Human rights in japanese literature a guide to incorporating human-rights based literature into humanities and social sciences curricula

(1)

Human rights in japanese literature a guide to incorporating human‑rights based literature into humanities and social sciences curricula

著者別名タナカキャサリン

journal or

publication title

Journal of Research and Pedagogy of Otemae university Institute of International

Education

volume 3

page range 079‑089

year 2017‑03‑31

URL http://id.nii.ac.jp/1160/00001416/

Creative Commons : 表示 ‑ 非営利 ‑ 改変禁止 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by‑nc‑nd/3.0/deed.ja

(2)

HumanRightsinJapaneseLiterature

AGuidetoIncorporatingHuman‑RightsBasedLiteratureinto HumanitiesandSocialSciencesCurricula

日本文学における人権

人文学と社会学の教育課程へ文学を基にした人権を組み込むためのガイド

KathrynM.Tanaka

Abstract:Inthisessay,IdescribethewaysinwhichJapanesehumanrightsliteraturecanbeincorporatedinto diversecoursesinthehumanitiesandsocialsciences.Itintroducesstudiesintotheconceptofhumanrightsand debatesaboutwhatconstitutesthembeforediscussingtheroleofliteratureaspartofhumanrightsstruggles.Italso explorestheconceptofliteratureaspersonalanditsconnectionstosocialandpoliticalaction,andhowlessons centeredonliterarytextscanteachusabouthumanrightsandsocialjustice.

要旨

本論では、日本の「人権文学」が、人文学あるいは社会科学等の様々な教科の教材として大きな役割を果たす可能性について述べる。人権文学を紹介することによって、「人権」の概念やその中身についての学び、そして、人としての権利を確立するための戦いに文学が果たした役割を明らかにする方法を論述する。また、文学から見えてくる、個人、時に身の危険を伴うような社会的、政治的行動に参加していく動機や信念、その思、いについても触れていきたい。更には、文学を教材とする授業が、人権と社会的公正についてどのような教育的効果をもたらすかという主要課題について検討する。

Introduction

ThispaperaimstointroducewaysunitsonhumanrightsliteraturecanbeincorporatedintocoursesonJapanese literature,history,andcultureaswellasintomoregeneralcoursessuchashumanrightsorpeacestudiesbased courses.ItfirstlaysoutageneraltheoryofhumanrightsbeforeofferinganannotatedbibliographyofJapanese literatureintranslationthatcanbeincorporatedintolessonsonhumanrights.Italsogivesgeneralguidelinesor

suggestionsforhowthematerialsmightbeusedandthekindofclassroomdialoguethatcouldbefostered.

Thispapermustalsoincludeacaveat.Whenspeakingofrights,wemustbesensitivetocultureandlanguage.

Thus,whilebeingawareoftheproblematicsofwhatPhillipson(1992)describedaslinguisticimperialismandthe promotionofEnglishattheexpenseofothernationalandforeignlanguages,thispaperdoeslookatJapanese

literatureprimarilyinEnglishtranslationasameanstofosterbroad,comparativedialogue.Atthesametime,no

(3)

translationisperfect.Forthisreason,comparativereading,ortheuseofmirrortexts,withattentiongiventoboth thetranslationandtheoriginalisencouragedwheneverpossible(Tanaka,2015).

Humanrightsareincreasinglypartofglobalpopularcultureconsciousness.Sincethelate1970s,theUnited Nationshasrepeatedlydrawnattentiontotheimportanceofhumanrights,throughlandmarkssuchasthe

ConventionoftheEliminationofAllFormsofDiscriminationagainstWomen(1979),theConventiononthe RightsoftheChild(1989)andtheConventionoftheRightsofPersonswithDisabilities(2006).Throughsuch actionsastheestablishmentoftheHumanRightsCouncil(2006)anditsfirmcommitmenttothepreservationof humanrightsasacornerstoneofglobalpeace,theUnitedNationsanditsmembercountrieshavedemonstratedthat theimplementationofrightsisanimportantpartofdailylifeinthemodernworld;atthesametimethis

implementationisneithersmoothnoruncontestedgiventhevaryingdefinitionsofhumanrights.

Sowhatarehumanrights?Marie‑BenedicteDembour(2010)pointsoutthatofcoursetheideaofhuman

rightsisdifferentforeveryone,butsheoutlinesfourbroad,idealizedschoolsofthoughtonwhatconstituteshuman rights.Thesecanbesummarizedas"thenaturalschool"whichdefineshumanrightsas"thoserightsonepossess

simplybybeingahuman."(Dembour,2).Thisistosayrightsarenotsocialbutinnate.

ThesecondschoolofthoughtDembouroutlinesisdeliberative,whereinhumanrightsare"politicalvalues thatliberalsocietieschosetoadopt"(3).Here,humanrightsareasocialagreementandarelimited.Incontrastto this,theprotestschoolofthoughtbelieveshumanrightstobe"claimsandaspirationsthatallowthestatusquoto becontestedinfavoroftheoppressed"(ibid).Inthisthirdschoolofthought,humanrightsarefoughtforandwon.

Thefinalschoolofthoughtaboutwhatconstituteshumanrightsisthediscourseschool.Here,humanrights existbecausetheyarespokenof,andadiscoursethathasdevelopedaroundtheideaofthem.Theideaofhuman rightsexistsbecause"thelanguagesurroundinghumanrightshasbecomeapowerfullanguagewithwhichto

expresspoliticalclaims"(4).Atthesametime,however,thelimitsoflanguageultimatelylimitsthewaysinwhich humanrightscanbeconceptualized.

Thispaperbelievesthathumanrightsareacontestedprocess,rightsthatshouldbeinnatebutoftenare limitedordeniedbysocieties.Inthissense,wefollowthethirddefinitionmostclosely.Atthesametime,literary

scholarsmustbeattunedtothewaylanguageframesourideasandthewaydiscourseshapessociety.Languagealso helpsusimaginenewpossibilities.Itisnoaccidentthathumanrightsliteraturesitsuncomfortablyonaboundary betweenliteratureandtestimony,andsooftendeploysinnovativelinguisticandnarrativetechniques.Anattention todiscourseandthewayitshapessocietyisinescapableinhumanrightsliterature.Followingthis,thethirdand

fourthconceptualizationsofhumanrightshavebeentheguidingframeworkinthisinitialpaper.

HumanRightsinLiterature

Justasthereisnoonewaytoapproachordefinehumanrights,thereisnoonewaytodescribewhatisbecoming knownas"humanrightsliterature."AsSophiaA.McClennen(2015)argues,theissueofhumanrightsis

inescapableinstudiesinthehumanitiesandsocialsciencesinthecultureoffearandmilitarizationthatemergedin thewakeoftheterroristattacksofSeptember11,2001:"Humanrightsperspectivesarenowmergedwithstories

:1

(4)

ofethnicity,sexuality,andcross‑culturalidentity.Theyinfusestoriesofwar,labor,andpersonalstruggle.They informstoriesoflanguagerights,empathy,andtrauma.Thenotionofhumanrightsisatthecenterofeverymajor clusterofliterarywritingidentifiabletoday"(3).

Thequestionofhowtolimitwhatisreadashumanrightsliteratureandtheroleofthatliteratureisnow centraltomanycriticaldebates.Isitliterary?Testimonial?Fictionornon‑fiction?McClennenwondersaboutthe

socialfunctionofsuchliterature:"Doesitoffercatharsis,healingfromtrauma,andproductiveaffect?Doesitserve asdocument,evidence,orjuridicalintervention?Howdoesitbalanceaneedfortruthtellingwiththemessinessof aestheticart?Isthereaparticularformtohumanrightsstorytellingthatismoreauthenticandhonest?Andwhere arethelinesbetweensensationalismandmeaningfuladvocacy?"(ibid).

Ofcoursethereisnoclearanswertoanyofthesequestions.YetMcClennenastutelypointstothefactthat

humanrightsliteratureisinherentlyinterdisciplinary,blendingtestimonialaccountsoflivedexperienceandliterary worksthataresocial,political,andpersonal.Assuch,itcanandshouldbetaughtinavarietyofhumanitiesand

socialsciencecourses.

Narrativesandlifestorieshavelongbeenanintegralpartoftheprocessofsocialactivismtogainrightsand recognition.TheUnitedNationsHumanRightsCouncilfeaturesnewsandreportstogetherwithtestimonyfrom peopleaffectedbywar,rape,violence,andmanyotherunimaginablerightsviolations.MaryRobinson,former UnitedNationsHighCommissionerforHumanRights,hasarguedthatsuchtestimonyispowerfulbecauseithas"a crucialroleinshowingnotjustthehumancostbutalsoincredibleresilience"(Robinson,ix).Literature,too,isa powerfulpersonalandpoliticaltoolforsocialjustice.

Literatureandpersonaltestimonyhumanizessufferersofhumanrightsviolations.Inaworldwherepeople largelybelieveinscienceandempiricalfacts,thehumanandsocialforcesareoftenobscuredoroverlooked

(Lewontin,1991).Literaturerecentersthepersonalinsocialandpoliticallife,drawingattentiontothehumancosts ofrightsviolations.Bydrawingattentiontothosewhosuffer,itcreatescommunityandacallforsocialchangeor justice.Andformanywriters,tellingtheirstoryisonsomeleveltherapeutic.Itcangivevoicetobothgriefand

outrage.Ittellsthestoryoftrauma,butalsoofhope.Forthesereasons,theinclusionofhumanrightsliteraturein anycurriculacanbeapowerfuladditiontoacourseandathought‑provokinglessonforstudents.

Atthesametime,scholarsarguethenotionofuniversalhumanrightsasapostcolonialresponseto

imperialism,andhaveincreasinglycalledforascholarshipofhumanrightsthatdecenterswesternuniversalism (McClennen,3).Japanesescholarshavebeenslowtoanswerthiscall,anddosoattheriskoffurtheressentializing

"Asianvalues"(Bauer&Bell

,1999).Thispaperthereforeseekstohighlighthumanrightsaspolitical,personal, andasourceofstruggleforsocialjusticewithinJapanesecontexts.

ThreeGenerationsofHumanRights

MichaelD.A.Freeman(2002)andotherintroductorytextsmapthreegenerationsofhumanrights,acommon

framefollowedbytheUnitedNations(cf.TheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights,1948;Leckie&Gallanger,

2006).Thefirstgenerationiscommonlyunderstoodtobecivicandpoliticalrights,suchastherighttovote,the

(5)

righttofreespeech,ortherighttoafairtrial.Thesecondgenerationincludeseconomicandsocialrights,suchas therighttoworkforafairwageandbelongtoatradeunion,andtherighttotakecollectiveaction.Socialrights includetheprotectionofthefamily,mothersandchildren,aswellastherighttohealthandeducation(lnternational CovenantonEconomic,Social,andCulturalRights,1966).Thethirdgenerationofrightsiscultural,and

encompassestherighttoparticipateinculturallife,therightsofminoritiestopracticetheirethnic,religiousand linguisticcultures,andtherighttobenefitfromscienceandculture(ibid).Ofcoursetherearedebatesabout preciselywhichrightsfallunderwhichcategories;insuchanebulousdiscussiontherearenoclearboundariesand rightsarealwayscontested.

Therearenumerouswaystocenterlessonsaroundaworkofhumanrightsliterature.Closereadingsand lessonsbasedoncontextualizaionarealwayspossibleandproductive.Brivati,Jensen,JollyandMoore(2014) proposetheuseofRaoulHilberg'striangleofvictims,perpetratorsandbystanderstoconceptualizehowthe Holocausttookplaceasausefulframeworkfordiscussionsofhumanrights(268).Theycentertheirclass discussionsaroundaneventandseektoexposePrimoLevi'smorallyambigious"greyzone"throughtheir

exercises(ibid).ThisarticledrawsontheirframeworkwhileexpandingandadaptingittoJapanesecontexts.Itis alsoimportanttonotethatthetopicsintroducedherearechoseninpartfortheiradaptabilitytobothculturally

specificdiscussionsaswellasbroad,globallycomparativeframeworks.Therearecountlessotheravenuesto

explorehumanrightsinJapaneseliterature,suchasliteratureaboutagingandelderlyrights;literatureaboutrights fornon‑humanssuchasanimalsandliteratureaboutParkinson'sdisease,Hansen'sdisease,HIV/AIDS,andother illnesses.WhileIhaveincludedfeministwriting,IhavenottouchedonthepossibilitiesofLGBTQ+literature;and whileOkinawanliteratureisaddress,theliteratureofAinupeopleisnotincludedhere.Anecessarycategoryof humanrightsliteratureinJapanisthewritingandtestimonyofpeoplewhosurvivedtheatomicbombingsof HiroshimaandNagasaki,andworkbypeoplewhoseliveshavebeendestroyedbyenvironmentalpollution.Italso doesnottakeupwritingsbypeoplewhoservedtimeintheJapaneseprisonsystem.Thislistmightalsoinclude writingbyKoreans,Chinese,Taiwanese,andotherEastandSoutheastAsianslivingundertheumbrellaof

Japaneseimperialism,orJapaneseburakumin.Thepossibilitiesarenumerous;thisarticle,therefore,aimstogive verygeneralintroductionstoonlythreebasiccategorieswhilesuggestingtheabovegroupingsasfurtheravenues fortheexplorationofJapanesehumanrightsliterature.

一82一

(6)

ThreeGenerationsofHumanRightsinJapan:

Anintroductiontotextsandideasforclassroomuse

CivilandPolitical

Women MeijitoEarlyShowaFeminism

AlthoughArticle140ftheJapaneseConstitutionguaranteesequalityofmenandwomen,inrealitythe2016Global GenderGapIndexranksJapan1110utof144countries,drawingattentiontothestunninglackofprogressJapan hasmadetowardsgenderequality(GlobalGenderGapReport,2016).

Women'sliteratureinJapan,likemanyliteraturesofhumanrights,hasoftenbeentreatedasaminor

literature,asaliterarysubgenresomehowdistinctfrommainliterarytrends.IntheMeijiperiod(1868‑1912), womenwriterswereoftenupper‑class,educatedwomendescribedwiththetermkeishusakka,orladywriters

(Copeland2003,70).Laterreferredtoasjoryusakka,orwomenwriters,attheturnofthetwentiethcentury,female authorstookupissuesofwomen'srighttopoliticalparticipation,inadditiontotheroleofwomeninthehomeand

family.WriterssuchasHiguchiIchiyo(1872‑1896)tookupissuesofwomen'splaceinsociety,bydepicting womentrappedinunhappymarriagesorwomenwhoworkasgeishainthepleasuredistrict(translatedinDanly,

1981).

RebeccaCopelandintroducessomeexamplesofwomenactivistswithtranslatedexcerptsoftheirworkinthe

volumeLostLeaves:〃0〃zen〃'riters(ゾMeiji/apan(2000).AnothervolumeeditedbyCopeland,〃0〃aan Critiqued:TranslatedEssaysonJapaneseWomen'sWriting(2006),providestranslationsofessaysaboutwomen writersfromtheMeijiperiodintocontemporaryJapanbyawidevarietyofliteraryandsocialcritics.Finally,her 2006editedvolumeTheModernMurasaki:WritingbyWomenofMeijiJapan,containsawideselectionof

women'swritings,fromdiariestospeechestodramas,poetry,andfiction.Itisaninvaluablevolumefora discussionofwomen'ssocialadliteraryactivisminMeijiandTaishoJapan.

JanBardsleycollectedandtranslatedaselectionofwritingsfromtheearlyfeministjournalSeito,or Bluestockinginher2007text,TheBluestockingsofJapan:NewWomanEssaysandFictionfromSeito,1911‑16.

Bardsleyhaschosen12writerswhowereactiveintheSeitocircle,andtranslatedavarietyofworks,from controversialessaysthatearnedcensorshipbansofthemagazinetofictionalpieces.Whiledrawingattentionto earlyfeministstrugglesinJapan,thisvolumeisparticularlyinterestingasitspeakstoissuesthatcontinuetobe debatedtoday,suchassexualityandmotherhood,genderequality,andabortion.

ThepoetryofYosanoAkikoisalsooftenincludedintrailblazingJapanesefeministwritingduetoherfrank andscandalousacknowledgementsoffemalesexualdesireandtaboosubjectssuchasthepainofchildbirth.Janine Beichmann(2002)providesacriticalbiographyandtranslationsthatcanbeincorporatedintodiscussionsofearly Japanesefeminism.

WhiletheabovefocusesonfirstwavefeminisminJapan,itisimportanttonotethatsecondandthirdwave feminismhasleftarichhistoryofactivismandsocialcritique,someofwhich,suchastheworkofprominent

(7)

feministscholarUenoChizuko,hasbeentranslatedintoEnglish.BananaYoshimoto,OgawaYoko,NatsuoKirino, KamikawaMieko,KaneharaMieko,KonoTaeko,TakahashiTakako,KurahashiYumiko,MurataSayaka,and

manyothercontemporaryJapanesefemalewritersarewidelyavailableintranslation.Allofthesewriterspresent differentvisionsoffemininityandwhatitmeanstobeawomanincontemporaryJapanesesociety.

Withtextsfromtheturnofthetwentiethcentury,studentscanbeaskedseveralquestions.Oneofthemost obviousis,ofcourse,howsuchtextsspeaktothecurrentsituationofwomeninJapantoday.Whowouldthe readershavebeen,andhowwouldpeoplehavereactedtothetextswhentheywereinitiallypublished?Hasthe readershiporthereceptionchangedovertime,andifso,why?Whatdidthesetextshopetoaccomplish,if anything?Weretheywrittenforthepurposeofincitingsocialchange?Ifnot,howshouldweunderstandthe purposeofthewritingandhowitchangesovertime?

EconomicandSocial

Proletariat EarlyShowa

TheRedDecade(1925‑1935)ofproletarianliteraturebeganinJapanaftertheGreatKantoEarthquakeof1923with theestablishmentoftheJapanProletarianLiteraryFrontin1925.Duringthisdecadewritersfacedvaryingdegrees

ofoppressionforthepublicationoftheirleftistbeliefs,culminatinginthe1933murderofauthorKobayashiTakiji

(1903‑1933)atthehandsofthepolice.SosuccessfulwastheJapanesepolicyoftortureandsuppressionthatfor manyyearsproletarianwritingandauthorswhocalledforjustandfairworkingconditionsweretreatedasa footnoteinJapaneseliteraturehistory.

Proletarianliteraturehasinthepastbeendismissedbyscholarsasideology‑drivenproductionsthatoffer littletointeresteitherinaestheticsorcontent.Atthesametime,asJapanfacedapost‑bubbleeconomyandthe

emergenceofanewclassofeconomicallyandsociallyinsecureprecariatinpartdrovearediscoveryandrenewed

commitmenttoproletarianliterature(Field,2009;Bowen‑Struk,2009&2015).ZeljkoCiprishasbeenaprolific andsensitivetranslatorofproletarianliteraryworksintoEnglish,issuingcollectionsoftheantimilitaristand proletarianleaderKuroshimaDenji(2005)andKobayashiTakiji(2013).MichaelBourdaghs(2014)hasalso

translatedKuroshima'swork,makingawealthofcommentaryoneconomicinequalityandtheproletarian movementavailabletoEnglishreaders.

HeatherBowen‑StruykandNormaField(2016)havealsopublishedarichanthologyofproletarianliterature intranslationthatforegroundsthesocialandactivistroleofliteratureinJapan.Thevolumeraisesquestionsabout motherhood,prostitution,war,militarism,andofcoursetheeconomicinjusticesofanindustrialJapanthat

sacrificeditsworkerstoeconomicprofitandimperialisticexpansion.

Thesenewtranslationsprovethatatitsveryheartproletarianliteraturewasconcernedwithjusticeandsocial change,drivenbythestrongbeliefthathumanrelationshipsandhumanrightsshouldbeprioritizedovereconomic

.,

(8)

profitormilitaryexpansion.Thestoriesthathavebeentranslatedrevealthehumancostofthepursuitofwealth beforehumanwell‑being,andarethereforeattheircorealiteratureofhumanrights.ThefactthatKobayashiTakiji ranked#130nthe2008Japaneselistofbest‑sellingbooks(Bowen‑Stryuk,2009)demonstrateshowsalientthese issuesremainforourtime.Indeed,weoftenseehumanrightsliteraturegainrenewedpopularityinthefaceof threatstotheseveryrights.The20081iteraryspikeofKobayashiinthefaceoftheeconomicdownturnisechoedin thefactthatGeorgeOrwell's1984rocketedtothetopofthebest‑sellinglistsinAmericainthewakeofthe electionofDonaldTrumpandthetotalitarianturninUSpolitics(deFreytas‑Tamura,2017).

Withproletarianliterature,studentscanbeaskedaboutthenatureofthetext.Wasitwrittenasanactof witnessagainstaninhumaneeconomicsystem?Wasitmeanttobeahistoricoraestheticrepresentation?Diditaim tocreatesympathyinitsreadersfortheplightofthosewhosuffered?Orwasitprimarilyintendedtoraiseclass consciousnessandactasacalltorevolution?Whatarethebenefitsanddemeritsofreadingitineachofthese ways?Thatistosay,howdoesthetextchangewhenwereaditforempathyandwhenwereaditforitsclass consciousness?

Cultural

Okinawa Japaneseliteratureistreatedasamonolithwheninfacttherearerichregionalvariationsandminorityliterary

cultures.ProminentamongthesearetheliteratureoftheAinuandtheUchinanchu,orthenativeOkinawans.Both OkinawaandHokkaidowereindependentkingdomsannexedbyJapanduringtheMeijiperiod.Writingfromthese areas,andfromJapan'sotherimperialcolonies,thusfrequentlytakeupissuesofculturalidentity,exploringthe effectsofJapan'sassimilationpoliciesandtheirownethnic,cultural,linguistic,andreligiousheritage.They

furtheroftenforegroundthehumancostofcolonialandmilitaryviolenceandhowculturalmemorycanbesilenced.

ThereisavarietyofworksbyUchinanchuauthorsavailableinEnglishtranslation.Prominentamongthese areSteveRabson's(1989)translationsofnovellasbyOshiroTatsuhiro(1925‑)andHigashiMineo(1938‑).Bothof theseauthorswereawardedtheAkutagawaPrizefortheirworks.Oshiro'sworkdealswiththerapeofayounggirl

byanAmericansoldier,andHigashi'spiecedescribestheexperiencesofaboywhoseparentsrunabarandbrothel neartheAmericanmilitarybase.Bothnovels,then,focusonthecontinuedAmericanoccupationofJapanandits humancosttotheOkinawanpeople.

Rabsonhasseveralothereditedcollections.WithMichaelMolasky(2000)heeditedSouthernExposure:

ハ70dern/apanese」L舵rα 伽泥ノアo〃zOん加 α照,andwithDavinderLBhowmik,RabsonhaseditedIslands(ゾPro'θ3'」

JapaneseLiteraturefromOkinawa(2016),bothcollectionsofshortstories,poetryanddramafromOkinawa.

Furthermore,FrankStewartandKatsunoriYamazato(2011)publishedaspecialissueofManoaentitledLiving Spirit:LiteratureandResurgenceinOkinawa.AddtothesetranslationsofpiecesbyMedorumaShun(1960‑)and EikiMatayoshi(1947‑)thatareavailableonline,andthebodyofOkinawanliteratureavailableinEnglishisrich

indeed.

(9)

ThesetextsraiseimportantquestionsaboutwhatitmeanstobeJapaneseandJapan'slegacyofcolonialism andviolence.ItfurtherasksustorethinkAmericanimperialismandthehumancostsofAmericanmilitarybases forthehostcountries.Whatdoesitmeantobecolonial?Whatdoesitmeantobeoccupied?Doesoccupationever

end?Howdowriterspreservetheirethnic,linguistic,andculturalheritageswhilestillparticipatingina"national"

literature?Isthewritingactivist,andifso,inwhatway?Howdothewritersexpresstrauma?Istheworkmeantto protest,toheal,ortodosomethingelse?

Conclusion

Collectively,whendiscussinghumanrightsinliterature,wecanaskwhatkindofhistorytheyprovideandhowthat addstoLevy's"greyarea."Howdoesliteraturechangeorenrichourunderstandingofhistory?Whatdoesitadd?

Whatdoesitleaveout?Howdoesmemoryortraumaworkinthetext?Aretheresilences?Whatdothesesilences mean,andhowshouldweunderstandthem?Whilecertainlyforegroundingaestheticsandthenatureofliterature, becausetheybearwitness,humanrightsliteraturesarearichadditiontoanycurriculum,easilyincorporatedtoadd

shadesofgreyandcomplicatereceivedhistoricalnarratives.

TherearenumerousavenuesforexplorationandexpansioninaconsiderationofhumanrightsinJapanese literature.Testimonyandnarrativecanbeproductivelyaddedtoaspectrumofcoursesinthehumanitiesandsocial

sciences.Inaworldwherehistorysooftenrepeats,restoringthehumanvoicestothehistoricalrecordisapowerful toolthatencouragescriticalthinkingandreflectioninstudents.Italsomakesstudentsquestiontheirown positionality.InHilberg'striangle,wheredothestand,andwhataretheconsequencesforthepositiontheytake?

Thisactofcriticalthinkingandreflectiononthepartofstudentsiscrucialastheybecomeactiveandcontributing membersofsociety,andthereisnobetterwaytopromoteitthanwiththeuseofliteratureandtestimony.

WorksCited Bardsley,J.(2007).TheBluestockingsofJapan:FeministEssaysandFictionfromSeito,1911‑1916.AnnArbor:

UniversityofMichiganPress.

Bauer,J.R.&Bell,D.(1999).TheEastAsiancha〃 θηgε ノbπ 加〃zansights.NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Beichman,J.(2002).EmbracingtheFirebird:YosanoAkikoandtheBirthoftheFemaleVoiceinModernJapanese Poetry.Honolulu:UniversityofHawaiiPress.

Bhowmik,D.L,&Rabson,S.(2016).Islands(ゾ μo'θ3"」吻 αη83θ1∫ ∫θrα'耀 θノアo駕Okinawa.Honolulu:University

ofHawaiiPress.

Bourdaghs,M.&Kuroshima,D.(2014).TheTwo‑SenCopperCoin.TheAsia‑Pacific.lournal.Vol.12Vol.12,Issue44, No.2.Availableonline:http://apjjf.org/2014/12/44/Michael‑Bourdaghs/4208.htm1.Accessed28January2017.

Bowen‑Struyk,H.(2015).TheCrabCanneryShipBoom,AmamiyaKarinandthePrecariat:DanceDance

Revolution?In:」ineages(ゾ'舵」iterary」Lψ 」E∬aアS加」り∂norof〃anM.Wald,Ed.Brick,H,Lieberman,R.

&Rabinowitz,P.AnnArbor,MLMaizeBooks,MichiganPublishing,159‑179.

:・

(10)

Bowen‑Struyk,H.(2009).WhyaBoominProletarianLiteratureinJapan?TheKobayashiTakijiMemorialandThe FactoryShip.TheAsia‑PacificJournal.Vol.71ssue26,No.1.Availableonline:http://apjj￡org/‑Heather‑

Bowen‑Struyk/3180/article.html.Accessed28January2017.

Bowen‑Struyk,H.&Field,N.(2016).ForDignity,Justice,andRevolution:AnAnthologyofJapaneseProletarian Literature.Chicago:TheUniversityofChicagoPress.

Brivati,B.,Jensen,M.,JollyM.&MooreA.S.(2014).UsingLifeNarrativetoExploreHumanRightsThemesin

theClassroom.In:WeShallBearWitness:LifeNarrativesandHumanRights.Ed.M.JensenandM.Jolly.

Madison,WI:UniversityofWisconsinPress.p.267‑280.

Cipris,Z.(2006).AgainsttheSystem:AntiwarWritingofKuroshimaDerゆ.TheAsia‑Pacificノ ∂uNnal.VoL41ssue

10,No.0.Availableonline:http://apjjf.org/‑Zeljko‑Cipris/2243/article.html.Accessed28January2017.

Copeland,R.ed.(2006).〃'omanCritiqued:乃゜anslatedE∬aアson、ノapanese〃omen's〃'1^ltllZg.Honolulu:

UniversityofHawaiiPress.

Copeland,R.&Ortabasi,M.,ed.(2006).The‑ModernMurasaki:WritingbyWomen(ゾMθ 〃'iノ吻侃.NewYork:

ColumbiaUniversityPress.

Copeland,R.(2003).MeijiWomenWriters.In:MostowJ.S.etal,ed.TheColumbiaCompaniontoModeNnEast AsianLiterature.NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress.

Copeland,R.(2000).LostLeaves:WomenWritersofMeijiJapan.Honolulu:UniversityofHawaiiPress.

Danly,R.L.(1981).IntheShadeofSpringLeaves:TheLifeandWritingsofHiguchiIchiyo.NewHaven:Yale

UniversityPress

Dembour,M‑B.(2010)Whatarehumanrights?Fourschoolsofthought.HumanRightsQuarterly,32(1).pp.1‑20.

Eiki,M.(2009).TheCarnivalBullfight.Trans.TomKain.BeholdMySwarthyFace140ct.Availableonline:

http://www.beholdmyswarthyface.com/2009/10/carnival‑bullfight‑by‑matayoshi‑eiki.html

Field,N.(2009).KobayashiTakiji:21sekiinidoyomuka.[ReadingKobayashiTakijiforthe21stCentury].

Tokyo:Iwanamishoten.

Freeman,M.D.A.(2002).HumanRights:AnlnterdisciplinaryApproach.Oxford:Polity.

DeFreytas‑Tamura,K.(26January2017).GeorgeOrwell's1984hasasalessurge.TheNewYorkTimes,+C4.

Hausmann,R.et.al.(2016).TheGlobalGenderGapIndex2016(PDF).WorldEconomicForum,Geneva,

Switzerland.[Accessed28January2017].http://www3.weforum.org/docs/GGGR16/WEF ̲Global̲Gender̲

Gap ̲Report̲2016.pdf

Kobayashi,T.(2013).TheCrabCanneryShipandOtherNovelsofStruggle.Trans.ZeljkoCipris.Honolulu:

KuroshimaD.(2005).AFIockofSwirlingCrowsandOtherProletarianWritings.Trans.ZeljkoCipris.Honolulu:

Leckie,S.,&Gallagher,A.(2006).Economic,social,andculturalrights:Alegalresourceguide.Philadelphia,Pa:

UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress.

Lewontin,R.C.(1991).Biologyasideology.・ThedoctrineoプD凡4.Concord,Ont:Anansi.

(11)

MedorumaS.(2011).Mabuigumi.Trans.KyleIkeda.MANOA:LivingSpirit.Vol23,No.1,Summer.Pp.112‑134.れ

Medoruma,S.(1999).AnOkinawanShortStory.Trans.SteveRabson.JPRICritiqueVol.6,No.12(December).

Availableonline:http://www.jpri.org/publications/critiques/critique ̲VI̲12.html Meroruma,S.(2012).StoriesfromtheStreetsofKoza.Trans.SamMalissa.WordswithoutBorders:Theonline

magazineforinternationalliterature.Availableonline:http://www.wordswithoutborders.org/article/three‑

stories‑from‑the‑streets‑of‑koza

McClennen,S.A.(2015).IntroductiontoFocus:TheHumanRightsTurn.AmericanBookReview,Vol.36,No.4

(May/June2015).P.3.

Molasky,M.,&Rabson,S.(2000).Southernexposure:Modern/apaneseliteraturefro〃20ん加僻 α.Honolulu:

Phillipson,R.(1992).Linguistic碗peria〃8溺.Oxfbrd:OxfbrdUniversityPress.

Rabson,S.,OshiroT.&HigashiM.(1989).Okinawa:乃voPo3∫ 照猷りvθ 〃as.Trans.WithanintroductionbyS.

Rabson.Berkeley:InstituteofEastAsianStudies,UniversityofCalifornia.

Robinson,M.(2014).Foreword:LifeStoriesinaHumanRightsContext.In:WeShallBeatyWitness:Life

NarrativesandHumanRights.Ed.M.JensenandM.Jolly.Madison,WI:UniversityofWisconsinPress,ix‑x.

Stewart,F.,&Yamazato,K.(2011).Livingspirit:LiteratureandresurgenceinOkinawa.Honolulu,Hawaii:

UniversityofHawai'IPress.

UNGeneralAssembly,翫ゴversalDeclarationqプ」FlumanRights,10Decemberl948,217A(III),availableat:

http://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b3712c.html[accessed28January2017]

UNGeneralAssembly,InternationalCovenantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights,16December1966,

UnitedNations,TreatySeries,vol.993,p.3,availableat:http://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b36cO.htm1

[accessed28January2017]

UNGeneralAssembly,ConventionontheEliminationofAllFormsofDiscriminationAgainstWomen,18

December1979,UnitedNations,TreatySeries,vol.1249,p.13,availableat:http://www.refworld.org/docid/

3ae6b3970.htm1[accessed28January2017]

UNGeneralAssembly,ConventionontheRightsoftheChild,20November1989,UnitedNations,TreatySeries,

vol.1577,p.3,availableat:http://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b38fO.html[accessed28January2017]

UNGeneralAssembly,ConventionontheRightsofPersonswithDisabilities:resolution/adoptedbytheGeneral Assembly,24January2007,A/RES/61/106,availableat:http://www.refworld.org/docid/45f973632.htm1