転換期の社会に向けたデザイン(4.大学院教育の未来 : 研究・実践と学びの融合, 教育研究組織の連携)

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Kommonen

Media Leb,UniversityofArt end Design HeisinkiUtAH Fintend

lntroduction

Design

and

designers

are

facing

an opportuniry and a chalIengeofunprecedentedproportions.becausethesociety

is

being

transformed

in

design

_processcs

that are much more rapid,

comprehensive,

_pervasive

and

driven

by

humans

and

their

systems than ever

be

fo

re

in

history.

This

is

the context

for

the

future

ofdesign,

whether

the

design

field

or the society

in

_general

_perceives

it

or not,

VVb

rend to see the world according to categories we

have

defined

or

_grown

to respcct.

Ifwe

have

learned

that

design

is

a cerrain

kind

ofthing,

it

will

be

hard

to see

it

dieerently

But

we owe

it

to

future

designers

to

have

an open mind and

be

_prepared,

and

_prepare

them, to work

in

a ncw

]andscape

ofdesign,withamuchbroaderdiversityofdesignproblems

to

deal

with, and wirh a

_growing

arsenal

of

new

kinds

of

materials

for

des{gn

to

know

and utilize.

My

views

are

based

on

[he

work we

h2vc

becn

doing

in

the

Media

Lab

at

the

Univcrsity

ofArt and

Design

Hclsinki

UIAH

in

rhe

ARKI

rcsearch

_group

(http://arki.uiah.fi),

in

order to

develop

an understanding ofhow

digltallzation

may

influence

the sociery, and what that means

to

design.

I

do

not

know

what the most

important

new areas and

expcrtises will

be,

or

how

their teaching shoutd

be

initiated,

but

l

want to

_present

some

indlcatlons

oF

future

dlrections

and

_propose

some

_poinrs

ofview to [ake

into

account when

designing

dcsign

educatlon.

The

issues

I

wllL

bring

forth

will clearly touch those who are

in

some way

directly

involyed

with new

technology

and computers, and might

be

ofinteresr to rhose who want

to

explore

new

areas,

but

I

would

_propose

that the

_globalized,

integrated,

design

and

technology

inrensive,

market

driven

circumscances

make

it

necessary

for

all

dcsign

to make

the

efTbrt to see the

larger

_picture

and establish a

_position

-

or accept

tha[

it

yery

likeLy

wiLl

fiad

itself

furthering

questionable

developments

;n

society.

Design

is

a

universal,

ubiquitous

phenomenon

Design

has

been

defined

in

a variery ofways,

but

none of

these

seems

to

capture

the

idea

inaway

that would

_persuade

2

dominant

following.

Instead

ofpresenting

here

a

_gallery

of examples,

I

will

jus[

_quo[e

Richard

Buchanan,

who

discusses

this

_phenomenon

in

his

yery

inspiring

and

lnsightful

reflection

ofthe

idea

ofdesign and

design

thinking

in

an articLe

ricled

''1)Vicked

Probtems

in

Design

Thinking":

'Despite

the

_c175rts

to

dZfrouer

thefSundLitions

ofltlesign

thinkirg

in

the,fine arts, the naturatsciences, er mast recently

the

secial sciences,

design

eludu reductien and remains a surprisingly

]Ze,cithle

activity

Atb

singLe

definition

ofdesign,

er

bmnches

of

prz!t7essienatizedpractiee

such as

industriat

or

_graphic

duign,

iid?guately

covers

the

`tiversity

of-idleas

and methedf

gnthered

tqgether

under

the

labeL

"

---"71eere

is

ne area

of-cantempemry

IZti

where

duggn

-

thtplan,

the

_project,

er tvorEiirg

bjpethesis

tuhich censtitutes

the

"intention"inintentienalopentiens-tsnetasignij9cantfoctor

in

shaping

human

mperience.

"

7if-V\asstvaM-SPECIALISSUEOFJSSD

VoL9

Ne.3

200283 NII-Electronic

"The

chaUenge

is

to

gain

a

deeper

understanding

of

design

thinking

so

that

more cooperation and mutual

benefit

is

possibte

between

those

who apply

design

thinking

to

remarkably

difilerent

problems

and

subject

matters.

" b

All

human

beings

design,

and the ability

to

design

is

one of

the

fundamental

things

that

differentiates

us

ftom

other animals.

Also

culture and everyday

life

is

_permeated

by

design,

and

lt

is

;mpossible

[o

impose

a tlghtly

defined

view

over

such

dlve[sity.

Given

the

ubiquity ofdesign,

the

cultivation

ofthis

_pluralism

is

beneficial

and even essentlal.

Fora

designer

it

is

important

not

to

surrender

to

thls

apparent

diMculty

ofdefining

design.

I

be]ieve

chat

it

is

a

designer's

responslbility

to

develop

a

_personal

unde rstanding of

the

field

ofdcsign, as well as to

be

able

to

elaborate

and explain

this

view to others.

The

characteristic of tolerating and even cherishing such

a

subjectiye

freedom

is

one of[he

strengths

of

[he

field,

This

essay relies on such asubjective yiew,2

I

believe

that

the

diMculty

ln

defining

design

results

ftom

the

desire

to

find

clear and

indisputabLe

boundaries;

because

des;gn

ls

such a

broad

_phenomenon,

this

pursuit

_generally

leaves

large

areas ofdesign outside

of

the

boundaries.

My

concern

is

to

study

design

wherever

ir

can

be

fbund,

and

hence

this

defin;tion

may seem vague, open, and

broad;

however,

I

have

found

ir

usefut and

eye

opening

ft}r

my own nceds and

in

facilita[ing

work with colleagues and students

ftom

many

disciplines.

I

_ptopose

{hat

'design'

means the set ofcharacteristics tha[ more or

less

essen[lally

defines

the

structu

re and

functioning

ofsomething.

SJeC

dilhrentiate

things

ffom

oneanother

by

their

design.

The

ac[ivity of `designing'

is

to

intentionally

createdesigns.

`Designer]

is

an expert role

in

design

processcs

-

an expert

person

who

designs,

Some

people

design

intentionally

withour

calling

it

design

or

identifying

themselyes as

designers.

Some

_people

identify

themselves as

designers,

and a subset of [hose

has

been

educated as

designers

in

a

design

institution.

In

rhis art;cle,

I

will use

the

word 'designer' to refer mainly to those who

iden[ify

themselves as

designers.

But

designs

are created

in

avariety ofdesign

_processes

and

many,

ifnot

mos[,

designs

resuL[

from

_processes

[hac are not

intentional

and

do

not emptoy

human

designers.

For

example, evolution

has

_produced

uncountable

designs

that existed

before

humans

appeated.

Designoperateswithinanevolutionaryframework

Evolu[ion

did

not srop

designing

when

humans

dcveloped

the abiLity to

design.

Instead,

humans

have

increased

the

speed

ofeyolution

by

introducing

intention

and conscious

evaLuation

into

the

selecrion

_process,

The

human

mind, society and

language

created a

_platform

fbr

cultural evolu[ion, a

_process

tha[

_produces

immarerial

design

artifacts,

or

ideas,

as

well as material artifacts, which embody or materialize some of rhese

ideas.

The

in[eraction

ofcultural

and

social

evolution

has

led

us to the world we

have

now; and

in

thc

_process

we

have

created

an

appreciation

for

[he

ability ofindividuals to con[ribute [o the evolution

by

introducing

new

ideas

and

practices.

UnfortunateLy,

a

concept

ofdesign

[hat

emphasizes

individuals

and

their

creativity and

innoyations

often overlooks the eyolutionary and societa]

ffamework

and

rhe

multitudeofproccssesth2tactuallyinfluenceanddetcrmine

the

success

ofdesigns.

Thls

may

_glve

well ea[ned respect

for

inventots

and

designers

and their skitls,

bu[

falts

to

bring

forth

a mofe comprehensive, usefut and

fa;r

_picture

ofdesign tn

soclety.

One

source of

this

troubte

ls

ou[ reluctance [o accept that complex and

functionat

designs

can emerge without

the

inrentional

designei.

In

spite of [he

fairly

common acceptance ofDarwin's evolution as

the

_process

that

created

the

d;versity

of

]ife

on earth, we stlllalways attemp[ to

identify

the

intelligent

being

who masrerminded the things we

think

exhibit

design

and

inrention.j

But

ifevolution

designs,

what

is

the

role

ofthe

designers?

I

propose

that

designers

should

not

bc

seen as

the

individual

is[

creatiye

heroes

[ha[

single-handedly change the worLd.

Instead,

the

human

mlnd and culture

form

an amplifier and extender [hat makes the

design

_processes

and

the

emergcnce ofnew

deslgns

dramacically

more eMcient.

In

NII-Electronic Library Service

this

view, all

_people,

and

designers

especially, act as agen[s ofevolution

-

but

within

its

constrainrs

-

when

they

design,

Wicked

_problems

demand

design

expertise

There

are many

areas

in

society where

designs

are created

in

ways and

_processes

that

cou]d

benefi[

from

the

kind

ofdesign

expercise rha[

has

been

developed

in

the

fieLds

of

des;gn.

But

because

the

designs

created

in

[hese

new are2s are not

labeled

as 'designs', and

because

there

is

no

des;gn

education

fbr

those

fields,

the

rields

are

not

_generally

connected to

design.However,

I

believe

chat

this

is

changing now, and [he change

is

driven

by

the

_parallel

and

interconnected

developments

ofincreasingconvergcncc,globalizarion,andtheimperatiye

ofsustainabiliry.

Convergence

ofour tcchnotogy,

inffastructures,

businesses

and cultural

conditions

connect

and combine chings

in

new ways, and makes new

interactlons

between

surprising

elements

suddenly essenria].

Globalization

_grews

the

scope

and

impact

ofdesign

and

introduces

completely ncw

kinds

oFconcerns

for

cultural and ethical

issues.

Demand

fbr

expertise ofa new

kind

that was not even envisioned a

tittte

whiLe ago, suddenty

_pops

up.

The

socieiy

_grows

more and

more 'wicked

_problems'

for

which

it

desires

to

develop

comprehensive, systematlc solutlons, as

opposed

to onc-off

improvised

solutions.

Buchanan

brings

up the concep[ ofthe wicked

probLem,

as

introduced

by

Horst

Rittel,

ruttel

argucd that most ofthc

problems

addressed

by

designers

are wicked

_ptoblems:

they are, according to

his

fbrmulatlon,

a "class ttf'seci"l

system

problems

whkh

are

ilt:formulate4

where the

injirmntien

is

eoiijTusiirg; where

thete

are maay

dients

and

dlecisien

makers with

cz,tg7icting

valves, and where

the

mmtt7cations

in

the

whele

ststem

are

thorettghly

confltsiag; "4

Buchanan

_goes

on

to

_propose

that

design

problems

are

indeterminate

and

therefore

wicked,

because

'Uhrign

has

no

speciat

s"bjlect matter

ofits

own

apartfrem

what a elesigner

conceives

it

te

be.

71ee

subject matter

of'elesign

ispetentinlly

universat

in

scope,

becaase

duign

thinking

may

be

tmpfied

to

aior aua

ofhuman

e)gperience.

"

Another

interpretation

I

wou]d

like

to offer

is

rhat

design

de21s

with wicked

_problems

because

it

has

evolved

for

that

purpose.

Des;gn

as

a

field

has

evoLved, and

deslgn

expertise

has

bcen

deveLoped.

because

_peopLe

and the society

have

always

had

wicked

_problems

ro

deal

wl[h, and

this

requires approaches

that

some

other

d;sciplines

are not willing _to

accept.

Thus,

co

be

able to address wicked

_problems

is

a

special characteristic of

design,

very

intimately

connected

to

lts

identlty

and the

justification

ofits

exlstence

as a

field

of

its

own.

The

issues

for

society are not

runnlng

out, and their wickedness

is

increasing,

becausc

we are realizing that we musr

take

[he whole of the world more and more

in[o

account

in

everyth;ng we

do.

As

the wickedness and scope

of

lssues

_grow,

mote

des;gn

expertise

is

needed.

And

as

Buchanan

also says,

design

thinking can

be

applied

to

any

area.

Digitalization

breeds

new

wicked

_problems

Onc

ofthe

key

acrivities that

is

teaching

us

a

Lot

about the rglationship ofdeslgn and society and the

future,

is

software related

design.

I[

is

tied

to

the

technologica1

revolution thar

is

enabling the

_global

changes.

This

_gives

i[

a

_privileged

ringside

_posltion

in

the

development

of new

design

appreaches that

become

neccssary

because

oC and

benefit

from,

the emerging technological

possibilities.

Software

design

_giyes

us new

ideas

about [he world and

the

poten[lal

fbr

design,

because

one

of

its

essentiaL tasks

ls

to

create abstractions ofthe realworld.

Sofiware

designers

must

try

to

anaLyze

_patterns

that make up

human

activities

and

social

_systems.

and

model

them,

or

_systems

that

complement

[hem,

in

software.

This

is

very

interesting

right now,

because

the whole society

is

being

transformed

by

a

_process

of

digiraliza[ion5,

in

which software

design

plays

a very

influen[ial

design

role,

As

more and

rnore

ofsocia]

and cu]tural activities

become

medlated

by

digital

software systems, the more sociaL

and

culrural conceprs, characreristias,

structures

and systems need to

be

understood and to some extent modeLed

by

designers.

VVhite

most social and cultural

_phenomena

can't

be

reduced to software, and many

important

areas

oFour

life

migh[ even

deteriorate

ffom

_growing

ecaciency, many

more or

tess

significant areas

remain,

which can

_gain

rremendously

in

_{eMciency through networking and}

digital

software.

This

will

generate

a

strong,

irresistibte

drive

[e

digita]ize

manr aspec[s ofour everyday

life.

For

example,

our

food

or our

ffiends

wil1 not

become

digital,

but

some

digital

tools

may

form

a vety

importan[

_pa:t

of our

food-related

social activities. iJUe might use

dlglta].

eMcient tools to

find

what we want,

to

be

able to

ho[d

on to our

demands

concerning

its

_qua]ity,

to negotiate

a

teasonab]e

_price,

and ro ar[ange our

schedules

so

that

we can eat

in

_peace.

Whi[e

most

_peop]e

do

no[ wish to

be

more eMcienr

in

eycrything,

[here are numerous

_practicat

and

boring

functionalities

they

do

want

ro

make more eMclenr,

The

changes [hese

digital,

networked

designs

lnfuse

into

society _{are so}

_powerfu1

that

they

have

a

dramatic

eemct.

They

influence

the

ways we communicate, trade, tnake a

living,

make agreements,

form

communities, make

decisions,

participate

in

decisionmaking,

ge[

information

and so

on.

The

changes will

touch

all

_people

in

allsocieties,

because

many

digital

ways ofdoing things will replace old,

non-digi[al

ways.

This

makes us all

eventually

dependent

on

digita]

technologyL

Anyone

who

is

involved

in

the

buying

or

selling

anything;

in

using money or cred;t;

in

communicatlon;

in

_passing

through

Iocks;

in

trayelling or s[aying

in

foreign

_p]aces;

and so on

-

wM

be

touched

by

these changes, whether

they

want to or not.

My

motiva[ion

in

pointing

out the

1;kely

ex[ent

ofthe

impact

ofdigitalization

is

not

to

_glorify

nor condemn

it,

but

to suggest chat

it

is

something

that

we altmust take seriously

into

consideration

in

the

long

run, and

rhe

sooner

[he

better.

People

everywhcre would

benefi[

from

a

be[ter

understanding ofwhat

is

geing

on,

but

designers

who

do

play

amore

active

_part

in

the

makingofour common

future

should makc

it

a

_point

to make sense of

the

this

development,

because

of

its

lnfluence

on any area of

life,

but

also

because

of[he new

areas

ofdesign

it

reveals to a

pcrcept;ve

observer.

Bur

what the techno-economical actors who are

driving

this

development

are

beginning

to sec

is

that

software

and technology expertise

is

not enough

for

success.

Many

technologicalty _advanced

_products

have

_cornpLetely

fai]ed

in

the

market.

The

failure

of the

dot-coms

tes[ifies

of

g[andiose

expectations

[hat

were completely unfounded.

Why?TlechnoLogy

develops

much

faster

than

i[s

apptications,

because

technological

_problems

are not wicked while appL;cation

_probLems

usually are.

People

and organizations

do

not

have

direct

demand

fbr

technology

-

they

need

benefits.

These

benefits

do

not result

from

consumable

products,

but

from

changes

in

the

_practices,

activities and

products

which

technolog}r

makes

_possible.

The

success

of' new technology

is

not

_possible

without social 2nd cultural

evo]ut;on

and

innovation

that can take adv2ntage

ofit.

Therefore,

eyen though software

design

is

at

[he

core ofthis

devetopment,

and

its

needs arc

_pushing

many of the new ways to think about

design,

the

most

important

des;gn

issues

technolegical

development

bring

forth

do

_{not real]y}

belong

to

the

technological

realm.

Software

can

not

serve

_people

if

it

does

not enable new

social

and cultural

innovation.

Software

expertise wil]

be

needed

for

the software

_preblems,

but

expertise

abou[

the

whole

divcrsiry

oflife

is

needed

in

order to emable the technology to

become

material

_people

can use to construct

their

own ways

to

appLy

it.

The

ecosystem

we

design

for

is

now

always

_global

Another

_great

challenge

ls

to

deal

with

the responsibiliry of attempting _{[o create}

fair

_{and sustainabLe}

designs.

S)ae

_can't escape

_{globalizat;on}

any more,

;n

any

field.

Glebalization

creates a

_gLobal

market, wh

lch

brings

benefits

but

alse malces

problems

global.

Within

economies,

_polarizarion

_grows

-the

rich

get

richer, and the

poor

pooret

Growing

eMciency means [hat

_production

does

not need as many

_peop]e

as

it

used to, while

the

_production

that

is

srilL necessary tends

to

moye to

locations

where

it

is

cheapest.

In

the

wealthier economies, this

develepment

marginalizes many

_peop]e

and

creates

new

_poverty;

crime and

lnstabilit)L

These

economies

have

built

that wealth

through

exploitation ofother economies over [he

past

centuries.

This

exploitation

86SPECIAL

tSSUE

OF JSSD Vol,9

No.3

2e02i=vl

y\MR"mg

NII-Electronic Library Service

now continues

in

new

forms,

for

example

through

the

utillzation

of cheap

labor

(which

is

cheap

because

of the

lack

of

investmcnt

in

the

kinds

of socleral services and

infrastructures

ihat

the

wofkforce

ln

the

wealthier economy enjoys), and continues te create responsibility to those who

benefit,

for

its

consequences.

Design

decisions

can make a

difTlerence

in

lnfluencing,

fbr

example,

whether the

_potemtial

of new means will

be

used to

increase

the

eMciency of

the

exploitation, or

to

increase

the

fairness

oftrade,

Designs

can crea[e structures of exclusion,

For

example,

alrheugh

a

credlt

card

seems

to

be

designed

for

a

certain

purpose,

ir

is

being

used as a

_general

measuring stick ofthe

holder's

reli2biliry.

A

numberofproducts and services can'[

be

bought

ifyou

don't

have

a

credit

card

-

regardless

of

whether

_you

haye

the money or not,

In

many countries,

it

is

not

_possible

to

rent a

car

or

reserve a

hotel

room without

a card,

Internet

_payments

are aLmost

impossible

without one.

Sub[le,

but

_powerfu1

and cumulating

details

ihat often are overlooked.

Convenience

2nd efficiency creates

dependency

and new structures with

;mplicit,

often at

least

seemingly

unintended

power.

Growing

efficiency,

scope

and

speed

mean

that

rhe

conseguences ofactions and

decisions

can

have

much more

devastating

and

irreverslble

consequences than ever

before.

Ifwe

find

tha[

some

design

was

not

_good,

it

may

already

have

destroyed

the structu[es that existed

before,

and th;s may

haye

taken

_place

in

a

_global

scale.

In

design,

we need to

_pay

much more attention to

issucs

ofsustalnability

before

we make the changes. and consider economical, social and cultural aspects as well as envirenmental ones.

Socleties

are

wholes, and

indMdttal

_people

live

in

rhem

whole

lives.

Even

though ourdesigns

_play

only a

_part,

that

_part

interacts

with

these

wholes,

and

we

need

to

be

aware

of

these

_possib]c

tnteractlons.

While

the

basic

situation

is

not new, what

has

changed

ls

the

scale, speed and eMciency, and

that

through

the

_gLobal

media network we

have

access to any

informatlon

we might w2nt, any iimc.

Pcople

will

be

umab]e to claim tha[ they

did

not

know

what was

happening;

[heir only excuse can

be

that

they

did

not understand

how

i[

works and

how

[hey

were responsible.

But

designers,

as the experrs who mus[

be

able co assess the charac[eristics of the

designs

they

help

to create, can't

hide

behind

such an excuse.

They

can't

bLindly

retyonasuperficialunderstandingofastaricworld,because

they are creatlng new circvmstances

in

achanging world.

They

must

define

for

themseLves

what

it

is

that [hey should

know

about the context ofthe things rhey

desigm,

and take

that

responsibilit)r

seriouslM

as

_part

ofthe

eth;cal

fbundation

of

the

_profession.

I

am trying merely to

_point

out that as we

fo11ow

some of

the

rhreads

such

as

these

a

litrle

deeper,

we

find

that rhere

is

almost anew world

ofdesign

_problems

waiting

to

be

taken

into

account.

I[

used

to

be

so

that

we could

judge

that

many

of

thesc

concerns

would

be

ou[ ofscope,

bur

in

a

_global,

converging scene, this

is

no

longer

true.

Challenge

to

design

The

chatlenge to the

field

ofdesign

is

to

deal

with the

dramatic

changes

in

sociery

and

the new responsibilities thar resuLt

ffom

_growing

design

lnrensity

comb;ned with new

pervasive

technology and

the

_global

scope ofevery[hing.

The

bes[

way to

do

that

is

to embrace the

demand

for

new, unpred;crable

kinds

ofdesign expertise and

find

ways

to

develop

the education to respond to thls

demand,

thereby realizing an

important

opportunity to

increase

[he significance ofdesign

in

sociery.

Md

wh;le the

drivers

that

bring

[hls opportuniry

foith

relate

to

technology

and economy,

the

relevant response

to

thls.

chal]enge should address social, cultural and

_pollrlcal

areas ofdesign,

but

be

very thoroughly

fluent

with the cmerglng

technologic21

means,

in

order

[o

be

able

to

use

rhem

as

ma[e[ial.

This

si[uation

of

increasing

demand

has

an

interesting

chatacteristic: neither the

design

instl[utions

nor rhe society

at

large

have

_yet

realLy

iden[ified

its

nature appropriately as

aspcclfic

challenge

for

the

field

ofdesign.

The

categories we

like

to

use

to

clarify

the

structure

of[he

world often

become

barriers

instead

of

facilitators.

As

the

world

is

converglng,

and everything

is

in[eracting

with

everything _clse,

design

institutions

_may

become

_pr;soners

of the

boundaries

[hey

have

defined

for

themselves

ifthey

take

them

too seriously and allow them

to

be

too

rigid.

In

spite of [he

difTerent

ideas

abollt specia]izations and

boundaries

of validiry,

there

are many

_people

whe

nevertheless cross

them;

the

_problems

and

dcsigns

do

not

have

any respec[

for

boundaries,

For

the

design

ins[itution,

it

is

_probably

smart

to

design

a

flexible

and enabling

organizarion which _{c2n react}

_qu;ckly

_{and support}

_people

who _come with _{a capacity and vision}

_to

develop

_new

actMties,

even

ifthey

were not envisloned

by

the

instltution,

rarher than make

a

long

term

_plan

with very spec;fic

fields

and

_profiles,

and

then

try

to

find

_people

who

fit

rhe

_profiles.

1)

Buchanan,

Nchard,

"Wicked

Problems

in

Design

Thinking",

7]be

ldlea

ofDesign,

Victor

Margolin

and

ruchard

Buchanan,

(eds.),

The

MIT

Press,

Camb[idge,

MA,1995.

R,

3.

2)

This

subjective yiew

is

obviousLy

inspired

and

influenced

by

numerous 2uthors whom

I

am no[ ablc

to

credlt

_properly

in

this space,

3}

Dennett.

Danlel

C.:

Darwin's

Datrgeretcs

ldlea:

Eveltttien

and

the

thanirzgs

ofLij{},

Tbuchstone.

New

Ybrk,

NY,

1996:

An

enlightening explanation

of[he

telationship

between

eyolution and

design,

PR

64-73.

4)

Buchanan,

R.,

"Wicked

Problems

in

Design

Thinking".

5)

Tlechnology

developmenr

ls

rurning all electronic

devices

and communication

systems

little

by

little

into

components ofa

seamless,

_global

digi[al

_platfbrm,

a

digi[al

dimension.

This,

in

turn,

forces

all

conrent

on

that

_platfbrm

to

become

digital

as

well.

The

digital

platft)rm

is

a network of computers, and the

computers are allcontrolIed and

directed

by

software,

which _all

has

to

be

consciously

designed

by

humans.

For

amore elabora[ed

description

of

the

development

of the

digi[al

dimension,

see

http:tlarki.uiah.fi/

concepts/digitaldimenslon

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