampleofthehistoricalstructuralanalysisisresearchbyVaiRamanathan,
a linguist who teaches in the MA−TESOL program in an American University. She
is interested in teacher education, discourse analysis, and issues in L2 literacy. ln
her essay English is here to stay (1999),she expIores how institutional practices
in education in lndia keep English out of reach of low−income leamers and low
caste groups in Gujarat. She point out that lndian middle claSs people with their
easy access to English possess power and privilege in the society. She point out
how English and its privileges are not acces4ible to the Iower caste people because
of their economic condition and the caste system. By the term lower caste, she
actually focuses on the Dalits and OBC s (Other Backward Classes).She focuses
on Dalits and OBC s because the lndian institutions took several steps to empower
Dalits and OBC s. For eχample, the schooI offered eχtra English language classes
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in the first year when Ramanathan observed the class, she f1)und that c011ege is
broken into two divisions: a stream and b stream. ln a stream, students took
Englishas a subject f10m 5− 12 grade in the Gujarati medium scho01. Students in
the a stream are fiom the middle class and their literacy rate is relatively high.
Students in the b stream had opted to dfop Englishas a subject from grade 10−12
so they have knowledge 斤om grade 5−9 and their medium of instruction was only
in Gujarati. Students ofthe b stream are Dalits and OBC s with rural backgrounds.
Majoring in the English literature seems to be only for the students whoare丘om
the English medium track, as English medium students can understand Chaucer and
Shakespeare. From the G句arati medium scho01, 0nly a few students fiom stream
a can take English as their m4jor. But to do that they have to a pass special
examination administered by the fllculty. The students (especially from Dalits and
OBC s)who dropped English after their gth grade have no possibility to take
English as a mりor. Thus, the institutional tracking afTbcts the aecessibility of
English for both a and b stream students。
ln addition, the way ofteaching is unrealistic and the students mentioned that
the English class is not sumcient fbr them to adjust to the real world. The teachers
are not totany awareof the text itself andnoneof the teachers have training in the
methodology of English or Applied linguistics。
ln spite ofall these things, many parents keep their children in English medium
schooIs to get good jobs and social success which is cIosely tied with English.
Though motivation for leaming English is very strong in lndia, the tracking system
keeps the poorest and the disadvantaged students fiom leaming it. Dalits and
OBC s struggle more than others not because of their poor language skil1s but
because of their poor economic condition. They cannot enr011 in other language
schools to deveIop their skills, though these students need English most. They are
unable to deve10p their English skills as they are tracked into the b streams. They
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Theorelical Framework in Language and Education Policy in Bangladesh
can never really gain nuency in English which is necessary to get a job in lndia.
Critical theory generany examines the way through which social inequality is
produced and sustained. This theory struggles to reduce the inequality in the society
and aIso tries to bnng sociaUustice.ln many ways critical theory has iniluenced
language policy research. Among these inluences is the assumption that historical
categories such as class, race and gender are treated as central eχplanatory factors.
The second assumption is that ethical standards and political commitments to social
justice arc inscparable fiom research methodology. According to this principal,
researchers should analyze the ide010gies of altemative policies and the link
between language policies and social inequalities. Similarly,criticaI scholars like
RobertPhiHipsonexplorehowlanguageisoneoftheto01sfortheunequaldivision
of the social power and privileges and also prevents the social and economic
deveIopment for those who do not know languages ofpower such as English in the
former Bntish and Amerlcan coIonies. As,Fishman mentioned, sometimes
language planning tries to reproduce sociocultural inequalities and language
planning can be used for evil purposes (Rjcent0,2000:20).
Locating individual action in a larger p011tical and economic system especially
with the reference to class is the primary aim of the historical structural approach
(ToIlefson,1991).lt is impossible to avoid political analysis in this approach and in
order to propose an altemative policy, researchers should be aware of their own
roleノWilhms(1992)mentioned that many policy pllanners and researcher do not
have proper knowledge about the language policy process and they are not fully
aware of the relevant theoretical developments of socioIogy and p011tical science
(T011eRon,2005).
For example, Hassana Alidou a soci011nguist and teacher trainer is interested
in medium of instruction policy in sub−Saharan Africa. She tried to focus on the
p011tical,economic and pedagogical issues which are responsible for the debate
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aboutthemediumofinstrudionp011cyofsub−SaharanA丘ica.She argues that a key
economic factors is the desire of Westem publishing companies to dominate the
textbook market. P011tical factors include the unwillingness of the tiny privileged
Afiican elites to implement a language policy which will reduce the gap between
unequaI sociaI classes. Alidou (2004)f1)cused on the socio−historical account ofthe
c010nial language p011cies of the sub−Saharan Afi ica。
Before coIonization, ethnic group of Afi・icans used their own languages and
there was no problem regarding the medium ofinstruction in the scho01. The main
goa1 0f education was the religious education especially focused on the Koranic
education.At the coIonial period, new educational forms were introduced. Children
n・om diflbrent ethnic groups who spoke in different language needed to receive
education in a coIonial languagc. The medium of instruction in the African scho01
was in a foreign language and the books were also in the foreign language. The aim
ofthe c010nial education was not the deveIopment ofthe African education. Rather,
these schools were established to f111fill the European economic and p011tical
interest.lt is important to mention that this education was selective and created a
class division in the African society. The coIonial language was available to a very
few number ofpeople and the rest ofthe population could not acquire the education
in a c010nial language (Alidou,2004)。
ln the postc010nial era,Africans easily understood that it is dimcult to replace
the coIonial educationa1 system. To do so would require corpus planning, qualified
teachers,sumcient books in the Iocal language and proper funding for propagating
Iocal language in education. Because of the economic power of the Westem
intemational institution such as the World Bank, the European Economic Union,
etc,Iocal languages are seldom used. ln 1990 in the Jomtein, Thailand conference,
it was decided that AfTican language should be the medium of instruction in the
formal basic education, but donor agencies such as the World Bank were not
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Theoretical Framework in Language and Education Policy in Ban9ladesh
interested in funding bilingua1 schooIs. Thus,the coIoniaHanguage is used in the
education ofAfrica in spite ofbeing among the most illiterate and poorest countries
in the world.
Alidou concludes her essay by saying that in the coIonial period, coIonial
powers implemented their own language as medium ofinstruction because oftheir
economic and cultural interest. Aner the colonial period, the problem ofmedium of
instruction policy was not solved because the tiny minority of the African elite
wants to keep their socia1 status and power by using the omcial language and aIso
because the Westem intemational developmental agencies support co10nial
language. Although Hassana Alidou is a proponent of the promotion of African
languages in fi)rmal education, it seems to be di伍cult because of the socio−
historical,political,andecononlic forces. Even govemments do not have the power
to implement policies. Rathergovemmentimplementpolicieswhichareformulated
by the intemational agencies. lt seems that historical−structural factors are
responsible for delimiting AScan society・
Language policy renect the distribution ofpower in a larger society (McCarthy,
2002).Soifoneknowsthepositionofapolicymakerinthesociety,it is predictable
which p011cy the policy maker will support. Yet this is always not true. AIl the
policy makers do not necessarily support the interest ofthe group. Sometimes some
support the policy and some do not support the policy which is formulated by some
individual members of a planning agency. Thus, the historicaI structural approach
cannotnecessarilyanswerthequestionswhyp011ciesdochangeinspiteofsumcient
struggle among the population afTected by policies. The policy makers concludes
that it is not the interest of the policy maker rather it is the politico−administrative
system which prohibits to change the system and aIso to alter the system. ltseems
that in the historicaI structural approach individuals are either victims or
beneficiaries because ofthe historical and structural fllctors (T011eflion,1991).
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The historical slructural approach, assumes that it is not important to assess
whether the plans are successfully implemented or not. Rather it assess whether
plans or policies serve dominant class interests and it evaluates the effects of plans
and policies on the distribution of economicresourcesand political power. 0ne
main aim of the evaluation is to what extent the policies and the p1皿s may
undermine the eχisting class structure。
ln the historicaI structural approach language is treated totally difkrentfrom
other resources. The most important point is that it involves both the code and its
use − the person s language and the person. Language changes involve people who
are organized into groups according to the symboIs, r01es and ideoIogies, which do
not necessarily correspond with the cost−benefit analysis. S0,importance is given
to the socia1 0rganizations of language groups for making decisions and actions
rather than to individual cost−benefit analysis. So, explaining the relationship
betweentheorganizationsofsociety,changes in its language and the policy making
and planning process is the task of the research。
Thus one of the important tasks is to understand the interaction between the
structuraI organization of the society and the language p011cies that now 丘om the
p011tica1 system. Sometimes people may not agree to alter the existing structure of
languageormaynotwanttoacquirealanguagebecauseoftheirsocialrelationship.
Thus, the plan which tries to achieve such goa1s must change the existing social
rellationship. S0 1anguagel planning cannot be separated from lthe historical process
of structufal transformation (Tollefson,1991)。
There are many debates among the researchers. Some mention that economic
forces are most important in the language planning and other mention that cultural
politics and discoursc arc more productive, Therc arc a1so debates regarding
language rights, language maintenance, sociaUustice etc but in spite of all these
debates historica1−structural research argues that peace and social justice would be
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Theoretical Framework in Language and Education Policy in Ban9ladesh
the main attention ofthe language policy (ToIleRon,2005).
HistOricaI structural approaCh in the conteχt of BangladeSh
This section of the paper will discuss the historical structural approach in the
context of Bangladesh. ln the first section, the socio−historical account of the
colonial language policies will be discussed. The section summarized the education
of Bangladesh, and the role English education implements in of Bangladesh, and
how the people are initiated into the world of work. ln the second section, the
political economy ofcolonization will be discussed. The third and finaI section wiII
examine post−coIonial educationand language policy ofBangladeshjncluding, the
actua1statusofEnglishinBangladeshattheendofthetwentiethcentury.
ColoniaI Language Policies
lt is important to mention that the educational profile of lndia, Pakistan and
Bangladesh is essentially the same on account of British colonialism and the
countries geographical location. Before 1947,these thTee countries were under the
British c010nial rule and it was known as the lndian Sub−continent. The history of
education in the lndian Sub−continent starts from the Vedic times and this education
was improved later by the period of Brahmans and the period of Dharmasastras.
Education was Hindu education and the main principles were borrowed fiom the
Vedic system.Vedic education is actually spiritual education. Education at that time
was fiee fiom extemal controI or politics. AsP.N.Probhu(quoted in Sharma, 2003,
p.2)mentioned Education in ancient lndia was fiee from any extemaI control like
that of State or Govemment or any politics‥.a1so education did not suflbr 行om any
communal interest or prqjudices in lndia . Vedic education, Brahamanas education
and Buddhist education, were the religious and spiritual education. The teaching
method was verbal and eχplanatory and there was no debate about the medium of
instruction。
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Aner Muslim rulers conquered the Sub−continent, the religious education
(Madrassa and Madrasa Education)started in the Sub−continent .The goaI of this
type ofwas to provide religious education based on the Quaran. Students memorized
the Ayats (some important phrases ofthe Holy Quran).After children leamed the
Arabic script, they studied to Persian language 皿d script. The religiouseducation
included the study of Quaran, Islamic history, Arabic literature, Grammar,
Philosophy,Mathematics,and Geography. Afabic and Persian were adopted as a
media ofinstructionand the vemacular languages were neglected (Sharma,2003)。
PoliticaI Economy of CoIonization
Modem lndian education started with the advent of the East lndia Company
(1600−1854).The British came to Bengal in 1757 and were present unti1 1935・
British at the beginning wanted to improve the lndian educational system on the
basisoftheindigenoussystemofeducation.ltisassumedthattherewasnospecinc
language and education policy at that time. lt is a1so not evident the British wanted
to teach English to the people ofthe lndian subcontinent. Atnrst,the British placed
importance on 10cal languages, but it was the lndians who at first wanted to leam
the English language. ln 1800, the Marques Wellesley, the Govemor −General,
established the conege ofFonWilliam in Calcutta. lts aim was to teach East lndia
Company omciaIs Iocal lndian language and cultures. However,the educated
lndian middle class opposed these p011cies and they felt themselves excluded fiom
socia1,political and economic advancement. ln 1816,the Bengali middle class
established The Hindu C011ege . The aim of the c011ege was to teach English
language and literature. Thus,it was not only the British but aIso the 10cal elites
who demanded English on account ofits social and economic prestige (Pennycook,
1994:80).ln 1820,the PeoPle of the town of Panswell expressed their desire to
leam English when they wrote to the Govemor of Bombay that they wanted to
leam English that we may be empIoyed in your service and maintain ourselves
106