Self-regulated Learning Outside of the Classroom: A Retrospective Study of English Language Learning Experiences in High School

A Retrospect市

e Smdy OfEnglish Lalguage Lettning

Experiences in IIigh School

教育内容・方法開発専攻

文化表現系教育 コース

言語系教育分野

(英

語

)

M12180C

Self―

regulated Leaming Outside ofthe Classroolm:

A Retrospec・

t市

e Smdy OfEnglish Lttlguage Lc〔

Ш

ning

Experiences in High School

A Thesls

Presented to

The F"ulty ofthe Gradutte Course誠

Hyogo University ofTe"her Educ江

lon

In Patial Fulf11lment

Ofthe Requirements for the Degree of

Master of School Education

by

Sonoko Ashida

(Student Nllmber:M12180C)

I alln indebted to allthe pcople who have supported ine to complete this thesls.

First and foremost,I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Dr Yoshiyuki

Nakata,my supervisor who guided me along the path of researcho His colrments were

always incis市 e,and he also has been so good at providing relevant help and suggestions

for me.I am so fortunatc thatl have worked on my research under his expert guidance.

I aln also grateful to all the teachers in the]Department of English Languagc at

Hyogo University of Teacher Education for givlng me lots of opportuniies in which I

learnt so much.

I would like to cxpress sincerc appreciation to no Nathanlel Mltchell and Ms。 Pemy Mosavian,who kindly accepted my requctt ofproo■ eading and offered i― ense

help ln revising

My thanks are dso extended to the 78 participants who answcred the

questlolllnaire in my research,the six participants who participatcd in ind市 idual

interviews and the four students who took partin the pllot studyo l could not pursue my

research wlthout their coopcration.

Lastly,I am also very gratem to my fellow students,especially Ms.Vicki Lym Verseland and Mro Shtti Kobayashi,who were always grcatly support市 e and gave me

good advlce for this thesis.I leamt how essential vanous opinions are for research

Sonoko Ashlda

Kato,Hyoto

December,2014

Abstract

This study aims to exallllune how Japanese high school learners of Engllsh

self―regulate their English learmng outside of class and how much these lemers' expcricnces impact their subsequent te■iary Engllsh langllage learningo ln the context of

the Japanese high school,English as a foreign language(EFL)is set as One of the mandatory sttcctS and is taught wlth the purpose of impro宙

ng lemers'Engllsh

proflclencyo Leamers also have their owll leaming goals because they are at the stage of

shaping their owll aturcs.Because the learncrs'goals are quite diverse,they considcr

how to orgalllse thelr out― of―class learlllng as well as thelr class…related leanllng。

Thcrefore,it is esselltial that lcamer's attltudc towards leanling is self― organised and

self―regulated

This thesis consists of flve chaptcrs Chapter l cxplains the theoretical backgrOllnd and the pre宙ous literature.First,ZiIIIIne..■ ■an's(2002)frallnewOrk of

cyclical phases of self―regulated lcarlllng(SRL)is used tO Cxplain learners'cognitlve, affective,and beha宙ollral conditions related to learllllngo Second,Littlewood's(1999)

fralnework of rcactive and proactive autonomy is used to examinc leamers'orientatlon

of pllrsult of learning outsidc of class.These two Jimcworks also defme the difference

between SRL and autonon巧 ら SRL ls the actual lemng process of learners, and

autonomy is lcamcrs'orientation towards leaming.Finally,self― dete....lnation theo瑠 _ち

goal settlng theory, goal oriclltation theory, and sclf― theo五es of intclllgcnce are

sullllmansed.

Chapter 2 presents the entlre research design,the research procedure,and the

are used,and the research procedure is d市 ided into two parts Study l and Study 2.In

Study l,a quantitatlve questiollnaire was administered to 74 flrst… year students at a

national llmversity in Japano Then,in Study 2,semi… structured individual interviews

were conducted with six particlpants extracted fronl each cluster。

In Chapter 3,the results and discussions of Study l are describedo Study l was carried out to explore the follo宙 ng three polnts:1)the participants'orientatlons

towards the pllrsult of English leaming outside of class,2)the faCtOrs whlch promotcd

or」mpeded self―regulated English leaning outside of class,and 3)the relationshlp

bettFeen the participants'cllrrent leaning situations and their pre宙 ous experiences of

self―regulation in English learmng outslde of class in high school The rcsults are

sulllllnarised below:

1)ThC thrcc clusters are categorised according to reactive and proactlve autonomy

o五entation towards English lcarlung outsidc ofclasso thc partlcipants in Cluster

l ls both reactive and proactive o五ented,Clustcr 2 is proactive oriented,and

Cluster 3 is reactive oriented。

2)Visible Outcomes,such as good pcrfo.11lance,support autonomous learning and

SRL outside of class in all the clusterso Proacive― oriellted leaners are likely to

try to use vanous strategies.Reactive― o五ented leamcrs arc likely to focus on

vocabulary and gralllmar because thcy pay more attention to understandlng the

wholc mcaning ofthc contentthey leam。

3)The leεШlers who have both proacive and rcactive autollomy orientations differ signiicantly from those in other clusters to their extrinslc mot市 ation and the

self―reflection phase of cllrrent SRLo Proactivc― orientcd lcarners havc belief based on changeable intelligence.

Chapter 4 describes the qualitative interviews that were conducted with s破 partlcipants(Study 2).The flndings suggest that leamers'lntemal and extemal factors

lniuence their out… of―class learnlng lt is important to conslder how the behavlollrs of

teachers affect thelr learners'pllrsu■ of learning and how goals are attusted.It is also

lmportant for teachers to consider that learners'ability to se13organise their goals is

bascd on thelr vanous motlvations towards lcarning English, which enable thenl to

succeed ln the SRL ofEnglish outside ofclass.

Chapter 5 su―arises the study and offers several pedagogica1 lmplications:

1)TeaChers should pay close attention to how leamers'English leaming outside

ofclass is pllrsued and how thcir instructions in class are perceived by learners;

this is bccause lem∝ s' SRL processes are strongly L」auenced by teachers'

behaviollrs in and out of class.It is also cssential for teachers to consider inore

preclsely how their leamers seliorganise their leamng。

2)Sometimes,learners calmot bring about visible outcomes,such as good

pcrfo..llance They consider having llo evidence of good perforlnance as a

failllre.However,lt is esscntialゎ analyse their lcaming pЮcesses and try to

renect on sRL constantly.

In conclusion,the necessity of considcring SRL in the inattcr of English learning

Acknowledgment...….…_{"・…。………………・} `¨…・………… .…_{・………・…・………・…“…・…・…………・…“…“}i Abuct... _{"・・・・・・・・・●}●●●●●●●●_・●_{・・・・●}●●●_・●_{・・・・・・・・・●}●●●●●●●●_・●_{・・・・●}●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●n ListofTables.“_……….¨….¨………・………・¨………“……… 破

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Introd面

n.

Chapterl neOmtical hdgЮ

Ш

ld andPrevious Litemm

・・・・・・・。4

1.l LeamingProcessofSelf― regllatedLeaming

1.2 Autonomy¨ ………

1.2.l Proactive andreactive autonomy.¨ ..¨¨“_"¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨““_"“¨_"¨“・・・・“““・・・・¨・・_"“¨・・¨¨・・・・・・・・¨¨“・・・・9

1.3 meory…

_“………¨¨………¨¨………“¨9

1.3.l Motivation.¨..¨...・“¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨

132 Deg71ee Ofint―linion…....・・……・・・・・・・・・……・・・・・・・・・…・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・…・・・・・・………・・・・・・…・・・・・・・・・・・・…・・。10

14 Goal■eory…...・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・10 1.4.l Goal―setting■eory“_{“ ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・}10

14.2 Goalorientationteory...・ _{・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・…・・・・…・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・…・・・・…・・・・・・・・・・・・……・・・・……・・・・。}11

Chapter2 Research…

.…¨…¨….…¨………¨………・ _{“・・・・・・・・・・}・・・・_{・・・・・・}・・・・・・・_・・・・・・・・・・・・・_・13

2.l ReseachDesig71■ ¨_{¨………¨………"………¨………} 13

2.2 Promes oftt Pmicimts.¨ ¨..¨¨¨¨・・¨¨¨・・・・¨・・・・・¨¨¨・・・¨・・・¨¨・¨¨・¨・・¨¨¨・・¨¨・¨¨_“・・¨¨・・・¨¨。_“¨¨“・・・_"・・・14

Chapter3 Study l

3。l ReseachQuestiOns...・……・・・・・・・・・……・・・・・・・・・…・・・・・・・…・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・…・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・…・・・・・・・・・…・・・・・・・・・……・・・16

32 ResealchMaterial ofStudy l...・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・16

3.3 Procedu ofAnalysisto A― erResearchC“stiOns。

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16

17

3.4 Rentsand Discsions ofRes―hQuestion l…

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3.5 ReslltsandDiscsionsofReseachQuestiOn2.…

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3.5。l Rewonsesto tte open―endedquestions.…_…… ¨・・_"・・・・“・・¨・・¨¨¨¨・・20

3.5。1.l Characteristics ofClder l.… _{………¨…………“……¨22}

3.5.1.2 Characteristics ofCIner2...¨¨・・¨・・¨・・¨¨¨¨¨¨・・¨¨・・¨¨¨・・¨・・¨・・"¨・・¨・・¨・・¨¨・・¨¨¨¨¨¨・・“・・¨24

3.4。1.3 CharactcFiStiCs ofClder 3.¨..¨_“¨・・¨¨ _{・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・} 26

3.52 Dinttmandalncls ofrcscach甲

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3.6RentsandDiscsionofRcseaEhQuestiOn3.…

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3.6■

ANOVA andapo“

h∝xЮttp劇■o■_………29

Chapter4 Study 2.… _{……… 32}

4。l Me■odolos ofStudy 2… …… …“…“… ………… ¨…………“……… “…““。32 4。2 RentsandDiscsions.…_{………・。}33 4.2.l CInerl.“ ¨.¨ .¨・・ 。_{“““““"¨“}¨・・¨¨_“ "・・"¨“・・“"¨¨“・・“““・・¨"¨・・¨・・¨“・・・・“33 42.1.l LeamerA.…_……. ¨¨・・・・¨ "¨¨¨・・“¨"・・・・¨・・¨““¨・・¨¨・。33 4.2.1.2 LeamerB.…_{………・・・……・・・………。}36 42.1.3 LeamerC.… ………。38 4。22 CIner2.…_……… ・・¨_"“・・・・¨・・_"¨・_・ "・・¨¨¨・・・・¨"“¨““・・“¨“・・・・“・・¨39 4.2.2.l LeamerD。¨¨..¨¨_“・¨・・・““・¨_“・・“_"¨¨¨・¨¨・・¨¨・¨ 。_“・・・・““・・¨・・¨・・¨“ "““"39 4.2.3 Clder3....“¨。"“・・・“・¨¨・・・・・¨・¨・“¨¨““・・・・・¨“¨。・・¨¨¨・・・・・““¨¨““““・・・¨・"・・・・・¨。“。¨“¨““・““““・・・“・・"41 4.2.3.l LcamerE。_………¨41 42.3.2 LeamerF。 ………¨ ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 名 4.3 LiminiOns

Chapter5 Conclusion and hPlications.… ………47

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Appendix41hT―

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Table l Table 2 Table 3

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le4 Table 5 Table 6 Table 7 List ofTables … PrOCedm andPmicipants'Promes… _{… … … …}・15

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iptive StatisticsofEachClder.… _………“ ・・・・・。19

briptionsofCIFers'Promes

_…・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・19 Responsestott OpencndedQuestiOnsinCluster l“

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List ofFi_

Figtre l PhaseandSubroceSSesofSelf―RcMatiOn.¨ “¨““““““““¨¨“"“¨¨¨““¨““"““¨“"¨“““¨“・5 FigLE 2 The Self―

Det―

inationContinunWiLTypesofMotivationandTypesofReration

11

FigtE3 ClderScorclxК

ssedasMeanScore.…_………¨19

Introductiom

In the Japanesc context, English ls currently regarded as one of the most compulsory sutteCtS in secondary educationo Accordlng to the COν rsθ _げrS初_{の by the}

NIlinistry of Education,Culture,Sports,Scicnce and Technology(henceforth■ llⅨT)

(2011),Japanese high schools are generally required to improve students'宙 1lingness to

COIIllnllnicate with otherso This enables them to tell other people what they know or feel

each othero MEXT has also revised the curriculllm and its basic princlples,whlch

suggest the need for well― balanced learning and integrative skills for the use of an

arbltrary foreign language。

Although regular English class ls suppOsed to be carrled out in confo....lty with

the requlrcments dcscribcd above, lcarncrs in Japanese schools often pllrsue their

leaming outside of class lt ls usual,for teachers to require students to do additional

assiglllnent―so―called homework which is to be done outside ofclass as preparation,

for rcvicw, or for rcmcdlal purposeso Such addltlonal coIImitments outside of class

adhcre to the puTosc that MEXT has set as long as thcy arc rclated to thc rcgular class

and are rcgardcd as cxtensions ofthelr usual class

However,it is possiblc to vicw lcarning outside of class as enta11lng a different

interpretatlon wlth respect to how it should be implemented for lcarncrs, and some

teachers do not havc responsibility for what their learllers actually doo Most high school

students have to start prepanng for thelr mture after graduation They choose to make

relevant illvestments,such as ume and effort,in learning ln order to achieve their owll

goals above the goals of class;they o■ en have conc∝ ns about how to improve their English scores in order to succeed in llmversity cntrance cxaminations.hen they feel

that the additonal work in class is insufflcient,they may spontaneously declde to set a

schedule or choose extra materials,thus creating opportunities for themselves。

The mttority Ofthe students in Japanese high schools tend to dm to improve their

English in order to attain vanous goals.Because thelr learning beyond the classroom seting can be quite miscellaneous,ume and effort they should invest to attain these

goals usually depends on how they self―regulate their leaming。

Two previous studies researched English learning out of classo Yoshida,

Kanelllshi,Fukuda,and TQgawa(2011)illVestigated the studymg time that unⅣ ersity

students lllvested outside of the classroom.Fukuda and Yoshida(2012)also eXp10red the factors which can lncrease the lnvestment of time in learnmg outside of thc classroom However,both of these illvesigations focused only on how much learners

appear to lnvest in thclr Engllsh lcamingo All ofthe researchers'observations were done

stnctly withln actual classes.Therefore,these studies lack consideration ofhow leamers

organise their learning process outside of class and whether there are any factors whlch

promote or impede this. It should sensibly be deemed that the potential for diverse bchavlollrs and attitudes from dlffercnt leamers towards English outside of class is worthy ofexammation。

This research will dcscribe the self―regulated learning(hCnceforth SRL)of Japanese high school students of English by retrospecively analysing thelr

characteristics,the behaviollral factors that reinforce or hinder thelr SRL,and thc effccts

of these on subsequent learning Chapter l introduces previous studies relatcd to

English learning outside of class and its thcoretlcal backgrollnd,such as SRL and its

related theories:autonomy,self― dete....ination theory,goal theory,and sclf― theories of

particlpants'info....atlon Chapter 3 pro宙 des the results of Study l,which refers to quantitative data about the particlpants' characte五 stics and behaviollrs related to English leaming outside of class,and Chapter 4 shows the result of Study 2 including

the qualitative intervicw data which describe the detalled experiences of the clusters

dlvided in Study l Chapter 5 concludes and sll― arises the research,discusses the

Theoretical Background and Previous Literature

1.l Learning Process of Self‐regulated Learning

lt is ilnportant to focus on SRL in order to exalnine how Japanesc high school

English _⑩encefOrth JIISE)leamers Organise their leamlng outside of class by

themse市cs.

In the context of the Japanesc high school,SRL has recently becn recognised as one ofthc kcy factors affecting students'lcamingo Accordlng to Ueki(2002),Japanese high school students'leanling tends to be iduenced by three factors:1)the alnOunt of lcaming in which they engage,2)thc strategies they use in leaming,and 3)the learning

envirolllnent.In this study,the envirollmental factor is regarded as the situation that

OCCllrS WhCn students receive too muOh support from others。 ()ver one half of high

school students realise that it is effectivc to organise a schedule for their learning,and

they often crcate one by themselves(BeneSSe Educational Research and Development

lnstitute,2013)。 Although the data do not show how they pursue thelr learnlng,they indicate that it is possible to consider that thc idea of SRL has been gradually

pcnetrating and playing a inore important role ln the Japanese high school oontext.

Accordtt to Schunk and Zilrmemlan 2012),SRL ls the learning process by

which learners pcrsonally actvate and orgallllsc systematic orientations of cognhions,

affects,and behaviollrs in order to attain learning goals Zilllunerlnan(2002)also

postulated that there are thrce cyclical phases in the structure of thc self― regulatory

process(see Figllre l)。 Learners analyse learlllng strategies to attam their goals and

phase)。 They then arrange their learning so that it ls ln line with controlling the selt

such as imagery or attention focusing,and monitonng their cllrrent perfo.1.lance using

recording and experimentttion oerfOmance phase)A■ er the perfomance,leamers

renect on the procedure and reorganise the缶 leaming based on self―

_{Judgment and}

self‐reaction towards what they did(self― reflection phase)。 Thus,through this process, leamers are able to continue to develop their learning by taklng lnto conslderation the

cognitivc,behavloural,and affcctive aspects oftheir leaming。

Perforrnance Phase

Self‐conセo: lmagery ser_:nshcton Attentlon fbcus:ng Taskstrategles

Self‐

ObseⅣ

atton

ser_recOrd!ng ser_expenmenねlon

Forethought Phase

TaskAnalysis

C)oal setlng Strateg:c planning

Se:f‐

MdWa■

on Be::d陽

ser_emcacy Outcome ettЮttatons

lntnnslc:nteresWalue

Leaming goalonenねton

Seif‐

Reflection Phase

SeifJudgement

sereva:uaton Casual Attnbuton Se:f‐

Readon

ser_satlsttKtton/ant Adaptlvddefencに

With regard to lcarning English as a foreign language● enceforth EFL),a number

of studles have advanced the understanding of how SRL has h」鳳uenced students' English language leamlngo Tsuda(2010),fOr example,follnd that each Japanese high school student's SRL ofEngllsh shows pattems in the degree oftheir achlevemento The

result also suggests that teachers ought to take responsibility and become lnvolved ln

their students'SRL.

Leaming outsldc of class has multifaceted aspects:class―rclatcd tasks(e.g。,

homeworkh and Self― organised leaning act市lies(eog。,Self―study or independent study)。

Even though leamers can fmd answers of tasks set for them by the士 teachers,■ ls

difflcult to ask teachers for such advice on actlvlties they declde to do on their owll。

They might also be unable to receive the same feedback,which would help them to

analyse their wcakncsses or to obtdn the appropriate help。

In some studies,it has been clalmed that carrying out SRL of Enghsh outside of

class is effecive for EFL learners.Most of them mainly focus on two areas: undergraduate particlpants and how they make use of an infoHnation technology

system,which is knowll as computer― assisted language leaming Khenceforth CALL)。 Although CALL can provide leamers with varlous possibllitles to promote their SRL

(Lai&Gu,20H),a fCW Studics havc exarnlned how high school students'English

learlung has been developed and self― regulated in thcir prcvlous cxperiences outside of

class。

Doyle(2009)alSO COncluded that thc way in which undergraduates leam Engllsh

outside of the classroonl is i』 ucnced by thclr prcvious successill and unsuccessful experiences,evcn in using CALL In rcality,hlgh school students who implelllent SRL

7

them to use They can seek out the most appropriate strategies and materials and can

organise thelr leanling whether or not they use CALL.It is also essential for high school

students to focus on the ablllty to write correct answers on paper― based tests,which are collrmonly adopted in lnany facllitieξ and schools.

Zlmmerlnan(1989)alsO ShOWed that practhioners and teachers should

consistently qucstion the deflnition of SRL ln regard to the following two aspects l)

which forln of SRL and 2)how self―regulated learners can be ldentifledo Japanese

teachers of English in high school should consider these aspects as well,because some

ofther students,in particular,students who alln to study at tertiary level,might facc an

envirollment in whlch they IIlanage to set their owll goals and can start to prepare to

attain these goals in the nture Therefore, lt ls csscntial to lnvestlgate how JHSE

leamers have undergone the actual SRL process to consider how teachers should

support thelr students。

To investlgate leaners' SRL process,it is also unportant to consider leaners'

individual factors whlch can affect thls cyclical process outside of class.Thls is because

how to pursue the process actually differs from each lcarner.Thls study focuses on the

several theoncs regardlng lcarners' factors, such as autonomy, self― dete...1lnation

theory,goal theory,and self― theones oflntelligence.

1.2 Autonomy

NIIost Japanesc high school studcnts self― orgalllsc their leaming without exterllal

observation or involvement,as there are limitations for teachcrs who are trying to■ gllre

teaching(TanOue,2010)。 It iS important to pay attention to how leamers engage in their

leaming autonomously.

Holec's(1979)deflnition of autonomy ls wldely recogmsed;autonomy ls a

situation in which students take responsibillty for their owll learning and improve lt on

thclr own. Although autonomy seems to be foJmed only within indivlduals, Little (1991)liSted iVe misconcep■ ons Of autollomy:1)autOnOmOus learners make teachers

tlmecessary;2)teachCrs may lntervene in the autonomy whlch lettners manage to

attain;3)teachers should use a new method to teach their leamers;4)autol10my is so simplc that the behaviollr can be descrlbed easily;and 5)only Certain leι Шlers can achieve autonomy under flxed circllmstances Thus,autonomy does not inean that each

lndividual learnlng;learner autonomy is generatcd,based on the leamer's recognition of

decision―making with others,as well as on the宙ew that evcry lemer has the possibility

ofbeconllng autonomous.

Little(1991)Claimed that the successil practlce of autonomy includes

interactlon between language learning and language use,confldence ln using the target

langllage is bascd on both the preconccp■ on and outcomc of collllmllnicat市 e acivlty.

Furthe..1lore,ln letter autonomy,mterdependence is the product of social interactive

processes alnong peoplc(Little,R■ dley,&Ushioda,2002)。

Regarding the宙 ew that autonomy is sometimes mlxed up with SRL(Ko.1..OS& Csiz“ &Ko..1.OS,2014),accOrding to Lewis and Vlalleton(20H),learner autonomy

slgniflcantly differs from SRL in two main ways。 1)Leamcr autonomy enables leamers to reflect on what they do consciously and make a declsion,whereas SRL entails ambiguity in employing learnmg,and 2)in c五 tlCal renection,lcamer autonomy affects soclety or insitutions(ounardly)althOugh SRL relates to thelr owll perfo....ance

9

(inWardly)。 Bascd on thcsc ideas of autonomy,learners can pllrsue the SRL outside of

class.It is also lmportant to consider that learners have their orientations of autonomy

which affect the actual behavlollr towards the SRL。

1.2.l Proactive and reactive autonomy

Thls study refers to the followlng two aspects of autonomy:react市

e autonomy

and proactive autonomy.This is because the actual behaviollrs and attitudes of learners

towards their autonomy out ofclass arc quite dlverse that it should bc catcgoriscd.

Accordlng to Littlewood(1999),reactive autolllomy is about leamers gettlng to

take rcsponslbllity for thett learning and pursuing their learning react市 ely after they are

lnstructed on the strategy or otteciVe tO take Proact市 e autonomy ls about them

imtally taking responsibility and dctennining what to do autonomously without being instructed by somcone else.They do not represent dichotomous idcas for the learners'

categories;in fact,each has differcnt orlcntations ibr setting and inovlng ahead with a

plan for leaming。

1.3 Self‐deterlmination Theory

l.3.l Motivation

hatls mot市

ation?Sclf―dcterlnlnation theory●encefOrth SDT)is an approach which focuscs on different motivations and personalitics of humans. The theory addresses how pcople grow psychologically and what kind of tendencies they have

(Ryan&Deci,2002)。

In SDT,according to Deci and Ryan(1985),thcre arc intrinslc and extrinsic mouvat10ns;the fo....ertype ofmot市ation is based on thc lcamer's desire

motivations spawlled ttonl extemal rewards or the avoidance of punishη Юnt and poor

perfo....ance.

The following types of motivation,proposed by Gardner and Lambert(1959),are widely knowll and have been in use for a long time.These are the terlns:instrumental mouvation KtO use language as an instrumenth and integrat市 e mouvatiOn←o integrate

oneselflnto a particular culturc or co― umty)。

1.3.2]Degree of internalisation

lt ls宙 dely accepted that there is a linear model that shows how the value of

leaming is internalised;learners'Inotivation tends to be change based on a continullm

(see Figllre 2).There are learners with amoivatlon those who have no

motivation― and then there are leamers who have been dolng assiglllnents or tasks because they are extemally moivated by a reward or punishent and have gradually noticed and introJected the value and importance of the work in a pe■od of extrlnsic

mot市ationo Once leamers identitt the usettiness and practlcality of the work,they begin to value whatthey have donc to achieve completion ofthe work.Finally,leamers attaln intrinslc motivatlon(Deci&Ryan,1985)。

1.4 Goal Theory

l.4.l Goal…setting theory

To self―regulate leaming processes,when considenng one's owl1 0rientation of

autonomy and moivation,setting goals is one ofthe most important factors in pllrsulng

Mo翻vattn

Type or Regulttion

mOtivatton 自 離ns確覇cLvation intFinSiC Mol沖ation

Non― RettlatloFl 輛 J Intraiecおd Rertamn ReulatiOn ldeJtted integnted Rtulation Reguiatlon inunsic Regu:ation Quality oF N● nserndeteralned 縫httor 騨 節 … 費ed

物 ′θ2The self―Detcrllnlnatlon Colltinllulrl,with Types of Ⅳlotivation and Types of

Regulatlon(Deci&Ryan,2002,p16)

Bandura and Schunk(1981)characterise dlstal and pro対 mal sub goals in the

following way:A distal goal refers to goal settlng in the distant hture,such as to reach

a sufflcient levcl of English proflciency,and a proxiinal sub goal refers to goal setting

in thc near hture, such as to succeed ln an exalmnationo A proxllnal sub goal ls

regarded as a factor that reinforces leamers'self― efflcacy,lntrlnsic rnotivation,and SRL

more effect市ely than a distal goal.

1.4.2 Goal orientation theory

ln dlscussing the concept of orientatlon for settlng goals,Pintrich(2000),Elllot

(1999),and Ames(1992)refer tO mastery goal oHentation(Setting goals to master a skill or knowledge)and perfOrlnancc goal orientation(scttlng goals to obtain a good perfo....ance or score in a testho These studies emphasise that the mastery goal

orlentation increases lcamers' self― efflcacy and makes learncrs usc cognltlve and

be a collectlon of factors generated by negative feelingso Perfo.1.1lng better than others

motivates some lemers, and such learners often tend to have less continuous

motivatlon(PintriCh,2000)。

It has been observed that learners decide to ctt Out their learlling outside of

class by making an effort to choosc the appropriate materials to achieve their goals。

1.5 Self‐theories of lntelligence(Entity and lncrelllental Theories)

It ls widely accepted that how lcttners perceive thelr lntelllgence and whether or

llot they belicve they can change play an impo■ ant role ln the SRL process(Dweck&

Master,2012)Regarding Engllsh learmng,it is o」 陥n felt that the amount of time that

leamers invested in English learning depends on their perspective on English

pro■ciency According to Molden and Dweck(2006),entity theory is based on the idea that students believe that intclllgcnce ls flxed and unchangeable Conversely,

incrementaltheory is based on the idea thatintelligence can be changed。

It can be hypotheslscd that these selitheories of intclligence offer us an opporlunity to explore whether current icamers'attitudes are relatcd to the theories

about learning English outslde of class,because self― rcgulated learners can effect市ely

take advantage ofthcir cogmtlve skills and motivatlon for leaming in keeping with their

Chapter 2

Research

2.l Research Design

The design of this research uscs mixed mcthods a quantitative and qualitatlve

method to identitt CharaCteristics among the partlcipants and to interpret their real

behaviollrs towards SRL in English outside ofclass

According to Creswel1 2014),there arc three basic llllxed‐ method deslgns:1)a

COllVergent design(quan■qua11),WhiCh aims to collect quantitative and qualitative data

and then merges both ofthe rcsuhs,2)an explanatory deslgn(quan‐ >qual),whiCh aims

to use a quantitative method flrst and then use a qualitatlve llnethod to support the

quanthative results and more thoroughly cxplain them,and 3)an exp10ratory sequential

design(qual―→quan3,whiCh aims to flrst explore the problem usmg a qualltative method

and create and a quantitatlve instrument using qualitative flndings, and second

admimster the lnstrumcnt and analyse the data.

As a result,this research adopts an cxplanatory dcsign(quan→

qual):a

quantitat市e questiomaire including both open… and closed―ended items and qualiative

scllu―structurcd interviews.This research focuses on leamers'characterlstics and thcir

actual sltuations related to the SRL of English outside of class.These situations are so

varled that it ls morc efflciellt to divide leamers into groups according to their autonomous behaviollrs(reaCtiVe/proacive)and investigate each tendency bascd on this categorisatlono Dbmyei(2007)also argued that one mportant aspcct of an cxplanatory

l Thetem`■_{耐 'Onds for qualmveほポ}

L and￢耐 'SmdS fOr quantltatlve research A plus slgl■ represents a

design includes conducting retrospective interviews, which use partlcipants' retrospecivc reflcctions,such as what they really mean in the questiomaire,and can

validate lts results

2.2 Proflles ofthe Participants

The participants are Japanese irst―year univcrsity students who graduated from hgh schooljust aboutthree months ago and have entered allmversity.

Thc Study l questiomaire about their out of class leamng cxperience of SRL was administered to 78■ rst…year lln市ersity students who took a class called``Engllsh

Corrunllmcation I''which is one of the compulsory irst… year suttects at the Hyogo

University of Teacher Education(henceforth HUTE)。 Because Of scheduling,the

qucstlolmaire could lЮt be distributed and collectcd ll― cdlatcly;the particlpants were

asked to complete it and bring it back wlth them to the next classo After gathering the

questiollllaires and detemining whcther thelr answers were feasible,the 74 participants'

answers were su● cCted to analysis.The gender population2 conSisted of 45 females

and 27 rnalcs。

A prelilninary qucstiomaire s■ lrvey was piloted for 24 sccond― year students at

HUTE.Based on the results,the qucstiomairc was revised.The particlpants were

changed from second― to flrst―year students to take advantage of their v市id memories,

which werc not lacking due to tilne lapse. The profiles and the whole research procedure are roughly sll―ansed in Table l.

Table l

Rθsθ

α

′

ε

tt Prο

`θ

グ″

′

θα

“

グ

Par`ι

σ

′α

″

な

'Pr`′

た

s

Prcli―ary Study 1 2nd―year sttdents oZ

2013 Feb. 3rdeycar students o)

Study l

2013 June lst―year students(74)

QueSuOnnalre Research Open/Closed‐ended question PrcLminary Study 2 2013 Jmc Master students o) 3rd‐year students(2) Seml…smctured

Focuscd group lntervlew

lst―ycar students exncted frOm 騰 clusters(6) Intervlew Rcscarch Qual Study 2 2013 July Sctrlu‐stmctured

lndlⅥ dual lnteⅣlew

Chapter 3

Study l

3.l Research QueStiOns

The research questlons for the study are as follows:

1)HOW dO the flrst― year university students perceive their expenence of learning

English outsidc ofclass in high school?

2)Mat faCtOrs promote orimpede their SRL outside ofclass in hlgh school?

3)How dO their pre宙 ous expedences of SRL l轟luence thelr cllrrent English lcarning?

3.2 Research Material for Study l

The quantltative questiollllaire uses a follr― poil■ Likert scale frollnl for disagree

to 4 for agree and contalns ivo partso Part A asks about the particlpants' cllrrent

situations and characteristics related to their Engllsh leattung and comp五 ses 16 closed

ltems,and Part B asks the participants about thelr experiences with Engllsh outside of

class and contalns seven closed items and flve opened itelns.The questiollnalre ls in

Appendix l.

In Part A, the closed ltcms question their motivatlon, goals, vicwpoints on intelligence, and the tendcncy to organisc SRL's processes of English learning

(QueS■ Ons l-16),and the Opened items ask about thelr rationale for English leamlng。

Thc quesuons in each part are based on items from of Nakata's(2007)and TSuda's (2010)questlomalres.

17

Part B questions the participants'actual experiences of learning English outslde

of class in hlgh school.In QueStiOn 17,the participants are asked to give descriptlve

responscs as to what they concretely did to learn English outside of class during their

high school years, and then subsequent closed questions(Questions 18 and 19)

correspond to this by reflecting on whether thel■ out…of―class Engllsh learning tended to

be proactive or reactive.There arc itcms which focused on their tilne lnvestment for both proact市 e and react市e leaming(Ques■On 20)and their sense of difflculty and

satisfaction in leaming English outside ofclass(QuestiOns 21 24),cach OfWhich is also

divided into proactlve and reactive autonomy o五 entations and asks about their

expericnces using open― ended questions.Quest10n 25 thcn asks the participants to wrie

down their rationales for leaming English during their prevlous high school years and

cllrrent university ycars.Quettion 26 asks about the rcquirements and suggestions they

have for both proacive and reactlve Engllsh learning out― oiclass ln high school.

3.3 Procedure ofAnalysis to Answer Research QueStiOns

Study l attempts to answer the three research questions:RQl)cluSter analysls, RQ2)interpretation of the descrlpt市 e answers for open―ended qucstions,and RQ3)

onc―way analysis ofvanancc(hCnceforth ANOVA)and a post… hoc compal■son To arrangc the particlpants' tendencies into groups, clustcr analysis was administered based on six■elns Jbm Part B In the questiomalre(QueStiOns 18,19,21, 22,23,and 24),whiCh asked the participants to answer whether they leamt English outside of class in high school proacively or reactively.A■ er catcgorlslng the

participants into clusters,the relationship between time invcstment and each cluster was

abstracted from the descmptions ofthe open― ended items that were accompanied by six

quettions(Quest10ns 18,19,21,22,23 and 24)。

They Sll―

ansed their factors that

promoted or impeded their SRL for English outslde of class(RQ2)。

ANOVA and

multiplc compansons were carrled out to reprcsent the relationship between the participants' previous experiences and their cllrrent behaviollrs of learning English

using items in Part A ofthe queslolllnaire(QuesiOns l_16)and the results ofthe cluster

analysis(RQ3)

3.4 Results and Discussions ofResearch QueStiOn l

As a resu■ of analyses using several methods to create clusters,■ was dete....ined

that a classiflcation using thc Ward nlethod was clearcr than any other inethod,and

three clusters werc follnd to be most appropnate(see Appcndlx 2)。

3.4.l Participants'trends of clusters

According to the resuhs of descmpt市e statistics,Figllre 3 presents each trend

among the clusters,and irablcs 2 and 3 sulrllmarise their charactenstlcs.

Cluster l consists of29 people,who leamt English outside ofclass ln high school

both proacively and reacively.In addition,they tended to expcrlcnce more satisfaction

than difflculty in both proactive and reactive leamngo Clustcr 2,which accounted for 17

people,showed thattheir learning outside ofclass was took place proactlvely.The sense

of difflculty was lower than any other cluster,and satlsfac■ on with proacive leaming was the highest alnong the clustcrso Cluster 3 included 28 people who leamt English

19

●

l Clusterl

2 Cluster 2

"t▲"3 Cluster 3

Q18

Q19

Q21

Q22

Q23

Q24

FJg″θθo Cluttcr Score Expressed as Mean Score

ハリたs Q18asks`lleamtEnphonldeOfclassbasedonteachels'血 揃ons"

Q19 aSkS`l leamtEngLshautonomously outslde ofdass"

Q21 asks■cncounteleddlmcultywhen lca―gEnnhbasedon擦山 鋸 '血輛 馴 s ottlde ofdass"

Q22 asks`l encounteEddlacultyWhen lea―g EngLshalonomously outslde ofclass"

Q23 asks`l expenencedsatlshctionwhen lca― gEngLshbasedonteaches'dEctlons outslde ofclass"

Q24 asks`l expenencedsatlsttwhenlea― gEngLshautonomously oulde ofclass"

Tablc 2 Dθscrη

ヵν

θ

S′

α

ヵ

s′Jcs(√Eα

ε

みα雰″

r Itenls Cluster ←

=29)

1 (】luster 2

0=1つ

Cluster 3 佃観 助

y Sユ

″

SD

y Sユ

Q18 React宙ty Q19 PrOactivlty Q21 Dirlcuity(Reacuve) Q22 Dlfflculty(PrOact市e) Q23 Satisfac■on(Reactiv→ Q24 Satisfaction(PrOactive) 2.93 .458 1。

29 ,470

2.97 .626 3.35 .862

2.21 .675 2.18 .883 2.24 ,739 1.88 .857 2.83 .539 2.53 1.007

297 .566 3.06 .827

3.54 .508

1.57 .504 2.68 .723 2.96 .693

2.64 .870

2.79 .876 Table 3 Dθscr″_{ヵο閤 ぽ α郷ただ'ルψ ′}θs Cluster Characteristics Cluster l (n=29

Lca―

g both reactively and proacttvely

Satisfaction is higher thall dittculty lll bOth reactlve and proactive learmg Cluster 2

(F17)

"Lca7m■ ng proactlvely

・Saisfactlon is high m proacuve lea― g

Cluster 3 ・Leaning reacttvely

was the hlghest among thc clustcrs,whercas satisfaction with reactive and proactive

leaming was experienced as same as difflculty.

Two points were common to all clusters:1)Difflculty is related to each tendency

of both react市e―orientcd and proactive… oriented autonomy, and 2)satiSfaction in proactive learmng tends to be higher than in reactive learning even if lemcrs have

reactive―oriented autonomy

Regardlng average ime illvestment per day(QuestiOns 20A and B),Flgllrc 4

illustrates that the particlpants in Cluster l mainly illlvested from halfan hollr to one and

a half hours in reactive letting,and almost 50 percent oftheln invested iom one to

two hours in proactlve learning.The average tlmes of those in C)luster 2 are dispersed

金om half an hollr to two hollrs of rcact市 e learllllngo Rcmarkably,the mttorlty Of the participants ln Clutter 2 tend to lllveSt about one hour to learn proacivelyo Cluster 3

showed a sillnilar tendency for both proactive and reactive learmng; thc largest

percentage is concentrated bctween one and one and a halfhotlrs.

In addition,proactive― oriented learners tend to lnvcst tiinc in proactive leaming,

and reactlve―oriented learners tcnd to invcst thc samc amount of time in both reactive

and proactive leaming。

3.5 Results and Discussions ofResearch QueStiOn 2 3◆ 5。l Responses to the open‐ ended questions

The six items used in the cluster analysis also included open― ended questlons to

21

■QueStiOn20Ac―

tiveleamingonideOfclassperdayp

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%

∼

0.5 0.5∼

1 1∼

1.5 1.5∼

2 2∼ 2.5 2.51hou0

■

_{QueStiOn20BooaCtiVeleamingonideOfclassperdayp}

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%

□Cluster l 圏Cluster 2 ■Cluster 3 □_{Cluster l l} ■Cluster 2: ■_{Cluster 3 1} ∼_{05 0.5∼ 1 1-1.5 1.5∼}

2 2∼

2.5 2.5∼ (hOurl

This section collects and summarlses the participants'responses from each cluster

along with three variables:1)actual activttes outside ofclass,2)sense Ofdlfflculty,and

3)satlSfaction。

QueStiOn 17 askcd thc particlpants to dcscnbc the concrete act市

■

ies they dld.The

subsequent hems(Quest10ns 18 and 19)divided the act市

■

ies according to whether they

were proactive or rcactivc;for example,if a particlpant answered``電 ree''to QueStiOn 18,the response in Question 17 was regarded as proact市e learmngo lf a participant

answers``agree''in QueStiOn 19,the response ln QucStiOn 17 was regardcd as reactive leaming When one description slЮ wed``agree'つ in both QuestiOns 18 and 19,lt was regarded as both proactlve and rcactlvc lcanung3.Then,the occasions on which the participants experienced dlfflculty and satisfaction were also exalnlned(QuestiOns

21■24)。 In add■iOn,open…ended questions asked about how to deal wlth the dlfflculty

and situations when they felt dissatisfactlon in QueStiOns 21 to 24.

ユニ〃.I(%αFαcたrお′icsグα閉″

FI

Thc flndlngs suggcst that participants in Cluster l,which ls the group that learnt

both proacively and reactively,mainly memo五 sed English words and translated the

words and English sentenccs to Japancsc.Thcy dso lcamt English using auditory

activities(eog。 _{,rcading aloud and shadowing)outside Ofclass(see Table 4)。}

Regardlng their sense of difflculty, thc participants raised the issue of

inapprop五ate task settlng(e.g,alnollnt and level of tasks)in rCactivc leamngo They

overcame this difflculty by trying to organise thelr leaming procedure and belicve that

3 some patlclpants descrlbed mullpb動

Ⅵ●%and uley were counted sepately h addltlot ulele were descmpuOns

23

Table 4

Rθ_ψοぴθsゎ 力θ(ンθ4-θ″滋グ_2νθS力ο謬 ″ηα雰た

rf

Cluster l Reactivity PЮactivity

・Mcmonsmg Engllsh words(10) ・MemOnsng Engllsh words(11)

・Maklng translatlon m Japanese(9) ・MabOg translatЮn m Japanesc(1の

KTeXtb00kS,short sentences,workbooks)(■ xtb00kS,short sentemes, ・Rcadlng aloud(4) workb00kS,passages Oom m∝k

・Rcadingandunderstandlng exammamono 織 ∫』基ξ

ms. earners

灘 職 描 貯

paSSag≪_⇒

・Memorlsing passages ・Mcmonsmg passages

・

Lea―

g Gra―

ar

・Lcamlng Grammar

・Practlcmg hstemng and speang ・Practlclng Lstenlng and speaklng 'Shadow■ng oShadowing

・Wntmg English sentences

・Too much amount oftasks(3) ・Notknowing whatto do“ )

・Irrelevant level oftaよ

s(a

・unable to memonse new words

・Unableto memo五se new words and ・Unable to Answer questlolls m tme

Dlrlculty ldiOms

'So many wordsicarncrs do not know ・Tme constramts to sort out work

・Unable to flnd tasks valuable

a耽_{燿ng t0 0rgantse schcdules ・Worklng hard}

How to dcal wlth eRegardlng thc work as mteresting Onc ・Maklng mysclfmotlvated

dlfrlc颯

ty

・Trying to thlnk about questlons ・Findlng weakpolnts in actual exanls

at tast once

・OrgaDISmg schedules

・Achleving good perfomance(5) ・Understandmg and completlng tasks

◆_{Complcting tasks throughly o) on their Own(5)}

Satlsfactton °COmpleting tasks as teachers'dlrecuOn ・AchleⅥng goodperformance o)

・Understandmg and completlng tasks oReallsmg learners have surlclent

on ther own t proflclency

崚_{Tasks are not ser_。 rganlsed thlngs tTasks wcre noticarning but mechanlcal}

work

・No opportulluty to actlvate what l leamt

・NeltherIEndlng any practlcal learnnlg

methods nor lllnaglng what l should have done clrealy

・Feehng forced to do tasks

D∬

由

sfactton

・

鯖鷹盤きけ

I Sh°uぉ

及)たsl)釉e llumber m brackets lndlcate how many particlpants made sallne kmd ofansweぉ

the task should be done atleast once.In proactive learning,rnany participants could not

igure out what they should have done.To b五 dge the gap,they ttied to improve their cogn■市c and affect市 e aspccts(eg。 _{,WOrking hard and mot市}ating themselves)。

They

also tried to change the士 behaviollrs(eg,reOrganislng their leaming procedures and

looking within themselves to focus on their vulnerable points)。

In react市e learmng,the partlcipants were satisied wlth宙 sible outcomes in cxalns and when completing the tasks;however,they were dissatisfled with the results

when they did not sel,orgamse their learningo One participant refeFed tO feeling that he

or she could not integrate the valllc of the tasks ln proactive learning,the participants

were satisfled with the accomplishment of learmng on their owll;hOWever,they were

dissatisfled with the few opportunities to acivate what thcy leamt They also could not

imaginc whatthey should have done,because they were llnsllre ofthe relevant learning

strategies.

ユニI.2(%α″αcたFお′JCSグα困″

F2

The participants in Cluster 2 managcd to learn more proactivcly than react市 ely.

They also colllllnOnly and proactvely carried out translation… ccntred acivities,such as mellnorising words and translating English into Japancsc.One of the features ln the

cluster ls that the participants used many variations of strategies and materials(eg。 _,

teaching English to a slbling, watching English movies, and listemng to English mtte五dson CD)(see Table 5)。

With regard to their scnse of dlfflculty in reactivc lcarIIung,the particlpants carcd about time constraints on their learllllng and felt forced to do tasks that were regulatcd extemallyo To sort out the dlfflculies,they tried to change their thinking towards

25

Table 5

Rθ

_ψο

ttθsゎ

乃θ

(υ

θ

4-θ

″

グ

レ

グ

_22θs′

″

ο

″

Szκ CI鶴sた

r2

CIuster 2 Reactivity Proac餞宙ty

Ac負 “

l actlvitles

out ofclass

Dl亜culty

・Tnc constramts to sort out tasks(2)

・Feellng forced to do tasks

・Feelmg exhausted

・Unrelevant level oftasks

`Mtt qulz ofnew words and ldloms

・Making translatlo■ m Japanese“)

・Memonslng Engllsh words(CardS,

Study―ad b∞k9“₎

・Llstenmg to CD matenals(a nReading dound

oMaklng a gttunmar book on thelr own ・Listemng to Enghsh on Youtube ・Translating English subtitlesJust

by hstenlng

・Tcachmg thelr slster English

・Watching Eng1lsh movles ・Readlng Englsh naratlves ・Notknowmg whatto do ・Notknowmg how to do ・Keepmg to do tasks 'Listening to Enghsh How to deal ttth dlrlculty

・■yulg to think oftasks as valuable ttings ・Memonsillg more new words

・Kcepmg n■yselfmotlvated

oMaklng myselfconcentrate on learnmg m order notto do tasks so long ・Golng to bed

Satisfactlon

・Achleving 800dperfomance o) 。_{Amlnlng my 80al}

・ReaLsing whatllcarnt for my ttm ・Making mynotebooks comprehenslve ・Improvmg the speed ofreadlng EngLsh

・Completlngwhatl wantcdto learn o) 。_{Achleung good perfomance} oMaklng my IIOtebooks comprchenslve ・Attalns lny goal

・McIInonsmg lots Ofnew words

Dlssatisfactlon

・Feellng forced to do tasks o)

・Tasks are not self‐organised things ・Concentratlng Only on accompllsh tasks ・Just fmlshng whatl should do ・Unable to make myselfmotivated ・No dlrectlos for tasks out ofthe class ・Too dlfrlcult tasks

・Feellng exhausted ・ Too dlttcuh tasks

・Unfavourable lmpresslolll fOrEngllsh

ハb′ωl)The number m blackets mdlcate how many panclpants made same km ofanswers

1earning;they managed to integrate the value of tasks into thelr goals.In proactive leaming,they wo」 ried about what they should have done and how to continue their leamlngo However,the participants devised their learning in various ways(eog。 _,

memorising rlllore words,lnaintaiing their concentration by flxing the tiine in which to

leam,and so o⇒.

Regarding their sense of satlsfactlon with reactive leaming, vlslble outcomes,

such as good scores lll tests,are an important factor that satisfled the participants ln

their learlllng outslde of class.In proactive leaming,they thought ofthe reason they felt

satisfaction as an accomplislbncnt of learning on thcir own in addition to perfo..11lng

well in exaIIns.

Converscly,they did not experience satisfaction in reactive lcarlung because they

feh forced to do tasks and could llot regard learnlng as a valuable act市ity.In proact市e

leanlng,the partlcipants claimed that therc was a gap betwecn thelr proflciency and whatthey should do

ユ

4ゴ

。

3(磁

α

″

cterお

′

JcsグCι

“

Ster3

The partic●ants in Cluster 3 answered that thcy lcam Engllsh react市

ely.Thcy

focused a great deal on IIlemonsing English words and translating the words and English sentcnces lnto Japanese. The answcrs show that the variations in thc actual

act市■ies are limited in comparison with the other two clusters(see Table 6)。

Regarding reactlve leanung,the participants cxperienced difflculty when flguring

out what they leamt thoroughlyo ln proactivc lcarmng,the participants cxpcrienced

difflculty when they did not obtain outcomes,such as good perfo....ance.To solve the

27

Tablc 6

Rθ_ψοttθsゎ 励θ(νθ″―θ″グレグ_2νθs力ο′Stt CLsた ′3

Cl■ster 3

Actual actⅣ血es out ofclass

Dittculty

・Memonsing English words(19)

OMang translatlon in Japanese

CteXtb00kS)(11)

・Readlng and understanding passages in textbooks

・Practlcing listening

螢_{Unable to understand whole}

meamngs ofpassages(5)

・Too lnllch amount ofhomework(3)

・Too dirlcult tasks(3) ・Forgetting what l leant

IIIImediately

・Unable to have confldence

・Notknowmg whatto do o)

・Outconles were not refrected llll

pefomance llxlmedlately

・Unable to understand polnts by

ollly study―ald books

How to deal with

dlttculty

・Asking teachers

oWorking on other subJects

・Solvl■g what l did notllnderstand

among class

・Keeping pracdce oConsolldatingbasis

・Asking teachers

Satisfacton

・Achievlllg good perfomance

・

AL―

g ther goals ・Gettmg to ullderstandand

■ew words

CSubmitting homework by the due

・Understanding and conaplding

works on ther own(3)

。_{Attaining my goal o)}

・Improving my perfomance

Dissatisfaction

・Fecttng forced to do tasks(2)

。_{Not dolng so hardbaslcally o)}

・Dong tasks IIlechanlcally ・Outcomes werc not rcfrected

m perfomance

・Not domg so hard baslcally(3) ・Unable to feel progress m studymg

oRemang whatl could llot understand

Ntts■1)The nllmber m brackets ndicatc how many partlcipants made salne klnd ofanswes.

nlaking use ofthe class,making the efforts to leam and self― organislng their leamlng。

In respect to satlsfaction in reactive learnlng, visible outcomes or accomplishents played an important role ln making the participants experlenced

satisfled with their leamlngo ln proactive learmng,completing what they aillned to do

also satisfled thc particlpants.Conversely,they experienced dissatisfaction when they

were obliged to do the task and unable to see visible outcomes such as good scores on

tcsts.Howevcr,some oftheIIl described that they had not leant proactively

3.5.2 Discussion and answers to research question 2

As a collllllnOn pOmt alnong each cluster,there are important factors that enable

leamers to achleve success because ofvisible outcomes and their owll efforts which are

worthy investments.That ls to say,leamers are concemed about whether or not their

leaming is effective,and they ca」 _喝″out SRL in orderto confl....the improvement。

Lemers also tend to be satisfled wlth proactive leanlingo They would rather

select what they do on thelr owll than be forced to lem regardless ofwhch orientation

thcy have.Thus,the self― rcflectlon phasc of SRL is an important stage for high school

learners,and it affects other forethought and perfo.11lance in regard to leaming outside

ofclass.

With regard to the characteristics of each cluster, the rcsults indicate the following l)proaCtiVe― onented learners seem to be able to come up wlth various

strategies to carry out English learning outslde of class,and it is essential to flgllre out

what they should do to acheve their goals;2)reactiVC… oriented learners tend to focus primarily on havlng a clear grasp ofthe content they learn,and 3)both types ofleamers

29

3。6 Results and Discussion ofResearch QueStiOn 3 3.6.l ANOVA and a post¨

hoc comparison

Sixteen items were suttected to ANOVA as dependent variables with the three clusters serving as independent vanableso Then,the signiflcant differenccs among the clusters were dete...lined.Based on the results of the analysis,there were scveral

signiicant differences,and a post… hoc comparison(コ_{吻λり む}teso waS Carried out.

Table 7 illustrates a su―

ary ofthe resuhs of ANOVA and aι

_λνむtest;the

univariate Fvalues ofQuesiOns l,4 and 13 were signiflcant at the.05 alpha level,and

so were the values ofQueStiOns 12 and 16 atthe 01 alpha level.A post― hoc a″λcッむtest

revealed slx slgniflcant palrs:one pair in QueSt10ns l,4,12,and 13,and two pairs ln

QueSt10n 16.The rcasons物

0's∝

並was adoptcd for the analysls are the followlng:1)

The factors in the population from which the samplcs were der市 ed shows the equal

variancc;and 2)動

_{んの′む test cnablcs rescarchers to lllvestigate whether there are}

signiflcant difference」and to compare each pair of situations

The rcsults ofthe analyses show that the particlpants in Cluster l,who carried out

both react市 e and proactivc leaming,tend to dlffer signiicantly from other clusters ln

regard to several valuables:QuestiOn l asked the participants whether or not their motivation is instrumental;QuestiOn 4 asked whethcr thcy lcamt through intrinslc mouvation;and QueStiOn 13 asked whether they autonomously leam uslng their own

ways oflearlllng.

In QueSt10n l,Cluster l shows a signlflcant difference from Cluster 2.This result

reveals that instrumental motivation includes an important aspect related to the pursuit

of learmng:Proactive― and reactive― onented leamers seem to catt out learlllng lo pass

Table 7

RθsνJrs fAハ石θZ4 α″グα Pοsルカοε Cο

“Pα

rJsο′βしんη′む2セSリ

Items F ど Clusters

Ql Heam Engllsh for exallllllatlons. Fc2,71汁 3.457* Cl>C2*

Q41 dont feel satlsfled when leammg English FK2,71)=4042* Cl>C3*

Q12.I reflect on and evaluate my own Engllsh learnlng F(2,71)=6854** Cl>C2**

Q13 1 dort have any strategles to leam Engllsh. Fc2,71>4.424* Cl>C3*

Q16 1 thlnk people can lmpЮ ve ther Engllsh sklns Fc2,71>6196** C2>Cl*,C2>C3** by how they leamt武 .

Notes l)■_{シ>01つ く}05 2)Q4and Q13 are lllveFted questtons

seen that proactlve learners tend llot to think ofEngllsh learlllng Just as merely a means to achleve good pcrfollllance。

QueStiOns 4 and 13 showed signiflcant differcnces between Clusters l and 3

According to the result,for learners,having both proactive and reactivc aspects is an

iinportant factor in cxperlencing satisfactlon and claborating on thcl■ leaming strategies.

The participants in Cluster l can be seen to identitt the importance ofboth directed and

llon―directcd activhies,thereby enabling them to improve their English proiciency

QueStiOn12 shows the most slglllflcant difference・ The particlpants in Cluster l

tend to rcflcct on and evaluatc their learmng more than those in Cluster 2.It can be

conJectured that self― reflection requlres obtalmng a metacognltive perspective. In particular, novices need a model who gives posltlve suggestions or enhances their awareness with external obscpvation at flrst;teachers' appropriate directlon can get leamers to devclop good work habits(Como,2012)

In QueStiOn 16,Cluster 2 also cxhibits a signiflcant diffcrcnce ttom thc other two

clustcrs ln regard to thelr perspecive towards Engllsh skllls.Proactive‐ orientcd leamers

31

the way they leamo Consequently,their beliefs about English pro■ ciency seem to affect

and deterlnine their oncntation ofautonomy。

3.7 Lillllitations

Two lilnitations should be acknowlcdged The flrst limitation ls that the

participants self― reported about whether they have reactive or proact市

e autonomy,and

these quanthative data exhlbited only gcneral lllclinations among the particlpants。

The second limhation is that the quesuomalre was administered to only 74 ■rst―year universlty students in only one department at a national lln市 ersity.Most of the participants entered the llniversity with the intention of becoming hture teachers.

Therefore,there is a possibility that the resuhs would be different in a dlffcrent context。

Chapter 4 presents qualiative lnter宙 ews and lllvesigates more details of the participants who answcred the qucstiomaire ofStudy l.

Chapter 4

Study 2

4.l Methodology of Study 2

ク

To investigate the partlcipants'ldeas and suppo■ _{the results of Study l,a} qualitative intervicw analysis was conducted(Study 2).The data were collected from

interviews with six participants extracted from the clusters that were divlded in Study l: three frorn Cluster l,one frolll Cluster 2,and two from Cluster 3.

All the lnterviewees wcrc selected ilom each group ofthe class.The criteria were

as follows:1)They handed in written consentto the intelvlewer beforehand,and 2)they

could ind an opportunity to bc inter宙ewed during thelr spare tlme between classes.The

written consentis in Appendlx 3.

The inter宙

ewer(whO iS the autho⇒

enSllred that she did not pressure the lnterviewees tO answer, ask them leading questions to thenl, or havc preconceived

llotions based on the answcrs to the Study l qucstiolllnalrc.In a pilot study,tentative

lnterviews were conducted wlth two third¨ year llmverslty students and two master

students separately.The intcr宙 cws werc administered to indlvlduals to secure the same

enviroment for each of them and a safe atmosphere in which they could express what they wcre genuincly thittngo lt was also crucial to prevcnt the intcrviewees from feeling anxious about the interview and to encourage a coopcratlve frame of mind,

whlch would lcad theln to talk in a rclaxed and info..1.al manner.

The intervicws with the students were held at the end of July 2013 To begin,an ethics protOcOl sheet was rcad and slgned by thc intervicwees. Thc interviewees confl..1.ed that they had the right to refuse to answer any questlons or to stop the

33

The lntervlewees understood that the data would not be used for the students'acadellluc

assessment but only for the purposes of the present researcho Each interview lasted for

about 20 minutes, and the questions explored interviewees' detailed experiences of English leaming outside of class.1)aCtual leaming act市 ities and the reason why the partlcipants opted to carry out them,2)concrete situations in proact市 e and reacive lcaming,and 3)the cWrcnt sltuatlons in which they leam English― for example,``ヽ

Mhen

did you start the actviies?'',``Why dld you decide to carry out these activities?'',and

“Were there any differcnces between reactive and proactive learmng?''

All interviews were conducted in Japanese and were recorded on an IC recorder

with the intervicwees'pc..11lssion.During the intervicws,the lntervlewees pe..1.itted the

intervicwer to take notes.In the proccss Of analysing the data,a1l of the recorded data

wcre flrst transcribed in Japanese and thcn translated lnto Engllsh by the author.The

transcriptions ofthe intervlews are in Appendix 4.

4.2 Results and Discusslons 4◆2.1(Cluster l

421。 I二 ′α′ “

′′∠

Leaner A is catcgo五scd ln Clustcr l,ln which the participants tcnd to implelnent

both proactive and reactive leamingo She statcd on the questlonnaire that she leamt

English proactivelyo She used to translate English passages mto Japanese one by one in

mock examinations to leam outside of class;she lnade a copy ofthe English passages, put them in her notebook,and analysed her mcolect answerso She started to do this when she became a third… year high school student The reason she opted to do so