employment indicators in Great Britain and Japan using micro‑data
著者 Iwai Hiroshi, Murakami Masatoshi journal or
publication title
Kansai University review of economics
volume 7
page range 33‑70
year 2005‑03
URL http://hdl.handle.net/10112/12257
A comparative study of unemployment & unstable employment indicators i n Great Britain and Japan using micro‑data.
Hiroshi lwai* and Masatoshi Murakami**
This paper shows our a n a l y s i s o f comparison o f unem‑
ployment & u n s t a b l e employment i n d i c a t o r s ( c a l l e d 1 1 U U E l 1 1 h e r e i n a f t e r ) i n Great B r i t a i n and Japan, using m i c r o ‑ d a t a o f Great B r i t a i n f o r the p e r i o d from 1991 t o 2 0 0 2 . We i n v e s t i ‑ gated and examined t h e b a s i c framework o f r e l e v a n t i n d i c a ‑ t o r s and the c o m p a r a b i l i t y o f the i n d i c a t o r s , and c a r r i e d out a comparative a n a l y s i s o f UUEI i n both c o u n t r i e s , based on t h e framework o f the study o f v i s i b l e unemployment i n d i c a ‑ t o r s , i n v i s i b l e unemployment indicators and unstable employment i n d i c a t o r s i n Japan. C o n t r a s t i n g aspects e x i s t i n UUEI between both c o u n t r i e s , p a r t l y because o f t h e d i f ‑ ference i n the conditions i n the period of comparison between both countries. The employment structure o f Japan i s i n t h e process o f changing t o t h a t o f the USA and Europe. However, t h e gap between t h e sexes has remained a major f a c t o r f o r the backwardness o f the unemployment &
u n s t a b l e employment s t r u c t u r e i n Japan such as i n v i s i b i l i t y o f unemployment, the high weight o f discouraged female workers, e t c .
Keyword: unemployment, unstable employment, working hour, employment s t r u c t u r e , Labour Force Survey
sex d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i n employment, m i c r o ‑ d a t a , Introduction
This paper shows an analysis of comparison of UUEI i n Great B r i t a i n and Japan, using micro‑data of Great B r i t a i n as part of the study results of the SARs Data Study Group. The basic viewpoint and issue i s that we need to investigate and examine the basic framework of relevant indicators and the comparability of the indica‑
t o r s , and carry out a comparative analysis of UUEI and employment
* P r o f e s s o r o f Economics, K a n s a i U n i v e r s i t y
* * Graduate s t u d e n t , Kansai U n i v e r s i t y
33
s t r u c t u r e i n d i c a t o r s i n both c o u n t r i e s , and c l a r i f y t h e i r r e l a t i v e spe‑
c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s with the use o f Labour Force Survey ( c a l l e d 1 1 L F S 1 1 h e r e i n a f t e r ) and Labour f o r c e Survey S p e c i a l S u r v e y ( c a l l e d 1 1 L F S S P 1 1 ) o f Japan , Q u a r t e r l y Labour Force S u r v e y ( c a l l e d 1 1 0 L F S 1 1 h e r e i n a f t e r ) o f Great B r i t a i n , Quarterly Labour Force Survey M i c r o ‑ d a t a ( c a l l e d 1 1 0 L F S M D 1 1 h e r e i n a f t e r ) and Micro‑census i n 1991 on the b a s i s o f the framework o f the study o f UUEI i n Japan ‑v i s i b l e unemployment i n d i c a t o r s , i n v i s i b l e unemployment i n d i c a t o r s and unstable employ‑
ment i n d i c a t o r s .
The conventional r e s e a r c h r e s u l t s concerning comparative s t u d ‑ i e s on the employment s t r u c t u r e between both c o u n t r i e s , with the use o f Census Micro‑data o f Great B r i t a i n (Samples o f Anonymised Records, SARs) a r e j o i n t researches [ l w a i , H . , F u j i o k a , M . , Yoshinaga, K . , and Sugihashi, Y . , ( 2 0 0 2 ) ] o f the SARs Data Study Group. And those a r e a n a l y s i s o f the employment s t r u c t u r e by two d i v i s i o n s by industry and occupation between both countries by Fuchimoto [Fuchimoto ( 2 0 0 3 ) ] o f t h i s Group.
I n c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f the r e s u l t s o f these s t u d i e s , we h a v e , i n t h i s p a p e r , c a r r i e d out comparison o f UUEI ( b y sexes and age) on the b a s i s o f UUEI framework i n Japan, using OLFSMD o f Great B r i t a i n . I n a d d i t i o n , we have analyzed i n d i c a t o r s by i n d u s t r y f o r each o f t h e two d i v i s i o n s i n r e s p e c t o f workers working l e s s than 35 hours i n both c o u n t r i e s , using the Census Micro‑data (SARs D a t a ) i n 1 9 9 1 . And then we examined the f e a t u r e s o f the employment s t r u c t u r e f o r each o f the two d i v i s i o n s i n r e s p e c t o f s h o r t ‑ t i m e workers who con‑
t r i b u t e t o the formation o f the unemployment & unstable employ‑
ment s t r u c t u r e .
The p e r i o d o f comparison between both c o u n t r i e s i n t h i s paper i s from 1992 t o 2 0 0 2 , p a r t l y because t h e D e t a i l e d Labour Force Survey (OLFS) s t a r t e d i n 1 9 9 2 . The unemployment r a t e o f Japan had been i n t h e range from 2% t o l e s s than 4% up u n t i l t h e 1 9 8 0 s , and 11Why i s the unemployment r a t e o f Japan l o w ? 1 1 had been a s u b j e c t i n i n t e r ‑ n a t i o n a l d e b a t e s . However, i n the 1990s a f t e r t h e bubble b u r s t , the economy entered i n t o a long‑term s l u g g i s h p e r i o d , and the unem‑
ployment r a t e o f Japan showed a r a p i d i n c r e a s e . The unemploy‑
ment s t r u c t u r e o f Japan has s i n c e shown aspects s i m i l a r t o those o f
the USA and Europe, as seen i n a sharp i n c r e a s e i n the unemploy‑
ment r a t e o f young p e o p l e . Great B r i t a i n saw times o f a high unem‑
ployment r a t e f o r the period from 1970s t o 1980s, but faced a favourable economic condition a f t e r entering i n t o the 1 9 9 0 s . The unemployment r a t e peaked out i n 1 9 9 3 , since when the r a t e ̲ h a s continued t o f a l l . Some have pointed out t h a t t h i s means the bubble economy. There i s a d i f f e r e n c e i n h i s t o r i c a l c o n d i t i o n s o f the p e r i o d o f comparison, and the s t a t e s o f the unemployment & unstable employment i n both c o u n t r i e s show c o n t r a s t i n g a s p e c t s . I t i s t h e r e ‑ f o r e necessary t o allow f o r the d i f f e r e n c e i n these s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s i n the a n a l y s i s o f the i n d i c a t o r s .
This paper c o n s i s t s o f t h e f o l l o w i n g :
1 . Comparison o f UUEI i n both c o u n t r i e s ( G e n e r a l a n a l y s i s ) 2 . Comparison o f UUEI i n both c o u n t r i e s using QLFSMD
3 . Comparison o f unstable employment i n d i c a t o r s i n both coun‑
t r i e s using Census micro‑data ( S A R s ) .
The main c o n t r i b u t o r s o f t h i s paper a r e l w a i ( t o 1 ) , Murakami ( t o 2 and 3 ) . l w a i contributed t o I n t r o d u c t i o n and Conclusion, a d j u s t ‑ ment and s u p ̲ e r v i s i o n o f t h e whole o f the p a p e r . The computation work of micro‑data o f Great B r i t a i n was carried out mainly by
Murakami. Yuka Nakayama a student i n the seminar o f economic s t a t i s t i c s provided cooperation i n making t a b l e s o f LFSSP o f Japan, f o r which we thank you.
1 . Comparison o f UUEI i n Great B r i t a i n and Japan ( G e n e r a l a n a l y s i s ) 1 ‑ 1 The framework and r e l e v a n t i n d i c a t o r s f o r the comparison o f
UUEI i n Great B r i t a i n and Japan
1 ‑ 1 ‑ 1 The framework and i n d i c a t o r s f o r the compa 『 i s o nbetween Great B r i t a i n and Japan
The framework and i n d i c a t o r s which a r e the standards f o r com‑
p a r i s o n o f UUEI i n both c o u n t r i e s a r e based on the i n d i c a t o r system on the b a s i s o f LFSSP i n Japan. Tables f o r ( 1 ) v i s i b l e unemployment i n d i c a t o r s , ( 2 ) i n v i s i b l e unemployment i n d i c a t o r s ( n o t labour f o r c e d e s i r i n g jobs but c u r r e n t l y not seeking employment) ( 3 ) unstable
* * * With regard t o the Census micro‑data o f Great B r i t a i n i n 1991 (Samples o f Anonymised Records, SARs
d a t a ) , we thank the Centre f o r Census and Survey Research a t the U n i v e r s i t y o f Manchester and e s p e c i a l l y
Professor Angela Dale t h a t approved o f the data use a t the Kansai U n i v e r s i t y .
employment ( s h o r t ‑ t i m e workers) i n d i c a t o r s and unstable employ‑
ees ( b y employment forms) i n d i c a t o r s were prepared on the b a s i s o f LFSSP i n Japan f o r the period from 1992 t o 2002 as shown i n Table 1 ‑ 1 ‑ 1 (Japan). The reason f o r the s t a r t i n 1992 i s that detailed research o f LFS i n Great B r i t a i n s t a r t e d as QLFS i n the same y e a r . (lwai examined AUi and UUEI i n Japan and their results i n l w a i ( 1 9 9 9 ) ( 2 0 0 0 ) ) .
I n d i c a t o r s o f v i s i b l e unemployed persons ( o f f i c i a l unemployed persons) a r e c l a s s i f i e d i n t o unemployed persons by period o f unem‑
ployment and unemployed persons by reason o f the involuntary unemployed person l o s i n g job (redundancy and company bankrupt‑
c y , slump o f b u s i n e s s , e t c . ) . I n d i c a t o r s o f i n v i s i b l e unemployment i n r e s p e c t o f persons who a r e a t l e a s t 15 years o l d t h a t a r e not i n the labour f o r c e but want jobs are c l a s s i f i e d i n t o those o f persons who want jobs and a r e seeking work, and out o f them, the persons who want jobs but a r e not seeking a r e c l a s s i f i e d i n t o discouraged work‑
e r s and those who can work. Discouraged workers a r e prescribed as persons who d i d not seek work because jobs d i d not appear t o have been a v a i l a b l e . Unstable employment i n d i c a t o r s consist o f short time workers i n d i c a t o r s and unstable employment (employees) i n d i ‑ c a t o r s by the form o f employment. Unstable employment i s mainly r e l a t i n g t o employees. Small self‑employed persons comprising the m a j o r i t y o f self‑employed persons experience repeated bankruptcy, closure and opening of business, and they are i n an unstable employment form, and a r e c l o s e t o l a b o u r e r s . t i s t h e r e f o r e neces‑
sary t o examine i n c l u d i n g self‑employed persons. Short‑time worker
i n d i c a t o r s c o n s i s t o f p a r t ‑ t i m e worker i n d i c a t o r s ( p a r t ‑ t i m e workers
by s t a t u s i n work and employment form i n Table 1 ‑ 3 (Japan) f a l l
under these p a r t ‑ t i m e workers) on the b a s i s o f responses ( r e s p o n ‑
dents themselves recognize t h a t they a r e p a r t ‑ t i m e workers i n terms
o f t h e i r employment c o n t r a c t s with t h e i r companies) o f the persons
who a r e the s u b j e c t o f surveys i n the Labour Force Survey and l e s s
than 35 hours i n the r e f e r e n c e week worker i n d i c a t o r s ( l e s s than 35
hours i n the r e f e r e n c e week workers i n the same T a b l e ) on the b a s i s
o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n marks by number o f working hours. l e s s than 35
hours i n the r e f e r e n c e week workers a r e c l a s s i f i e d f i r s t l y by mark [ o f
whether or not i t i s a main j o b ] , and the d i v i s i o n o f main jobs i s
T F T F T F T F T F T F T F T F T F T F T F V i s i b l e u n e m p l o y m e n t i n d i c a t o r 2 . 1 2 . 1 2 . 4 2 . 5 2 . 9 3 . 1 3 . 0 3 . 0 3 . 3 3 . 3 3 . 4 3 . 4 3 . 6 3 . 4 4 . 6 4 . 5 4 . 6 4 . 4 4 . 7 4 . 5 5 . 4 5 . 1 U n e m p l o y e d p e r s o n s e e k i n g w o r k w i t h i n a monh 1 , 5 1 6 1 . 7 1 . 9 2 . 2 2 . 5 2 . 3 2 . 1 2 . 6 1 . 6 2 . 7 29 2 . 8 2 . 8 3 . 7 3 . 8 2 . 0 2 . 6 3 . 7 3 . 7 4 . 0 4 . 0 L o n g u n e m p l o y e d p e r s o n l e s s t h a n 6 m o n t h s 1 . 3 1 . 5 1 . 6 1 . 9 1 . 3 1 . 4 1 . 8 2 . 1 1 4 1 5 2 0 2 . 4 1 . 5 1 . 6 2 . 6 2 . 8 2 . 5 2 . 8 2 . 5 2 . 9 2 . 7 3 . 0 L o n g u n e m p l o y e d p e r s o n 6 m o n t h t o l e s s t h a n 1 y e a r 0 . 4 0 . 0 0 . 4 0 . 4 0 . 4 0 . 3 06 0 . 6 04 0 . 3 0 . 7 0 . 6 0 . 5 0 . 4 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 . 9 0 . 9 0 . 8 0 . 9 0 . 9 l o n g u n e m p l o y e d p e r s o n m o r e t h a n 1 y e a r 0 . 3 0 . 2 0 . 4 0 . 2 0 . 3 0 . 2 05 0 . 3 04 0 . 2 0 . 7 0 . 4 0 . 4 0 . 2 1 . 0 0 . 7 1 2 0 . 7 1 . 2 0 . 8 1 . 6 1 . 1 U u n e m p l o y e d p e r s o n s e e k i n g m a i n j o b s 1 . 6 1 . 3 1 . 8 1 5 2 2 1 . 7 2 . 4 1 . 9
I n v o l u n t a r y u n e m p l o y e d p e r s o n l o s i n g j o b 0 . 4 0 . 3 0 . 7 0 . 4 0 . 8 0 . 7 0 . 9 0 . 6 0 . 9 0 . 6 0 . 9 0 . 7 1 1 0 . 7 1 . 5 1 . 0 1 . 5 0 . 9 1 . 3 0 . 8 2 . 3 1 5 U n e m p l o y e d p e r s o n f o r t h e h e a d o f h o u s e h o l d 0 . 6 0 . 1 0 . 7 0 . 1 0 . 8 0 . 1 0 . 9 0 . 2 1 . 0 0 . 3 0 . 9 0 . 2 1 . 0 0 . 3 1 . 3 0 . 3 0 . 8 1 . 4 0 . 3 1 . 5 0 . 4 U n e m p l o y e d p e r s o n f o r h o u s e h o l d m e n b e r s 1 . 1 1 . 6 1 . 3 2 . 1 1 . 7 2 . 6 1 . 6 2 . 4 1 . 9 2 . 6 1 . 9 2 . 7 2 . 0 2 . 7 2 . 6 36 ‑ 2 6 3 . 7
I n v i s i b l e u n e m p l o y m e n t i n d i c a t o r ( n o t l a b o u r f o r c e )
P e r s o n w a i t i n g t o r e p o r t a new j o b w i t h i n a m o n t h 2 . 3 2 . 9 2 . 2 2 . 7 2 . 0 1 . 3 1 . 8 2 1 1 6 2 1 1 . 7 2 . 1 1 . 5 1 . 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . A f t e r g r a d u a t i o n 2 . 0 2 . 5 1 . 9 2 . 3 1 . 7 0 . 9 14 1 5 1 . 2 1 . 5 1 . 3 1 . 4 1 . 2 1 . 3
P e r s o n who d e s i r e j o b 1 4 . 7 2 8 . 5 1 5 . 1 2 9 1 1 4 . 8 2 8 . 4 1 3 . 7 2 5 . 8 1 4 . 1 2 6 . 8 1 4 . 3 2 6 . 8 1 4 . 5 2 6 . 9 1 5 . 3 2 8 . 5 1 5 . 1 2 8 . 6 1 4 . 5 2 6 . 7 7 . 9 1 4 . 6
……. . . a v a i l a b l e f a 「 w o r k 1 3 24 1 . 4 2 . 6 1 . 7 3 . 0 1 . 9 3 . 2 2 . 0 3 . 6 2 . 3 4 . 0 26 4 . 5 3 . 0 5 . 2 3 . 0 5 . 0 2 . 8 4 . 6 1 . 7 3 . 0 d i s c o u r a g e d w o r k e r s 4 . 9 9 . 8 5 . 2 1 0 . 6 6 . 1 1 2 . 0 5 . 8 1 1 4 5 . 9 1 2 . 0 5 . 9 1 1 . 7 6 . 0 1 1 . 7 6 . 5 1 2 . 6 ・6.2 1 1 7 3 , 1 5 . 6 ' ' " … . . . a v a i l a b l e f o r w o r k 0 . 9 1 . 6 1 . 0 1 . 8 1 . 2 2 . 3 1 . 4 2 4 1 5 2 . 7 1 . 6 1 . 9
U n s t a b l e e m p l o y e d p e r s o n i n d i c a t o r ( s h o r t ‑ t i m e w o r k e r s )
P a r t ‑ t i m e w o r k e r l e s s t h a n 3 5 h o u r s a w e e k 1 9 . 7 3 2 . 7 2 0 2 3 3 2 1 9 . 7 3 4 . 2 2 1 . 0 3 5 . 7 2 0 . 5 3 4 . 1 2 1 . 2 3 5 . 5 2 2 . 6 3 7 . 3 2 3 . 1 3 7 . 9 2 2 . 6 3 8 . 0 2 3 . 7 3 9 . 3 2 3 . 3 3 8 . 4 . . . . . . . P a r t ‑ t i m e w o r k e r e n g a g e d m a i n l y i n w o r k 7 . 0 7 . 8 7 . 8 9 . 2 8 . 1 9 . 7 8 . 4 1 0 . 6 8 . 3 9 . 9 9 . 0 1 1 . 6 9 . 8 1 2 . 0 1 0 . 1 1 2 . 5 9 . 4 ‑ 9 . 8 1 2 . 6 1 1 . 8 1 4 , 1
••••. , P . . a ,
●r t . ‑ " t i > m
●e " ' w " ' o " r k e r w i s h i n a t o c h a n c e i o b 2 . 1 3 . 5 2 1 3 . 7 2 . 3 3 . 9 2 . 3 4 . 2 2 . 3 4 . 0 2 . 5 4 . 4 2 . 7 4 . 6 3 . 0 5 . 1 2 . 8 4 . 8 3 . 1 5 . 3 4 . 0 6 . 5 U n s t a b l e e m o l o v e e s
T e m p o r a r y e m p l o y e e s 5 . 6 9 . 7 6 . 0 1 0 . 4 6 . 0 1 0 . 6 5 . 6 1 0 . 1 5 . 5 9 . 5 6 . 1 1 0 . 3 6 . 3 1 1 . 2 6 . 7 1 1 . 7 7 . 0 1 1 . 8 7 . 7 1 3 . 1 9 . 8 1 6 4
… … … . T e m p o r a r y e m l o y e e s m a i n l y i n w o r k 2 . 4 3 . 5 2 . 6 3 . 7 2 . 6 4 . 0 2 . 5 3 . 9 2 . 5 3 . 6 29 4 . 1 2 . 9 4 . 2 3 . 2 4 . 8 3 . 4 ‑ 3 . 6 5 . 3 4 . 9 6 . 8 D a l l y e m p l o y e e s 2 . 4 3 . 3 2 . 4 3 . 2 24 3 . 3 2 . 6 3 . 8 2 . 6 36 2 7 3 . 8 2 . 7 3 . 8 2 . 8 4 . 0 2 . 6 3 . 6 2 . 6 2 . 4 4 . 6 1 . 8 . . . . . . . . . T e m p o r a r y e m l o y e e s m a i n l y i n w o r k 1 . 4 1 1 1 4 1 2 1 . 3 1 2 1 4 1 . 5 1 4 1 . 3 1 . 5 1 . 4 1 . 6 1 . 4 1 . 6 1 . 5 1 . 4 1 . 4 1 . 2 1 . 0 0 . 9 P e i c e w o r k e r s 1 2 2 9 1 . 0 2 3 1 . 0 2 . 4 1 . 1 2 . 6 0 . 8 1 . 8 0 . 8 1 . 7 0 . 8 1 . 8 0 . 7 1 . 6 0 . 7 1 . 6 0 . 6 1 . 3 0 . 4 0 . 9
… . . . . T e m p o r a r y e m p l o y e e s m a i n l y i n w o r k 0 . 1 0 . 2 0 . 1 0 . 2 0 . 1 0 . 2 0 . 1 0 . 1 0 1 0 . 1 0 . 1 0 . 1 0 1 0 . 1 0 . 1 0 . 1 0 . 0 ‑ 0 . 1 0 . 1 0 . 0 0 . 1 E m l o y e e s o f s m a l l s i z e c o m p a n y ( l e s s t h a n 3 0 e m p l o y e e s ) 2 5 . 6 2 7 . 5 2 4 . 9 2 7 . 0 2 5 . 3 2 7 . 2 2 5 . 6 2 7 . 8 2 6 . 0 2 7 . 9 2 6 . 1 2 8 . 3 2 6 . 0 2 7 . 9 2 5 . 8 2 7 . 5 2 5 . 9 ‑ 2 6 . 0 2 7 . 9 2 6 . 5 2 8 1 . . . . . . . . . . E e m l o y e e s m a i n l y i n w o r k 2 0 . 1 1 6 . 3 1 9 . 8 1 6 . 7 2 0 . 3 1 7 . 0 2 0 . 7 1 7 . 9 2 1 . 0 1 7 . 6 2 1 . 0 1 8 . 1 2 0 . 9 1 7 . 7 2 0 . 7 1 7 . 2 2 . 8 ‑ 2 0 . 5 1 7 . 2 2 1 . 4 1 7 . 7 U n s t a b l e e m p l y e d p e r s o n i n d i c a t o r ( e m p l o y e e s )
T o t a l e m p l o y e e s 7 6 . 0 7 1 . 3 7 6 . 9 7 2 . 2 77 3 7 3 . 2 7 7 . 5 7 3 . 8 7 8 . 0 7 4 . 5 7 8 . 4 7 5 . 8 7 8 . 6 7 6 . 4 7 7 . 8 7 5 . 4 7 7 . 8 7 5 . 8 7 9 . 1 7 7 . 9 7 9 . 8 7 9 . 5 e m p l o y e e s ( e x c l . e x e c u t i v e o f c o m p a n y ) 7 0 . 4 6 8 . 3 7 1 . 3 6 9 . 1 7 1 . 9 7 0 . 3 7 1 . 7 7 0 . 5 7 2 . 2 7 1 . 2 7 2 . 7 7 2 . 5 7 3 1 7 3 . 3 7 2 . 5 7 2 . 5 7 2 . 5 7 3 . 0 7 4 . 0 7 5 . 2 7 3 . 9 7 5 . 9
• ・ P a r t ‑ t i m e w o r k e r s 1 1 . 7 2 3 . 6 1 2 . 0 2 3 . 9 1 2 . 0 2 4 . 4 1 2 . 4 2 5 . 0 1 3 . 0 2 5 . 7 1 3 . 8 2 7 . 1 1 4 . 5 2 8 . 6 1 5 . 1 2 9 . 7 1 5 . 9 3 0 . 7 1 7 . 1 3 2 . 3 1 5 . 7 3 0 . 2
• ・ D i s p a t c h e d w o r k e r s ‑ 0 . 5 0 . 9 0 . 7 1 2 06 6 . 2
• ・ O t h e r s ( c o n t r a c t e m p l o y e e s , e t c . ) 2 . 6 2 . 5 2 . 8 2 . 5 2 . 6 2 . 6 2 . 6 2 . 6 2 . 6 2 . 6 3 . 0 3 . 1 2 . 8 2 . 8 3 . 0 3 . 1 24 2 . 3 2 . 4 2 . 5 5 . 3 5 . 2
• ・ R e a u l a r s t a f f 5 6 . 0 4 2 . 3 5 6 . 5 4 2 6 5 7 . 3 4 3 . 4 5 6 . 7 4 2 . 9 5 6 . 6 4 2 . 8 5 5 . 9 4 2 . 4 5 5 . 9 4 1 . 9 5 4 . 4 3 9 . 7 9 . 3 3 9 . 1 5 3 . 9 3 9 . 2 5 2 . 2 3 8 . 5 L a b o u r f o r c e 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 ( n o t e ) T ‑ T o t a l , F ‑ F e m a l e
( s o u r c e ) L F S S P ( F e b r u a r y ) 37
deemed t o be a form o f i n v o l u n t a r y p a r t ‑ t i m e r s . Secondly, l e s s than 35 hours i n the reference week workers (whether or not they are seeking t o change the j o b ) a r e i d e n t i f i e d , and p a r t ‑ t i m e work by p e r ‑ sons seeking t o change the job i s deemed t o be another form o f i n v o l u n t a r y p a r t ‑ t i m e work. However, the p i c t u r e o f the p a r t ‑ t i m e work by s h o r t ‑ t i m e workers represents only a c e r t a i n p a r t o f p a r t ‑ time works, because the number o f p a r t ‑ t i m e r s who a r e working f o r as long a time as that of full‑time employees has increased, although they a r e p a r t ‑ t i m e workers i n t h e i r employment c o n t r a c t s . Unstable employees i n d i c a t o r s a r e represented as i n d i c a t o r s o f tem‑
porary employees, d a i l y employees, and workers a t home [whether or n o t t h e i r work i s a main j o b ] by form o f employment, and an i n d i ‑ c a t o r o f u n s t a b l e employment as a main job shows a form o f i n v o l ‑ untary unstable employment.
( 2 ) Table 1 ‑ 1 ‑ 2 UUEI i n Great B r i t a i n (Summarized T a b l e ) shows
QLFS i n Great B r i t a i n compared and adjusted on the b a s i s o f the
b a s i c framework o f unemployment & unstable employment i n the
above LFSSP i n Japan f o r the same p e r i o d . A c t u a l unemployment
i n d i c a t o r s are c l a s s i f i e d i n t o unemployed persons by period of
unemployment and i n v o l u n t a r i l y unemployed persons who are
unemployed persons seeking a f u l l time job f o r a job seeking p e r i o d
o f t h e 4 p a s t weeks ( t h e r e i s no f i x e d p e r i o d o f job seeking i n J a p a n ) .
With regard t o i n v i s i b l e unemployment i n d i c a t o r s , and i n p a r t i c u l a r
t o n o t labour f o r c e who a r e a t l e a s t 16 years o l d , persons who want
jobs and a r e seeking work i n the p a s t f o u r weeks a r e d i f f e r e n t i a t e d
on t h e b a s i s o f an economically i n a c t i v e r e a s o n , and furthermore,
i n d i c a t o r s o f persons who want jobs but a r e not seeking work a r e
c l a s s i f i e d i n t o i n d i c a t o r s o f discouraged workers, long‑term s i c k / d i s ‑
abled persons, persons looking a f t e r family/home, students, and
o t h e r s . Discouraged workers a r e p r e s c r i b e d as peoples whose r e a ‑
son f o r not seeking work was t h a t they b e l i e v e d no jobs were a v a i l ‑
a b l e , and a r e not l i m i t e d t o people with a v a i l a b i l i t y t o s t a r t work i n
the next 2 weeks.
T F T F T F T F T F T F T F T F T F T F T F T F V i s i b l e u n e m p l o y e d p e r s o n
U n e m p l o y e d p e r s o n 9 . 9 7 . 5 1 0 . 4 7 . 9 9 . 8 75 8 . 8 7 . 0 8 4 65 72 5 . 9 6 . 3 5 . 5 6 . 1 5 . 3 5 5 4 . 8 4 . 7 4 . 2 5 . 1 4 . 4 4 . 8 4 . 1 D u r a t i o n o f u n e m p l o y m e n t
… . l e s s t h a n 3 m o n t h s 4 . 4 4 . 0 4 . 0 3 . 6 3 . 8 3 . 7 3 . 6 3 . 7 3 . 7 36 3 4 3 . 4 34 3 . 6 3 . 5 3 . 4 3 . 1 3 1 2 . 7 2 . 7 3 . 1 3 . 0 3 . 0 2 . 8 . . . 6 t o l e s s t h a n 1 y e a r . 2 , 0 1 . 5 2 . 0 1 . 6 1 6 1 3 1 . 4 1 . 2 1 . 4 1 1 1 1 0 . 9 0 . 9 0 . 7 0 . 9 0 . 8 0 . 8 0 . 8 0 , 8 0 . 7 0 . 8 0
、6 O
、7 0 . 6 .
. . 1 y e a r o r m o r e 3 . 5 2 . 1 4 . 4 2 . 6 4 . 4 2 . 5 3 . 8 2 . 2 3 . 2 1 . 7 2 . 7 1 . 6 2 . 0 1 . 3 1 . 7 1 1 1 5 0 . 9 1 . 3 0 . 8 1 . 2 0 . 7 1 . 1 0 . 7 I n v o l u n t a r y u n e p l o y e d person• 8 . 2 4 . 9 8 . 6 5 . 1 7 . 9 4 . 7 6 . 9 4 . 0 6 . 5 3 . 7 55 3 . 3 4 . 7 3 . 0 4 . 4 2 . 7 0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0 I n v i s i b l e u n e m p l o y e d p e r s o n ( n o t l a b o u r f o r c e )
P e r s o n w h o w a n t j o b s 7 . 4 1 1 . 2 7 . 5 1 1 . 0 7 . 9 1 1 . 3 8 . 0 1 1 . 4 8 . 1 1 1 2 8 . 3 1 1 3 83 1 1 . 0 7 . 9 1 0 . 6 8 . 0 0 . 0 7 . 6 0 . 0 7 . 7 0 . 0 7 . 2 9 . 2
… . A v a i l a b l e f o r w o r k 3 . 0 4 . 6 3 . 0 4 . 5 3 . 2 4 . 8 3 . 2 4 . 8 3 . 1 4 . 4 2 . 7 4 . 0 2 . 5 3 . 6 2 . 3 3 . 2 2 2 3 . 1 2 . 0 2 . 8 2 . 1 2 . 7 1 . 9 2 . 6 P e r s o n w h o w a n t j o b s b u t a r e n o t s e e k i n g w o r k
. .
D i s c u r a g e d w o r k e r s . 0 . 5 0 . 5 0 . 5 0 . 5 0 . 5 0 . 4 0 . 4 0 . 4 0 . 4 0 . 3 0 . 3 0 . 3 0 . 2 0 . 2 0 2 0 2 0 . 2 0 . 2 0 1 0 . 1 0 . 1 0 . 1 0 . 1 0 . 1 . . . L o n g t e r m s i c k / d i s a b l e p e r s o n 1 . 2 1 . 1 1 4 1 2 1 . 8 1 . 4 1 . 8 1 . 6 2 . 0 1 . 7 2 . 4 2 . 1 2 . 6 2 . 2 26 2 . 2 2 . 6 2 . 3 2 . 5 2 . 2 2 . 6 2 . 2 2 . 3 2 . 0 . . . . P e r s o n s l o o k i n g a f t e r f a m i l y / h o m e 2 . 7 5 . 8 2 . 6 5 . 6 2 . 8 5 . 9 2 . 7 5 . 8 2 . 7 5 . 6 2 . 6 5 . 3 2 . 6 5 . 2 2 . 3 4 . 7 2 . 2 4 . 5 2 2 4 . 3 2 . 1 4 . 2 1 . 9 3 . 7 . . . . S t u d e n t 0 . 7 0 . 8 0 . 7 0 . 8 0 . 8 0 . 9 0 . 8 0 . 9 0 . 9 1 . 0 0 . 9 1 . 0 0 . 9 0 . 9 08 0 9 0 . 9 1 . 0 0 9 1 . 0 1 . 0 1 . 0 0 . 9 1 0 . . . . O t h e r s 1 . 4 1 . 8 1 . 2 1 . 6 1 . 3 1 . 7 1 . 4 1 . 8 1 . 4 1 . 8 1 . 4 1 . 8 1 . 3 1 6 1 . 3 1 . 6 1 . 3 1 . 6 , . , 1 . 3 1 . 2 1 . 4 1 2 1 . 4 U n s t a b l e e m p l o y e d p e r s o n
A . P a r t ‑ t i m e / F u l l ‑ t i m e e m p l o y e d p e r s o n
P a r t ‑ t i m e e m p l o y e d p e r s o n 2 1 . 0 4 0 . 4 2 1 . 2 4 0 . 7 1 1 4 4 1 . 2 1 2 . 6 4 1 . 1 2 2 . 9 4 1 . 9 2 3 2 4 2 . 0 2 3 . 2 4 2 . 1 2 3 . 3 4 1 . 9 2 4 . 0 4 2 . 4 2 4 . 2 4 2 . 5 2 4 . 2 4 2 . 1 2 4 . 8 4 2 . 5 . . . E m p l o y e e s 1 7 . 9 3 6 . 1 1 8 . 2 3 6 . 4 1 8 . 7 3 6 . 9 1 9 . 0 3 7 . 0 1 9 . 9 3 7 . 9 2 0 . 2 3 8 . 5 2 0 . 3 3 8 . 0 2 0 . 4 3 8 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0 . S e l f ‑ e m p l o y e d p e r s o n 1 . 9 2 . 9 2 . 0 3 0 2 . 1 3 . 2 2 . 2 3 . 2 2 . 3 3 . 2 2 . 4 3 . 4 25 3 . 5 24 3 . 3 0 . 0 0 . 0 0 0 0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0 E m p l o y e d p e r s o n e n g a g i n g s e c o n d a r y w o r k 3 . 4 4 . 3 3 . 6 4 . 6 4 . 0 5 . 1 4 . 5 5 9 . 8 4 . 5 5 . 9 4 . 4 5 . 5 4 . 1 5 . 2 4 . 4 5 . 7 4 . 1 5 . 3 4 . 1 5 . 4 3 . 9 5 . 1 3 . 9 5 . 1 F u l l ‑ t i m e e m p l o y e d p e r s o n 6 9 . 2 5 2 . 1 6 7 . 9 5 1 . 5 6 8 . 4 5 1 . 2 6 9 . 3 5 1 . 9 6 9 . 4 5 1 . 6 70 2 5 2 1 7 0 . 5 5 2 . 4 7 0 . 6 5 2 . 8 7 0 . 5 5 2 . 8 7 1 . 0 5 3 . 3 7 0 . 6 5 3 . 5 7 0 . 3 5 3 . 3 B . P a r t ‑ t o m e / s e l f ‑ e m p l o y e d p e r s o n 1 9 . 9 3 9 . 2 2 0 . 2 3 9 . 5 2 0 . 9 4 0 . 2 2 1 . 2 4 0 . 2 2 2 . 1 4 1 . 2 2 2 . 6 4 1 . 2 2 2 . 7 4 1 . 5 2 2 . 7 4 1 . 3 2 3 . 5 4 1 . 7 2 3 . 7 4 1 . 9 2 3 8 4 1 . 5 2 4 . 4 4 2 0
. . . . T h o s e n o t s e e k i n g f u l l ・ t i i m e j o b 1 5 . 1 3 2 . 2 1 5 . 0 3 1 9 1 5 . 2 3 2 . 0 1 5 . 3 3 2 . 0 1 5 . 9 3 2 . 7 1 6 . 1 3 2 . 5 1 6 . 2 3 2 . 9 1 6 . 5 3 3 . 1 1 7 . 1 3 3 . 4 1 7 . 3 3 3 . 6 1 7 . 4 3 3 . 5 1 7 . 8 3 3 . 8 . . . T h o s e w h o c a n n o t f i n d f u l l ‑ t i m e j o b 2 . 2 3 . 6 2 . 8 4 . 3 2 , 9 4 . 5 2 , 9 4 , 3 2 . 8 4 . 0 2 . 8 3 . 9 2 . 6 3 . 6 2 . 3 3 . 1 2 . 2 3 . 0 2 . 1 2 . 9 1 . 9 2 . 6 1 . 9 2 . 4 . . . . S t u d e n t ( i n s c h o o l ) 2 . 2 2 . 9 2 . 1 2 . 9 2 . 4 3 . 1 2 . 6 3 . 4 3 . 1 3 . 8 3 . 3 4 . 3 3 . 4 4 . 3 3 . 4 4 . 4 3 . 7 4 . 6 3 . 7 4 . 7 3 . 9 4 . 7 4 . 0 0 . 5 . . . T h o s e w h o a r e i l l a n d i n j u r e d 0 . 3 0 . 5 0 . 3 0 . 4 0 . 3 0 . 4 0 3 0 . 5 0 . 3 0 . 4 0 . 3 0 . 4 0 . 4 0 . 5 04 06 0 . 4 0 . 6 0 . 5 0 . 7 05 0 . 6 0 . 5 0 . 6 C . P a r t ‑ t i m e e m p l o y e d p e e r o s n 1 9 . 9 3 9 . 1 2 0 . 2 3 9 . 4 2 0 . 9 4 0 . 1 2 1 2 4 0 . 1 2 2 . 1 4 1 . 1 2 2 . 6 4 1 . 2 2 2 . 7 4 . 2 2 2 8 4 1 . 3 2 3 . 5 0 . 0 2 3 . 7 0 . 0 2 3 . 8 0 . 0 2 4 . 3 4 2 . 0 . . . . T h o s e w h o c a n n o t f i n d a p e r n a n e n t j o b 2 . 2 3 . 6 2 . 8 4 . 3 2 . 9 4 . 6 2 . 9 4 . 4 2 . 8 4 . 1 28 4 . 0 2 . 7 3 . 7 2 . 4 3 . 2 2 2 0 . 0 2 . 1 0 . 0 1 . 9 0 . 0 1 . 9 2 . 4 D . T e m p o r a r y e m p l o y e e s 4 . 5 6 . 0 4 . 7 6 . 0 5 . 2 6 . 6 5 . 7 6 . 9 5 . 8 7 . 2 6 . 2 7 . 5 6 . 0 7 . 5 5 . 9 6 . 9 5 . 9 0 . 0 5 . 9 0 . 0 5 . 4 0 . 0 5 . 1 6 . 1 . . . . T h o s e w h o c a n n o t f i n d a p e r n a n e n t j o b 1 . 6 1 . 8 2 . 0 2 . 2 2 . 2 2 . 5 2 . 5 2 . 6 2 . 4 2 . 6 2 . 4 2 . 5 2 . 2 2 . 3 2 . 1 2 . 1 1 . 8 0 . 0 1 . 6 0 . 0 1 . 4 0 . 0 1 4 1 . 3 L a b o u r f o r c e 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 ( n o t e ) * U n e p l o y e d p e r s o n s e e k i n g f u l l ‑ t i m e j o b , T ‑ T o t a l l , F ‑ F e m a l e
( S o u r c e ) Q L F S ( S p r i n g ) 39
Short‑time workers o f unstable employment i n d i c a t o r s a r e c l a s s i ‑ f i e d i n t o ( A ) f u l l ‑ t i m e r s , p a r t ‑ t i m e r s ( t h e t o t a l o f employees and s e l f ‑ employed persons), and workers having secondary work (second j o b s , which are prescribed as work i n a d d i t i o n t o the f u l l ‑ t i m e and the p a r t ‑ t i m e j o b ) , based on the responses o f the s u b j e c t persons o f the surveys ( n o t by the working h o u r s ) . ( B ) I n d i c a t o r s o f part~timers ( i n c l u d i n g self‑employed persons) a r e c l a s s i f i e d i n t o i n d i c a t o r s o f ①
those not seeking a f u l l ‑ t i m e j o b , ② those who cannot f i n d a f u l l ‑ t i m e j o b , ③ students ( i n s c h o o l ) , and ④ those who are i l l and i n j u r e d . People who are working p a r t ‑ t i m e and cannot f i n d a f u l l ‑ t i m e job a r e i n v o l u n t a r y p a r t ‑ t i m e r s by d e f i n i t i o n . I n connection with t h i s , ( C ) as one o f the i n d i c a t o r s o f i n v o l u n t a r y p a r t ‑ t i m e r s , which i s p e c u l i a r t o Great B r i t a i n , p a r t ‑ t i m e r s who cannot f i n d a permanent job a r e r e p ‑ r e s e n t e d . ( D ) Temporary employees who cannot f i n d a permanent job a r e a l s o r e p r e s e n t e d . This i n d i c a t o r i s a l s o one o f the i n d i c a t o r s o f i n v o l u n t a r y p a r t ‑ t i m e r s , which i s p e c u l i a r t o Great B r i t a i n .
LFS i n Japan do not have questions on the reasons f o r being p a r t ‑ t i m e r s shown i n the above, only the reasons f o r being a main job o r n o t , o r reasons f o r wishing t o change a job or not a r e p r o v i d ‑ ed as q u e s t i o n s . A d e t a i l e d mark f o r t h a t i s not shown i n QLFS i n Great B r i t a i n , e i t h e r . I n t h i s p a p e r , we prepared a cross t a b l e ( a time s e r i e s t a b l e o f every other y e a r ) by sex and age i n r e s p e c t o f unem‑
ployment & unstable employment. I n t h i s p r e p a r a t i o n , we used QLF‑
SMD i n Great B r i t a i n as a t r i a l c a l c u l a t i o n f o r d e t a i l e d t a b l e s (by sexes and age) f o r comparison between both c o u n t r i e s i n r e s p e c t o f UUEI, on the basis of the LFSSP i n Japan as seen i n Table 1 ‑ 3 (Japan) and Table 1 ‑ 4 ( G r e a t B r i t a i n ) , and by p r e s c r i b i n g s h o r t ‑ t i m e workers as employees working f o r l e s s than 35 hours i n the r e f e r ‑ ence week [wishing t o change jobs o r not ( p a r t ‑ t i m e r s ) ] and deem‑
i n g s h o r t ‑ t i m e workers wanting a job or not t o be one o f the i n d i c a ‑ t o r s o f i n v o l u n t a r y p a r t ‑ t i m e r s . The c l a s s i f i c a t i o n mark i n d i c a t e s the b a s i s o f 30 hours i n Great B r i t a i n , but we used 35 hours, which i s the b a s i s i n Japan f o r the comparison between both c o u n t r i e s .
1 ‑ 1 ‑ 2 Relevant survey mate 『 i a l sf o r comparison between Great B r i t a i n and Japan
The main employment & unemployment s t a t i s t i c s i n Japan are
f o r LFS and LFSSP, which a r e on the c u r r e n t a c t u a l s t a t u s i n the r e f ‑ erence week i n the s u r v e y , and Employment Status Survey (_E~S), which i s on the u s u a l s t a t u s . The formers a r e time s e r i e s s t a t 1 s t 1 c s , and the l a t t e r i s s t r u c t u r a l s t a t i s t i c s . With regard t o surveys r e l a t i n g t o the labour f o r c e , LFS on the employment s t a t u s f o r the l a s t one week i n every month and LFSSP ( c a r r i e d out i n every February) which supplements the understanding o f s t r u c t u r a l aspects o f the employment s t a t u s have been c a r r i e d o u t . Revision o f LFS was made i n A p r i l 2002 f o r understanding the d e t a i l e d employment and unemployment s t a t e s , because unemployment & unstable employ‑
ment had deepened due t o a prolonged slump, and the LFSSP s t a t ‑ ed t o be published on a q u a r t e r l y b a s i s , and LFS Annual Report ( r e s u l t s o f d e t a i l s ) s t a r t e d t o be issued as a new p u b l i c a t i o n .
Unemployment s t a t i s t i c s i n Great B r i t a i n s i n c e the establishment o f the Unemployment Insurance Act ( i n 1 9 1 1 ) c o n s i s t o f r e g i s t e r e d s t a t i s t i c s o f Claimant Accounts, CC, and the r e c e n t L F S , but the LFS i s used f o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l comparison [ l w a i , H ( 2 0 0 3 ) ( 2 0 0 4 ) ] . The LFS had been c a r r i e d out every year as p a r t o f the EC Labour Force Survey f o r the p e r i o d from 1983 t o 1 9 9 1 , but s i n c e 1 9 9 2 , the QLFS has been annually c a r r i e d out and p u b l i s h e d . The QLFS had been published on a q u a r t e r l y b a s i s as a Labour Force Survey q u a r t e r l y supplement o f the O f f i c e f o r N a t i o n a l S t a t i s t i c s u n t i l r e c e n t y e a r s , but a t p r e s e n t , i t i s not compiled as a p u b l i c a t i o n , but i s shown on the web s i t e o f the ONS. I n a d d i t i o n , time s e r i e s data o f the QLFS has been issued as a p u b l i c a t i o n o f the ONS as the Labour Force Survey H i s t o r i c a l Supplement ( c a l l e d 1 1 L F S H l 1 1 h e r e i n a f t e r ) a t a r e g u ‑ l a r i n t e r v a l , but i t i s now shown i n the web s i t e o f the ONS on an i r r e g u l a r b a s i s ( R e f e r d e t a i l s o f the LFS i n Great B r i t a i n t o the Labour Force Survey User Guide ( V o l s . 1 t o 1 0 ) o f the ONS). I n t h i s p a p e r , the s p r i n g q u a r t e r f i g u r e s (March t o May) a r e used as f i g u r e s i n the QLFS i n Great B r i t a i n , as the LFSSP i n Japan i s conducted i n February every y e a r .
I n Great B r i t a i n , t h e r e s u l t s o f the QLFS have been shown s i n c e
1992 on the web s i t e o f the UK Data Archive as Quarterly Labour
Force Micro‑data (110LFSMD11). This i n c l u d e s data by year before
1 9 9 2 ) , and i t i s p o s s i b l e t o use the data i f one submits a research
p l a n t o t h e manager o f t h e UK Data Archive and undertakes p r o c e ‑
dures for approval (Spring data i s also used for the OLFSMD).Furthermore, the Population Census i n 1991 was pub‑
lished i n Great Britain as census micro‑data (Samples of Anonymised Records, SARs). I n t h i s p a p e r , we used SARs data t o c l a r i f y s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s o f unstable employment, although i t i s used only f o r 1 9 9 1 , together with the use o f OLFSMD.
1 ‑ 2 Gene 『 a lf e a t u r e s i n comparison o f UUEI between Great B r i t a i n and Japan
Recently i n s t u d i e s o f UUEI the s i g n i f i c a n c e and l i m i t a t i o n o f v i s i ‑ b l e unemployment i n d i c a t o r s and o f f i c i a l unemployment r a t e s have been pointed o u t , and a l t e r n a t i v e unemployment i n d i c a t o r s ( c a l l e d 1 1 A U l 1 1 h e r e i n a f t e r ) are considered t o be a subject t o s t u d y . The S t a t i s t i c a l Bureau o f the OECD computed and published a supple‑
mentary measure as an AUi and as a U type measure, which i s shown i n Table 1 ‑ 2 . This i s f o r the purpose o f p r e s c r i b i n g and e s t i ‑ mating ① unemployment, ② discouraged workers, and ③ i n v o l u n ‑ t a r y p a r t ‑ t i m e r s , as AUi, and making the t o t a l o f each r a t i o t o the labour f o r c e a sup~lementary measure o f labour market s l a g . I n each c o u n t r y , t h e r e 1 s a major d i f f e r e n c e i n the discouraged worker r a t i o and the i n v o l u n t a r y p a r t ‑ t i m e worker r a t i o between males and f e m a l e s . I t can be seen from the t o t a l i n d i c a t o r s i n Japan t h a t d i s ‑ couraged female worker r a t i o s a r e extremely h i g h a t 6.0% and 4 . 0 % , although the absolute f i g u r e s a r e not so l a r g e due t o the unemploy‑
ment r a t e i n Japan being l o w . Because the unemployment r a t e stood a t more than 10% i n the both p e r i o d s , t h e t o t a l i n d i c a t o r s i n Great B r i t a i n were l a r g e . The discouraged workers i n d i c a t o r s were low i n both males and f e m a l e s , but i n v o l u n t a r y p a r t ‑ t i m e i n d i c a t o r s were r e l a t i v e l y high i n the t o t a l numbers. The female i n d i c a t o r s were e s p e c i a l l y h i g h .
AUi, which are i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y debated, e s p e c i a l l y involuntary p a r t ‑ t i m e i n d i c a t o r s and discouraged worker i n d i c a t o r s , which a r e supplementary measures o f the OECD, a r e the concepts and i n d i c a ‑ t o r s deeply r e l a t i n g t o the unemployment & u n s t a b l e employment o f f e m a l e s . I n t e r n a t i o n a l comparison o f AUi i s t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l com‑
p a r i s o n o f v a r i o u s forms o f unemployment & u n s t a b l e employment,
and a t the same time has a s p e c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e i n the i n t e r n a t i o n a l
Table 1 ‑ 2 Supplementary measure {OECD, Seven major)
(%)
Supplementary measure
Unemployment r a t e ( 1 ) D i s c o u r a g e d I n v o l u n t a r y p a r t ‑ BLS U7 t y p e workers ( 2 ) t i m e r ( 3 ) measure (% o f l a b o r f o r c e ) (% o f l a b o r f o r c e ) ( 1 ) + ( 2 ) + ( 3 ) Year 1983 1993 1983 1993 1983 1993 1983 1993 France 8 . 0 1 1 . 4 . . 0 . 2 . . 4 . 8 ・ ・ 1 4 . 0
Men 6 . 1 9 . 7 . . 0 . 1 . . 2 . 3 . . 1 0 . 9
Women 1 0 . 5 1 3 . 5 . . 0 . 3 . . 7 . 8 . . 1 7 . 7
Germany 6 . 9 7 . 7 . . . . 0 . 9 1 . 5 7 . 4 8 . 5
Men 5 . 9 6 . 5 . . . . 0 . 3 1 . 0 6 . 0 7 . 0
Women 8 . 5 9 . 4 . . . . 1 . 9 2 . 3 9 . 5 1 0 . 5
I t a l y 8 . 4 1 0 . 2 1 . 1 2 . 6 2 . 0 2 . 3 1 0 . 4 1 3 . 6 Men 5 . 5 6 . 8 0 . 1 0 . 9 1 . 3 1 . 6 6 . 3 8 . 5 Women 1 4 . 0 1 5 . 8 3 . 0 5 . 4 3 . 3 3 . 3 1 8 . 2 2 1 . 9 Japan 2 . 7 2 . 6 3 . 2 2 . 2 2 . 1 1 . 9 6 . 8 5 . 7 Men 2 . 6 2 . 5 1 . 1 0 . 9 1 . 2 1 . 1 4 . 3 3 . 9 Women 2 . 8 2 . 8 6 . 2 4 . 0 3 . 4 3 . 0 1 0 . 4 8 . 1 Spain 2 0 . 8 2 2 . 4 0 . 8 0 . 2 2 . 0 1 . 0 2 2 . 4 2 3 . 1 Men 1 7 . 2 1 8 . 7 0 . 2 0 . 1 1 . 1 0 . 6 1 7 . 9 1 9 . 1 Women 2 8 . 3 2 8 . 8 2 . 0 0 . 4 3 . 7 1 . 8 3 1 . 5 3 0 . 0 United Kingdom 1 1 . 2 1 0 . 3 1 . 3 0 . 6 1 . 9 3 . 2 1 3 . 3 1 2 . 5 Men 1 2 . 1 1 2 . 5 1 . 3 0 . 5 1 . 0 2 . 2 1 3 . 8 1 4 . 0 Women 9 . 9 7 . 6 1 . 2 0 . 7 3 . 3 4 . 5 1 2 . 5 1 0 . 5 United S t a t e s 9 . 8 6 . 9 1 . 5 0 . 9 5 . 7 5 . 0 1 3 . 9 1 0 . 2 Men 1 0 . 1 7 . 2 1 . 1 0 . 8 4 . 8 4 . 4 1 3 . 4 1 0 . 1 Women 9 . 3 6 . 6 2 . 0 1 . 0 6 . 9 5 . 7 1 4 . 6 1 0 . 4 ( s o u r c e ) O E C D , Employment O u t l o o k , J u l y 1 9 9 5 , T a b l e 2 . 1 8 ( e x t r a c t s ) , p p . 7 6 ‑ 7 7 .
comparison o f female employment. The f e a t u r e o f AUi i n Japan l i e s
i n the s i z e o f the persons not i n the labour f o r c e who d e s i r e a job by
whether or not seeking job ( t h e majority being f e m a l e ) , and the f e a ‑
t u r e i s t h a t an e s p e c i a l l y l a r g e number o f discouraged workers e x i s t s
among females.
l w a i c a r r i e d out a survey on t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l trend o f s t u d i e s on AUi and examined U i n d i c a t o r s (Fuchimoto C a l c u l a t i o n . F u c h i m o t o , C . ( 2 0 0 0 ) ) as AUi i n Japan i n l w a i ( 2 0 0 0 ) . I n f i g u r e 1 ‑ 1 , i t was i n d i c a t ‑ ed t h a t the d i f f e r e n c e between U7 and U6 p e r t a i n i n g t o females was e s p e c i a l l y l a r g e , as a r e s u l t o f t h e expansion o f the d i f f e r e n c e i n U i n d i c a t o r s between males and females due t o a r i s e i n the ̲ o f f i c i a l unemployment r a t e s o f Japan, because o f the c o l l a p s e o f t h e bubble economy and t h e long‑term s l u g g i s h p e r i o d from 1992 t o 1 9 9 8 .
The comparison o f UUEI between both c o u n t r i e s was c a r r i e d out f o r t h e p e r i o d from 1992 t o 2002 on the b a s i s o f the above frame‑
work and i n d i c a t o r s . This was a period o f the bubble b u r s t and a long‑term slump i n Japan, but i n Great B r i t a i n , t h i s was a period
F i g . 1 ‑ 1 Chart o f U i n d i c a t o r s ( o n a b a s i s o f l a b o r f o r c e ) i n Japan
(%) 2 5 . 0
2 0 . 0
1 5 . 0
1 0 . 0
5 . 0
o . o 1990
U‑1 ‑+‑ Long d u r a t i o n unemployment r a t e U‑2 -—• I n v o l u n t a r y job l o s e r r a t e
U‑3 -—• Unemployment r a t e f o r head o f houseeholds U‑4 ‑ Unemployment r a t e f o r f u l l ‑ t i m e jobseekers U‑5 ‑ ◇ ‑ Ajusted unemployment r a t e
U‑6 ‑‑o‑ Labor u n d e r u t i l i z a t i o n r a t e ( n a r r o w ) U‑7 ‑‑‑‑&‑ Labor u n d e r u t i l i z a t i o n r a t e ( b r a o d ) ( 1 ) U‑7 ‑‑<r‑ Labor u n d e r u t i l i z a t i o n r a t e ( b r a o d ) ( 2 ) *
93 96 98 1990 93 year
T o t a l Male 96 ( n o t e ) *Discouraged workers who are a v a i l a b l e f o r work
( s o u r c e ) l w a i ( 2 0 0 0 ) F i g . 1 P . 8 8
98 1990
year 93 96 Female
year 98
where the economy s h i f t e d from a p e r i o d o f a h i g h unemployment r a t e which had continued from the 1970s t o the 1980s t o a p e r i o d o f favourable economic c o n d i t i o n s . This was a c o n t r a s t i n g period i n terms o f the economic c o n d i t i o n f o r both c o u n t r i e s and t h i s view‑
p o i n t must be allowed f o r i n the comparison o f i n d i c a t o r s . We had a general view o f the f e a t u r e s o f unemployment & u n s t a b l e employ‑
ment i n d i c a t o r s i n Table 1 ‑ 1 , Table 1 ‑ 2 (Summarized T a b l e ) , UUEI i n Table 1 ‑ 3 ( T a b l e by age) and Table1‑4 ( T a b l e by age) i n both c o u n t r i e s and t h e i r r e s u l t s .
( 1 ) The unemployment r a t e i n Japan has been low i n the range from 2% t o l e s s than 4% f o r t h e period from the high growth period t o the low growth period t h a t i s up u n t i l t h e 1 9 8 0 s , and 11Why i s the unemployment r a t e low i n J a p a n ? 1 1 had been a s u b j e c t o f i n t e r n a ‑ t i o n a l d i s c u s s i o n . The unemployment s t r u c t u r e i n Japan had been supported by the employment p r a c t i c e t h a t unemployed persons a r e not r e v e a l e d i n the labour market and s p e c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the labour market. That had been supported by the l i f e employment s y s ‑ tem and the s e n i o r i t y system, the f e a t u r e s o f which a r e the two t i e r s t r u c t u r e o f the economy, the gap i n various labour c o n d i t i o n s , the c i r c u l a t i o n and s t a y w i t h i n the i n d u s t r y , corporations with a surplus labour f o r c e ( i n t e r n a l labour m a r k e t ) , and non‑existence o f l a y ‑ o f f systems. Since the bubble b u r s t , i n t e r n a t i o n a l g l o b a l i z a t i o n , saving o f labour ( r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n and redundancy), the prolonged slump, v i s i b i l i t y o f unemployment ( a remarkable r i s e i n p u b l i c l y announced unemployment r a t e s , the unemployment r a t e i n 2002 being 5.4%) have been seen, and the number o f people i n unstable employment i n the forms of u n o f f i c i a l l y employed part‑timers, temporary employees, workers wishing t o change the j o b , and so f o r t h showed i n c r e a s e s . I n a d d i t i o n , the number o f people wanting a job out o f the not labour force increased (especially the number of females i n c r e a s e d , the r a t e o f females being 26.7% i n 2 0 0 1 ) , t h e discouraged workers s t r a t u m , which i s a form o f not job s e e k i n g , expanded ( t h e gap between both genders i s l a r g e , and the r a t e o f females i s over
1 0 % ) .
( 2 ) Great B r i t a i n saw times of high unemployment ( t h e unem‑
ployment r a t e being from 12% t o l e s s than 14%) f o r t h e p e r i o d from
the 1970s t o 1980s, and under the r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n p o l i c i e s o f the
46 D i s w c o o u r k r a e g r ed
T o t a l Over 6 and , n t u h p s t o 1 2 Over 1 2 months I n v o l u n t a r i l y V o l u n t a r i l y ‑ n n o t i n T o t a l C i m a n m t e a d k i e a t u e p l y No o r n o t mo unemployment unemployment l a b o u r f o r c e decided
1 5 t o 24 5 . 4 1 . 0 0 . 6 0 . 6 2 . 4 1 2 5 . 7 2 9 . 3 2 . 5 1 8 . 6 7 . 6 1 25 t o 34 3 . 7 0 . 7 0 . 5 0 . 7 2 . 0 2 7 . 8 1 5 . 4 1 . 0 8 . 8 5 . 2 9 35 t o 44 2 . 3 03 0 . 4 0 . 7 0 . 7 2 2 . 9 1 2 . 7 1 . 3 5 . 9 6 . 3 9 45 t o 54 1 . 6 0 . 3 0 . 4 0 . 5 0 . 7 2 1 . 1 9 . 0 1 . 4 3 . 9 4 . 6 4 55 t o 64 3 . 9 0 . 9 0 . 7 2 . 2 0 . 5 5 6 . 4 1 5 . 5 2 . 6 7 . 4 8 . 1 Over 65 2 . 0 0 . 2 0 . 7 0 . 7 0 . 2 3 2 3 . 1 18 4 3 . 2 1 0 . 3 9 . 3 1 5 t o 24 7 . 0 1 . 1 1 . 1 0 . 6 3 . 1 1 1 3 . 1 3 0 . 8 4 . 5 2 1 . 7 7 . 7 1 25 t o 34 4 . 1 06 0 . 8 08 2 . 1 2 4 . 4 1 3 . 2 1 . 5 9 . 4 4 . 3 9 35 t o 44 2 . 5 04 0 . 5 08 1 . 1 2 2 . 1 1 2 . 6 1 . 6 8 . 3 6 . 3 9 45 t o 54 2 . 2 0 . 4 0 . 5 0 . 9 0 . 8 2 0 . 0 8 . 2 2 . 0 4 . 3 4 . 3 8 55 t o 64 4 . 7 1 . 3 1 . 2 2 . 8 0 . 6 5 1 . 0 1 3 . 8 3 . 7 7 . 2 7 . 4 Over65 1 . 9 0 . 2 0 . 6 0 . 8 0 . 2 3 2 3 . 3 1 8 . 4 4 . 9 1 0 . 3 1 0 . 3 2 2 1 5 5 t t o o 2 3 4 4 1 0 . 0 1 . 6 2 . 0 1 . 7 3 . 3 1 2 1 . 1 2 0 . 1 3 . 5 1 3 . 1 7 . 8 6 . 1 . 0 1 . 8 2 . 0 2 . 9 2 3 . 3 83 1 . 0 6 . 1 1 . 7 O i 3 5 t o 44 4 OR 1 . 3 1 . 7 1 . 5 2 2 . 2 78 1 . 2 5 . 1 29 O 45 t n 54 4 nR 1 . 3 2 . 2 1 1 2 0 . 1 4 . 4 1 . 3 2 . 1 23 2 ! i i i t n f l 4
i:;1 1 1 . 9 4 . 3 0 . 7 52 4 5 . 4 2 . 1 2 . 2 3 . 1
Over65 2 . 2 0 . 4 1 . 2 1 . 2 0 . 2 3 7 8 . 1 6 . 9 3 . 0 2 . 6 4 . 0 U n s t a b l e emolovment i n d i c a t o r 1 U n s t a b l e emolovment I n d i c a t o r 2 P o p u l a t i o
Employed worker Piecewor ‑ n i n
d W d i i t s i h o i n n a g l t o have N o d c t d h w i t a i i o n s n g h a e i n l t g j h o t e b o j have T e e m m p p l o o y r e a e r y s D a i l y k e r s a t l a b o u r Employee T o t a l a t j h o e b orto a orto employees home f o r c e
change j o b ob
1 5 t o 24 2 0 . 2 6 . 7 1 1 6 1 0 . 7 3 . 1 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 9 4 . 6 1 25 t o 34 1 4 . 6 3 . 8 9 . 2 4 . 1 1 . 4 0 . 7 1 0 0 . 0 9 6 . 3 9 35 t o 44 2 0 . 7 4 . 8 1 3 . 9 5 . 7 2 . 5 1 . 3 100 0 9 7 . 7 9 45 t o 54 1 9 . 6 3 . 5 1 4 . 2 5 . 4 2 . 2 1 . 2 1 0 0 . 0 9 8 . 4 4 55 t o 64 24 6 4 . 4 1 9 . 9 6 . 1 3 . 1 1 4 1 0 0 . 0 9 6 . 1 Over65 4 8 . 9 2 . 0 4 4 . 0 6 . 9 2 . 7 2 . 5 1 0 0 . 0 9 8 . 0 1 5 t o 24 2 5 . 8 9 . 3 14 7 1 3 . 8 4 . 6 00 1 0 0 . 0 9 3 . 0 1 25 t o 34 1 4 . 9 4 . 3 9 . 2 4 . 8 1 . 7 0 . 5 1 0 0 . 0 9 5 . 9 9 35 t o 44 2 1 . 7 5 . 4 1 4 . 2 5 . 6 25 0 . 8 100 0 9 7 . 5 9 45 t o 54 2 1 . 1 3 . 4 1 5 . 6 5 . 3 2 . 6 0 . 9 100 0 9 7 . 8 8 55 t o 64 2 3 . 8 2 . 5 1 8 . 9 5 . 7 3 . 1 1 . 1 1 0 0 . 0 9 5 . 3 Over 65 4 4 . 9 1 . 6 4 0 . 0 5 . 6 3 . 3 2 1 1 0 0 . 0 9 8 . 1 1 5 t o 24 28 8 8 . 3 2 0 . 3 2 0 . 1 3 . 5 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 90 0 2 25 t o 34 1 5 . 1 3 . 7 1 1 . 4 7 . 2 1 . 2 0 . 3 1 0 0 . 0 9 3 . 5
o 35 t o 44 2 1 . 5 4 . 5 1 6 . 9 7 . 9 1 . 4 0 . 4 1 0 0 . 0 9 5 . 9
o 45 t o 54 2 2 . 5 3 . 4 1 9 . 0 7 . 6 1 . 5 0 . 4 1 0 0 . 0 9 6 . 0
2 55 t o 64 2 6 . 1 2 . 8 2 3 . 2 84 1 . 9 0 . 8 1 0 0 . 0 9 4 . 1
Over65 4 2 . 7 1 . 8 4 0 . 7 8 1 2 . 0 1 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 9 7 . 8
( S o u r c e ) LFSSP
D i s w c o o u r k r a e g r ed T o t a l Over 6 and t u h p s t o 1 2 Over 1 2 months I n v o l u n t a r i l y V o l u n t a r i l y ‑ n n o t i n T o t a l Can m t e a d k i e a t u e p I v No or n o t
mon unemolovment unemolovment l a b o u r f o r c e im decided
1 5 t o 24 5 . 4 07 0 . 5 0 . 7 2 . 5 1 2 6 . 6 3 3 . 7 2 . 7 2 1 . 4 8 . 6 1 25 t o 34 5 . 0 1 0 0 . 4 06 2 . 7 69 2 3 9 . 3 2 . 5 2 2 . 6 1 3 . 2 9 35 t o 44 2 . 8 0 . 3 0 . 3 0 . 7 0 . 7 5 3 . 4 2 9 . 9 3 . 1 1 3 . 8 1 5 . 0 9 45 t o 54 1 . 7 0 . 3 0 . 3 0 . 0 0 . 0 4 7 . 7 2 0 . 3 3 . 3 8 . 7 1 0 . 9 4 55 t o 64 2 . 8 08 0 . 6 1 . 1 0 . 8 118 8 3 0 . 1 4 . 8 1 5 . 4 1 6 . 0 Over65 1 . 3 0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 7 5 8 3 . 9 2 2 . 8 2 . 0 15 4 9 . 4 1 5 t o 24 6 . 5 1 0 1 . 0 05 3 . 3 114 8 3 2 . 8 4 . 5 2 3 . 0 8 . 8 1 25 t o 34 5 . 0 07 0 . 5 07 2 . 8 57 8 3 2 . 0 3 . 4 2 3 . 1 1 0 . 7 9 35 t o 44 29 0 . 4 0 . 2 0 . 6 1 . 1 5 2 . 5 3 0 . 5 3 . 8 20 5 1 5 . 3 9 45 t o 54 2 . 2 04 0 . 4 06 0 . 9 44 0 1 8 . 2 47 9 . 3 1 0 . 0 8 55 t o 64 27 1 0 0 . 7 1 4 0 . 5 104 3 2 6 . 3 6 . 5 1 4 . 3 1 4 . 5 Over 65 0 . 6 0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0 5 6 3 . 0 2 1 5 44 1 3 3 1 0 . 5 1 5 t o 24 8 . 7 1 . 2 1 8 1 . 2 3 . 0 123 1 2 1 . 9 3 . 9 1 4 . 1 8 . 1 2 25 t o 34 7 . 3 1 . 1 1 5 1 . 9 3 . 4 5 1 5 1 8 . 6 2 . 1 1 3 . 9 3 . 7 O 35 t o 44 4 . 6 1 . 0 1 . 0 1 . 3 1 7 5 1 . 4 1 8 . 5 29 1 1 . 9 7 . , O 45 t o 54 3 . 6 0 . 8 0 . 8 1 . 5 1 . 1 4 3 . 2 9 . 2 2 . 9 4 . 2 5 .••. 0 5 1 . . . 2 55 t o 64 3 . 8 0 . 7 1 . 0 1 . 9 0 . 7 1 0 2 . 6 9 . 3 3 . 8 ・ ・ . ‑ 3 3 ・ ・ ・ . 8 4‑.
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Not w i o n s a n h a e i n l t g j h o e t b o i o o h b r a t v o e T e m p l o o ヽ r a r y D a i l y k e r s a t l a b o u r Employee T o t a l addi chanQe t j h o e b i o o r b t o a d d cha i t i emp yees employees home f o r c e
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