及)たsl)釉e llumber m brackets lndlcate how many particlpants made sallne kmd ofansweぉ 2)]詭ere lS nO llumeral descnptlon m one persors case
the task should be done atleast once.In proactive learning,rnany participants could not igure out what they should have done.To b五 dge the gap,they ttied to improve their cogn■市c and affect市 e aspccts(eg。 ,WOrking hard and mot市ating themselves)。 They
also tried to change the士 behaviollrs(eg,reOrganislng their leaming procedures and looking within themselves to focus on their vulnerable points)。
In react市e learmng,the partlcipants were satisied wlth宙 sible outcomes in cxalns and when completing the tasks;however,they were dissatisfled with the results when they did not sel,orgamse their learningo One participant refeFed tO feeling that he or she could not integrate the valllc of the tasks ln proactive learning,the participants were satisfled with the accomplishment of learmng on their owll;hOWever,they were dissatisfled with the few opportunities to acivate what thcy leamt They also could not imaginc whatthey should have done,because they were llnsllre ofthe relevant learning
strategies.
ユニI.2(%α″αcたFお′JCSグα困″F2
The participants in Cluster 2 managcd to learn more proactivcly than react市 ely.
They also colllllnOnly and proactvely carried out translation… ccntred acivities,such as mellnorising words and translating English into Japancsc.One of the features ln the cluster ls that the participants used many variations of strategies and materials(eg。 , teaching English to a slbling, watching English movies, and listemng to English mtte五dson CD)(see Table 5)。
With regard to their scnse of dlfflculty in reactivc lcarIIung,the particlpants carcd about time constraints on their learllllng and felt forced to do tasks that were regulatcd extemallyo To sort out the dlfflculies,they tried to change their thinking towards
25
Table 5
Rθψοttθsゎ 乃θ(υθ4‑θ″グレグ22θs′″ο″Szκ CI鶴sたr2
CIuster 2 Reactivity Proac餞宙ty
Ac負 l actlvitles out ofclass
Dl亜culty
・Tnc constramts to sort out tasks(2)
・Feellng forced to do tasks
・Feelmg exhausted
・Unrelevant level oftasks
̀Mtt qulz ofnew words and ldloms
・Making translatlo■ m Japanese )
・Memonslng Engllsh words(CardS,
Study―ad b∞k9 )
・Llstenmg to CD matenals(a nReading dound
oMaklng a gttunmar book on thelr own
・Listemng to Enghsh on Youtube
・Translating English subtitlesJust by hstenlng
・Tcachmg thelr slster English
・Watching Eng1lsh movles
・Readlng Englsh naratlves
・Notknowmg whatto do
・Notknowmg how to do
・Keepmg to do tasks 'Listening to Enghsh
How to deal ttth dlrlculty
・■yulg to think oftasks as valuable ttings ・Memonsillg more new words
・Kcepmg n■yselfmotlvated
oMaklng myselfconcentrate on learnmg m order notto do tasks so long
・Golng to bed
Satisfactlon
・Achleving 800dperfomance o)
。Amlnlng my 80al
・ReaLsing whatllcarnt for my ttm
・Making mynotebooks comprehenslve
・Improvmg the speed ofreadlng EngLsh
・Completlngwhatl wantcdto learn o)
。Achleung good perfomance oMaklng my IIOtebooks comprchenslve
・Attalns lny goal
・McIInonsmg lots Ofnew words
Dlssatisfactlon
・Feellng forced to do tasks o)
・Tasks are not self‐organised things
・Concentratlng Only on accompllsh tasks
・Just fmlshng whatl should do
・Unable to make myselfmotivated
・No dlrectlos for tasks out ofthe class
・Too dlfrlcult tasks
・Feellng exhausted
・ Too dlttcuh tasks
・Unfavourable lmpresslolll fOrEngllsh
ハb′ωl)The number m blackets mdlcate how many panclpants made same km ofanswers 2)Thcre ls nO numeral descrlptlon l■ One pcrtts case
1earning;they managed to integrate the value of tasks into thelr goals.In proactive leaming,they wo」 ried about what they should have done and how to continue their leamlngo However,the participants devised their learning in various ways(eog。 , memorising rlllore words,lnaintaiing their concentration by flxing the tiine in which to leam,and so o⇒.
Regarding their sense of satlsfactlon with reactive leaming, vlslble outcomes, such as good scores lll tests,are an important factor that satisfled the participants ln their learlllng outslde of class.In proactive leaming,they thought ofthe reason they felt satisfaction as an accomplislbncnt of learning on thcir own in addition to perfo..11lng well in exaIIns.
Converscly,they did not experience satisfaction in reactive lcarlung because they feh forced to do tasks and could llot regard learnlng as a valuable act市ity.In proact市e leanlng,the partlcipants claimed that therc was a gap betwecn thelr proflciency and whatthey should do
ユ4ゴ。
3(磁
α″cterお′JcsグCι Ster3The partic●ants in Cluster 3 answered that thcy lcam Engllsh react市
ely.Thcy
focused a great deal on IIlemonsing English words and translating the words and English sentcnces lnto Japanese. The answcrs show that the variations in thc actual act市■ies are limited in comparison with the other two clusters(see Table 6)。Regarding reactlve leanung,the participants cxperienced difflculty when flguring out what they leamt thoroughlyo ln proactivc lcarmng,the participants cxpcrienced difflculty when they did not obtain outcomes,such as good perfo....ance.To solve the difflculty,ln both cases,some tricd to seek external support,such as asklng teachcrs,
27
Tablc 6
Rθψοttθsゎ 励θ(νθ″―θ″グレグ2νθs力ο′Stt CLsた ′3
Cl■ster 3
Actual actⅣ血es out ofclass
Dittculty
・Memonsing English words(19) OMang translatlon in Japanese
CteXtb00kS)(11)
・Readlng and understanding passages in textbooks
・Practlcing listening
螢Unable to understand whole meamngs ofpassages(5)
・Too lnllch amount ofhomework(3)
・Too dirlcult tasks(3)
・Forgetting what l leant IIIImediately
・Unable to have confldence
・Notknowmg whatto do o)
・Outconles were not refrected llll pefomance llxlmedlately
・Unable to understand polnts by ollly study―ald books
How to deal with dlttculty
・Asking teachers
oWorking on other subJects
・Solvl■g what l did notllnderstand among class
・Keeping pracdce oConsolldatingbasis
・Asking teachers
Satisfacton
・Achievlllg good perfomance
・AL― g ther goals
・Gettmg to ullderstandand
■ew words
CSubmitting homework by the due
・Understanding and conaplding works on ther own(3)
。Attaining my goal o)
・Improving my perfomance
Dissatisfaction
・Fecttng forced to do tasks(2)
。Not dolng so hardbaslcally o)
・Dong tasks IIlechanlcally
・Outcomes werc not rcfrected
m perfomance
・Not domg so hard baslcally(3)
・Unable to feel progress m studymg oRemang whatl could llot
understand
Ntts■1)The nllmber m brackets ndicatc how many partlcipants made salne klnd ofanswes.
2)There lS nO nllmeral descrlption in one pers∝ rs case.
nlaking use ofthe class,making the efforts to leam and self― organislng their leamlng。
In respect to satlsfaction in reactive learnlng, visible outcomes or accomplishents played an important role ln making the participants experlenced satisfled with their leamlngo ln proactive learmng,completing what they aillned to do also satisfled thc particlpants.Conversely,they experienced dissatisfaction when they were obliged to do the task and unable to see visible outcomes such as good scores on tcsts.Howevcr,some oftheIIl described that they had not leant proactively
3.5.2 Discussion and answers to research question 2
As a collllllnOn pOmt alnong each cluster,there are important factors that enable leamers to achleve success because ofvisible outcomes and their owll efforts which are worthy investments.That ls to say,leamers are concemed about whether or not their leaming is effective,and they ca」 喝″out SRL in orderto confl....the improvement。
Lemers also tend to be satisfled wlth proactive leanlingo They would rather select what they do on thelr owll than be forced to lem regardless ofwhch orientation thcy have.Thus,the self― rcflectlon phasc of SRL is an important stage for high school learners,and it affects other forethought and perfo.11lance in regard to leaming outside ofclass.
With regard to the characteristics of each cluster, the rcsults indicate the following l)proaCtiVe― onented learners seem to be able to come up wlth various strategies to carry out English learning outslde of class,and it is essential to flgllre out what they should do to acheve their goals;2)reactiVC… oriented learners tend to focus primarily on havlng a clear grasp ofthe content they learn,and 3)both types ofleamers overcome difflcu■ lcs by seeking out help.
29
3。6 Results and Discussion ofResearch QueStiOn 3 3.6.l ANOVA and a post¨
hoc comparison
Sixteen items were suttected to ANOVA as dependent variables with the three clusters serving as independent vanableso Then,the signiflcant differenccs among the clusters were dete...lined.Based on the results of the analysis,there were scveral signiicant differences,and a post… hoc comparison(コ吻λり むteso waS Carried out.
Table 7 illustrates a su―
ary ofthe resuhs of ANOVA and aι
λνむtest;the univariate Fvalues ofQuesiOns l,4 and 13 were signiflcant at the.05 alpha level,and so were the values ofQueStiOns 12 and 16 atthe 01 alpha level.A post― hoc a″λcッむtestrevealed slx slgniflcant palrs:one pair in QueSt10ns l,4,12,and 13,and two pairs ln QueSt10n 16.The rcasons物
0's∝
並was adoptcd for the analysls are the followlng:1) The factors in the population from which the samplcs were der市 ed shows the equalvariancc;and 2)動んの′む test cnablcs rescarchers to lllvestigate whether there are signiflcant difference」and to compare each pair of situations
The rcsults ofthe analyses show that the particlpants in Cluster l,who carried out both react市 e and proactivc leaming,tend to dlffer signiicantly from other clusters ln regard to several valuables:QuestiOn l asked the participants whether or not their motivation is instrumental;QuestiOn 4 asked whethcr thcy lcamt through intrinslc mouvation;and QueStiOn 13 asked whether they autonomously leam uslng their own ways oflearlllng.
In QueSt10n l,Cluster l shows a signlflcant difference from Cluster 2.This result reveals that instrumental motivation includes an important aspect related to the pursuit of learmng:Proactive― and reactive― onented leamers seem to catt out learlllng lo pass exallninations comparcd to those in Cluster 2,who lcarn strongly proactively lt can be
Table 7
RθsνJrs fAハ石θZ4 α″グα Pοsルカοε Cο PαrJsο′βしんη′む2セSリ
Items F ど Clusters
Ql Heam Engllsh for exallllllatlons. Fc2,71汁 3.457* Cl>C2*
Q41 dont feel satlsfled when leammg English FK2,71)=4042* Cl>C3*
Q12.I reflect on and evaluate my own Engllsh learnlng F(2,71)=6854** Cl>C2**
Q13 1 dort have any strategles to leam Engllsh. Fc2,71>4.424* Cl>C3*
Q16 1 thlnk people can lmpЮ ve ther Engllsh sklns Fc2,71>6196** C2>Cl*,C2>C3**
by how they leamt武 .
Notes l)■シ>01つ く05 2)Q4and Q13 are lllveFted questtons
seen that proactlve learners tend llot to think ofEngllsh learlllng Just as merely a means to achleve good pcrfollllance。
QueStiOns 4 and 13 showed signiflcant differcnces between Clusters l and 3 According to the result,for learners,having both proactive and reactivc aspects is an iinportant factor in cxperlencing satisfactlon and claborating on thcl■ leaming strategies.
The participants in Cluster l can be seen to identitt the importance ofboth directed and
llon―directcd activhies,thereby enabling them to improve their English proiciency
QueStiOn12 shows the most slglllflcant difference・ The particlpants in Cluster l tend to rcflcct on and evaluatc their learmng more than those in Cluster 2.It can be conJectured that self― reflection requlres obtalmng a metacognltive perspective. In particular, novices need a model who gives posltlve suggestions or enhances their awareness with external obscpvation at flrst;teachers' appropriate directlon can get leamers to devclop good work habits(Como,2012)
In QueStiOn 16,Cluster 2 also cxhibits a signiflcant diffcrcnce ttom thc other two clustcrs ln regard to thelr perspecive towards Engllsh skllls.Proactive‐ orientcd leamers are rnore likely to bclieve that they can improve their Engllsh bascd on their efforts and
31
the way they leamo Consequently,their beliefs about English pro■ ciency seem to affect and deterlnine their oncntation ofautonomy。
3.7 Lillllitations
Two lilnitations should be acknowlcdged The flrst limitation ls that the
participants self― reported about whether they have reactive or proact市
e autonomy,and
these quanthative data exhlbited only gcneral lllclinations among the particlpants。
The second limhation is that the quesuomalre was administered to only 74
■rst―year universlty students in only one department at a national lln市 ersity.Most of the participants entered the llniversity with the intention of becoming hture teachers.
Therefore,there is a possibility that the resuhs would be different in a dlffcrent context。
Chapter 4 presents qualiative lnter宙 ews and lllvesigates more details of the participants who answcred the qucstiomaire ofStudy l.
Chapter 4 Study 2 4.l Methodology of Study 2
ク
To investigate the partlcipants'ldeas and suppo■ the results of Study l,a qualitative intervicw analysis was conducted(Study 2).The data were collected from interviews with six participants extracted from the clusters that were divlded in Study l:
three frorn Cluster l,one frolll Cluster 2,and two from Cluster 3.
All the lnterviewees wcrc selected ilom each group ofthe class.The criteria were as follows:1)They handed in written consentto the intelvlewer beforehand,and 2)they could ind an opportunity to bc inter宙ewed during thelr spare tlme between classes.The written consentis in Appendlx 3.
The inter宙
ewer(whO iS the autho⇒
enSllred that she did not pressure the lnterviewees tO answer, ask them leading questions to thenl, or havc preconceived llotions based on the answcrs to the Study l qucstiolllnalrc.In a pilot study,tentative lnterviews were conducted wlth two third¨ year llmverslty students and two master students separately.The intcr宙 cws werc administered to indlvlduals to secure the same enviroment for each of them and a safe atmosphere in which they could express what they wcre genuincly thittngo lt was also crucial to prevcnt the intcrviewees from feeling anxious about the interview and to encourage a coopcratlve frame of mind, whlch would lcad theln to talk in a rclaxed and info..1.al manner.The intervicws with the students were held at the end of July 2013 To begin,an ethics protOcOl sheet was rcad and slgned by thc intervicwees. Thc interviewees confl..1.ed that they had the right to refuse to answer any questlons or to stop the interview at any tilne Their identities and persona1 lnfo...lation would not be revealed.
33
The lntervlewees understood that the data would not be used for the students'acadellluc assessment but only for the purposes of the present researcho Each interview lasted for about 20 minutes, and the questions explored interviewees' detailed experiences of English leaming outside of class.1)aCtual leaming act市 ities and the reason why the partlcipants opted to carry out them,2)concrete situations in proact市 e and reacive lcaming,and 3)the cWrcnt sltuatlons in which they leam English― for example,̀̀ヽMhen
did you start the actviies?'',̀̀Why dld you decide to carry out these activities?'',and Were there any differcnces between reactive and proactive learmng?''
All interviews were conducted in Japanese and were recorded on an IC recorder with the intervicwees'pc..11lssion.During the intervicws,the lntervlewees pe..1.itted the intervicwer to take notes.In the proccss Of analysing the data,a1l of the recorded data wcre flrst transcribed in Japanese and thcn translated lnto Engllsh by the author.The transcriptions ofthe intervlews are in Appendix 4.
4.2 Results and Discusslons
4◆2.1(Cluster l 421。 I二 ′α′ ′′∠
Leaner A is catcgo五scd ln Clustcr l,ln which the participants tcnd to implelnent both proactive and reactive leamingo She statcd on the questlonnaire that she leamt English proactivelyo She used to translate English passages mto Japanese one by one in mock examinations to leam outside of class;she lnade a copy ofthe English passages, put them in her notebook,and analysed her mcolect answerso She started to do this when she became a third… year high school student The reason she opted to do so follows:
1nter宙ewer Why dld you try to use mock examinatlons'
Lcamer A Well l couldn't read long passages at all at flrst,and then l asked a teacher how l could sortit out He(or she)ShOWed me his(or her)ldea precisely translating Enghsh lnto Japanese enabled me to read long passages So I started to use thls way(A17‑18)
Flrst,she sought out external help to improve her weakness,and she adopted the teacher's suggettionso Her leming is actudly based on adoping help seeking and heedlng teachers'suggesions.Help seeking is asking teachers questions,but sometimes learners fail to use this strategy effectively;for example,some do not ask how to solve a ques■on but insteadjust ask for the answer Newllnan,2012).In Learner A's case,she asked the tcacher how to addrcss her weakncss,and the teacher responded to ths with rclevant advlce.Therefore,Leamer A could succeed and overcome her difflculty宙 th leanung outside ofclass.
Leamer A also struggled wlth her club activlties.For her,homework was kind of mechanical dunng her irst two ycars of hlgh school.Aftcr leavulg the club in her third year,she found IIlorc time and opportumtles to leanl and concentrate on doing what shc wanted to do in terlns of proactive leamng Thus,although her way of lcaming was basically fo..1.ed by extemal directlons,she was satisfled with the way she leamt because ofher pllrsult oflearmng with self―regulation。
Collversely,shc expe五cnced difflculties whcn pllrsuing hcr lcarlllng ln the point oflearning outside ofthe classroom.
35
Leamer A At flrst,I dldn't know how to leam[lnfOmatlon]fOr entrance examlnatlons for un市erslucs When l t01d the teacher,he(or she)ment10ned that mock examlnatlons are related to actual ones,so l thought lt was lmportant to use thenl l started to study wlth theln anyway, and then my perfolHiance lmproved l contlnued to do so becausc l reckoned the way was sultable for
me(A46)
She needed more help wlth reacive leamingo For example,although she hardly practised wlting English compositions,her teacher started to require this ofher class in December when she was aboutto take an examo Therefore,she clalmed that the teacher should havc advlsed her of detailed ways to wite a compositlono She also needed more opportunities to ask familiar teachers for help with proactive leaming; even if she noticed that it was effective to ask teachers how to deal with some problems, she prcfcrred to ask thc familiar tcachcrs who wcrc in chargc of hcr Engllsh class rather than to ask other teacherso According to Zilllme..1■ an and Schunk 2012),althOugh a key issues is that lnterventions by teachers or instructors in leamers'SRL include confllcts between learmg and inotlvation,the SRL processes of lcarners and thclr inotivational beliefs are mutually lntcractivco ZlIIme....an 2002)pointed Out that some students are rarely glven supportto pursue thcir lndcpcndent learnlngo He also emphasised that SRL processes can be taught by instructors and that self― regulated learners oftcn look for help from others to lmprove their indepcndent learningo Thus,■ is essential to conslder how teachers glve learners appropriate help in their SRL processes and enhance their motivation with this help.
Lcamer A implied that she would llke to leam more English at the llnlversity and study abroad because she llkes Englisho She renected on her preference for leamlng through leamng at llnivcrsity;she regarded proactive learlllng as more suttable for her than reactive learmngo Shc also intenlalised the value of learlllng Engllsh because English a1lows her to colllunllmcate wlth a large number of people using a colrmon language
421.2Z′αr■
̀F3
Leamer B is also categorised in Cluster l and tended to leam English outslde of class both reacuvely and proactivelyo Shc used to transcribe passages iom textbooks to notebooks and check to see what she did not understand(and llnderline new words)in preparation for her class.
Intervlewer( )4 1n preparatlon outslde ofthe class,dld teachers ask you to do so9 Lcamer Bo Well, it was both Some classes requlred us to do such preparatlon, but
others dldn't requlre us to do so. Baslcally, I dldn't think l was good at English, so l managed to do the preparatlon for the next day ln order to understand the class more NIlaybe thls ls because l leanlt both proactively and reactively(B7‑8)
She recognised the necesslty to leam English more by renecting on hcr perforlnallceo She became aware that her English perfo....anCe Was lnsufflcient in her second year,and then she started to eagerly implement learningo Although she also
4()lluSntes anOmslon ofcontentm mttrvlews