Children’s Interpretation of the Additive Particle - Mo in Japanese
by
Hisao Kurokami
Submitted to the Graduate School of Humanities and Social Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Arts at the
UNIVERSITY OF MIE January, 2017
Supervised by
Koji Sugisaki
Table o f C o n t e n t s
1 . I n t r o d u c t i o n and b a c k g r o u n d . … ・ …
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H・ − … ぃ …
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2 . Meanings o f s e n t e n c e s c o n t a i n i n g an a d d i t i v e p a r t i c l e . . … . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3 . Acq 凶 s i t i o no f f o c u s p a r t i c l e s . … . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3 . 1 . C h i l d r e n s d 伊 c u l 旬w i t h e x c l u s i v e p a r t i c l e s . . . . . . . ・
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H・ … … 8
3 . 2 . C h i l d r e n s d 伊 c u l t l jw i t h a d d i t i v e pmt i c l e s
H・
H・ . . . . ・
H・ − …
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H・ − − … ・ …
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H・ − … ・ ・ ・ 9
4 . C h i l d r e ns d i f f i c u l 勿 wi 白 t h e a d d i t i v e p a r t i c l e ‑mo i n J a p a n e s e . …・・……
H・
H・ − …
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H. − ・ 1 0
5 . E x p e r i m e n t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 5
5 . 1 . D e s i g n a n d Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 5
5 . 2 . R e s u l t s a n d d i s c u s s i o n … . . . ・
H・ . . . . . ・
H・
H・
H・ − − … … … . . . ・
H・ − − … . . ・ .
H・ − − … . . . ・
H−− ・ … . . . ・
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H・ − − … . 1 9
6 . C o n c l u s i o n … . . . ・
H・ − − … . . . ・
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Appendix . . . . . ・ .
H・ . . . . . . ・
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R e f e r 官 n c e s . . . ・
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1 . I n 位 o d u c t i o nand background
When 註 comest o I a n 伊 a g ea c q u i s i t i o n , c h i l d r e n d i s p l a y s u r p r i s i n g p r e c i s i o n and s p e e d during i 恒 c o u r s e ,a l r e a d y a c q u i r i n g a d u l t ‑ l i k e g r 田 nmarby t h e i r p r e s c h o o l a g e . What i s even more s u r p r i s 泊 gi s t h a t 血 eya c c o m p l i s h s u c h f e a t with s e v e r e l y l i m i t e d i n p u t ; t h e l i n g u i s t i c d a t a t h e y a r e exposed t o 訂 e s u b s t a n t i a l l y l a c k i n g i n q u a l i t y and q u a n t i t y compared t o t h e i r r e s u l t i n g grammar.
To overcome t h i s s o ‑ c a l l e d p o v e r t y o f s t i m u l u s ' , t h e t h e o r y o f g e n e r a t i v e grammar p o s t u l a t e s g e n e t i c a l l y endowed l a n g u a g e f a c u l 句 r known a s UG, and s u g g e s t s a p r o c e s s o f l a n g u a g e a c q u i s i t i o n s u p p o r t e d by t h i s b l u e p r i n t ' . What becomes c r u c i a l t h e n f o r l a n g u a g e a c q u i s i t i o n s t u d i e s conducted under t h e g e n e r a t i v e framework i s t o show 血 a t c h i l d r e n a d h e r e t o such i n n a t e knowledge o f l a n g u a g e 仕 omt h e e a r l i e s t o b s e r v a b l e s t a g e s . I n d e e d , t h e r e e x i s t s v a s t 訂 r a yo f l i t e r a t u r e a r g u i n g t h a t t h i s i s t h e c a s e ; t h e s e works mainly c o n c e r n e d w i t h c h i l d r e n ' s s y n t a x ( e . g . , C r a i n , 1 9 9 1 ; O t s u , 1 9 8 1 ) but r e c e n t works a l s o e x t e n d i n g t h e 白 ndingsi n t o t h e realm o f s e m a n t i c s ( e . g リ C r a i n ,2 0 1 2 ; G u a l m i n i , 2 0 0 5 ) .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t i s a l s o t h e c a s e t h a t t h e r e e x i s t a p p a r e n t c o u n t e r e x a m p l e s t o t h e s e f i n d 泊 g s ,c h i l d r e n 包 泊 t e r p r e t a t i o no f f o c u s p a r t i c l e s b e i n g one o f 世田 m.I t has been f i r s t o b s e r v e d by C r a i n e t a l . ( 1 9 9 4 ) t h a t E n g l i s h ‑ s p e a k i n g c h i l d r e n o f t e n 加 t e r p r e ts e n t e n c e s c o n t 祖 国 ngs u b j e c t ‑ a 抗 ached o n l y a s i n ( l a ) a s s e n t e n c e s c o n t 出 ngV P ‑ a t t a c h e d o 吻 a s 泊
( l b ) ( b u t n o t t h e v i s e ‑ v e r s a ) , wrongly aαepting t h e s e s e n t e n c e s under c o n t e x t a d u l t s would d e n y .
( 1 ) a . α 吐 yt h e c a t i s h o l d i n g t h e f l a g . b . The c a t i s o n l y h o l d i n g t h e f l a g .
1
T h i s s o
皿c a l l e dC r a i n ' s p u z z l e h a s a t 仕 a c t e dmuch a t t e n t i o n , r e s u l t i n g i n numbers o f r e s e a r c h e s e x p l o r i n g t h e domain. The f i n d i n g h ぉ beenr e p l i c a t e d c r o s s ‑ l i n g u i s t i c a l l 予 f o r e x 担 n p l e German ( e . g ・ F M u l l e r e t a l . , 2 0 1 1 ) , J a p a n e s e ( e . g . , E n d o , 2 0 0 4 ) , and Mandarin‑Chinese ( e . g . , Zhou & C r a i n , 2 0 1 0 ) , a l l r e p o r 出 l gc h i l d r e n ' s d i f f i c u l 句 r w i t h t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e e x c l u s i v e p a r t i c l e o n l y and t h e i r c r o s s ‑ l i n g u i s t i c c o u n t e r p a r ぉ .
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e i n s i g h t t h e y o 丘町 t ot h e acqu 包括 ono f e x c l u s i v e p a r t i c l e s , t h e f o r e ‑ m e n t i o n e d works have opened t h e d o o r s i n t o new domain o f r e s e a r c h , namely t h a t o f a d d i t i v e p a r t i c l e s .
。
) a . s u b j e c ト a t t a c h e d ・ mo:
Yuki‑mo j i t e n s h a ‑ o mo 社 e ‑ i r ‑ u . Y u k i ‑ a l s o b i c y c l e ‑ A c e have‑STATE‑PRES
Yuki h a s a b i c y c l e , t o o ( i n a d d i t i o n t o o t h e r p e o p l e ) ' . b . o b j e c t ‑ a t t a c h e d ‑mo:
Yuki
申ga j i t e n s h a ‑ m o 宜 10 抗 e ‑ i r ‑ u . Yuki‑NOM b i c y c l e ‑ a l s o have‑STATE‑PRES
Yuki has a b i c y c l e , t o o ( 加 a d d i t i o nt o o t h e r b e l o n g i n g s ) ' .
Matsuoka ( 2 0 0 4 ) and Matsuoka e t a l . ρ 0 0 6 ) r e p o r t t h a t J a p a n e s e ‑ s p e a k i n g c h i l d r e n t e n d t o
i n t e r p r e t adnominal i n s t a n c e s o f a d d i t i v e p a r t i c l e ‑ m o a l s o ' i n a n o n ‑ a d u l t
四l i k ef a s h i o n ,
with g r e a t p o r t i o n o f c h i l d r e n engaged i n t h e i r e x p e r i m e n t a c c e p t i n g both ( 2 a ) and ( 2 b )
under c o n t e x t where a d u l t s would m o s t l y d e n y . What i s i n 仕 i g u i n ga b o u t t h e s e 白 ndingsi s
t h a t such n o n ‑ a d u l t ‑ l i k e b e h a v i o r o f c h i l d r e n r e g a r d i n g t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a d d i t i v e
p a r t i c l e s seems t o p e r s i s t beyond t h e i r p r e s c h o o l a g e , d e s p i t e c h i l d r e ns f i r s t p r o d u c t i v e u s e
o f them b e i n g q u i t e e a r l チ
T u r n i n g t o t h e l o c u s o f c h i l d r e ns e 立 o r ,t h e f o r e ‑ m e n t i o n e d s t u d i e s a r g u e t h a t i t i s c h i l d r e n ' s non
申a d u l t ‑ l i k e knowledge o f s y n t a x t h a t l e a d s t o t h e i r n o n ‑ a d u l t
申l i k e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f f o c u s p a r t i c l e s . Although t h i s s y n t a x based a c c o u n t i s q u i t e p o p u l a r
出 nongstwide number o f r e s e a r c h e r s i n v e s t i g a t i n g 出 e t o p i c , more r e c e n t work by Sugawaraρ016) c a s t s doubt on such v i e w . Sugawara a r g u e s t h a t c h i l d r e ns poor performance with t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f e x c l u s i v e p a r t i c l e s may be due t o t h e l a c k o f a p p r o p r i a t e c o n t e x t i n which t a r g e t s e n t e n c e s s h o u l d be p r e s e n t e d , with r e s u l t s o f h e r expe 出 n e n ts u p p o r t i n g t h e c l a i m . F u r t h e r m o r e , such c l a i m o f h e r s seems t o a p p l y t o t h e u s e o f ‑ m o i n Matsuoka e t a l .s e x p e r i m e n t s a s w e l l ; t h e i r p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t a r g e t s e n t e n c e s c o n t a i n i n g ‑ m o i s i s o l a t e d from n e c e s s a r y c o n t e x t s , making t h e u s e o f ‑ m o r a t h e r awkward.
An i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n which must be answered t h e n would be whether o r n o t c h i l d r e ns performance c o u l d be improved i f su 能 dentc o n t e x t u a l a i d were t o be g i v e n .
To a d d r e s s t h e i s s u e , we d e s i g n e d and conducted our own v e r s i o n o f an e x p e r i m e n t , with t h e i n t e n t i o n o f na 町 owingdown where t h e l o c u s o f c h i l d r e ns e r r o r r e s i d e s . R e s u l t s o f o u r e x p e r i m e n t , combined with supplementary c o r p u s a n a l y s i s , s u g g e s t t h a t n e i t h e r t h e n o n ‑ a d u l t ‑ l i k e s y n t a x nor t h e l a c k o f a p p r o p r i a t e c o n t e x t i s t h e s o u r c e o f c h i l d r e n ' s e r r o r .
The paper p r o c e e d s a s f o l l o w s . I n t h e n e x t s e c t i o n , we w i l l go o v e r t h e meanings
o f s e n t e n c e s c o n t a i n i n g a d d i t i v e p a r t i c l e s with b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e i r b a s i c p r o p e r t i e s .
The s u c c e e d i n g s e c t i o n i n t r o d u c e s t h e work o f p r e v i o u s l i t e r a t u r e s on t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f
f o c u s p a r t i c l e s . I n s e c t i o n 4 , we l o o k a t t h e r e s u l t s o f Matsuoka e t a l 危 e x p e r i m e n t ,and
d i s c u s s i t s p o t e n t i a l f l a w . S e c t i o n 5 d e s c r i b e s t h e e x p e r 註 n e n tc o n d u c t e d i n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y ,
r e p o r t i n g i t s r e s u l t s , f o l l o w e d by a b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n . The 白 n a ls e c t i o n c o n c l u d e s t h e p a p e r .
2 . Meanings o f s e n t e n c e s c o n t a i n i n g an a d d i t i v e p 訂 t i d e
Although t h e r e s t i l l remain v a r i o u s q u e s t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e i r t r u e n a t u r e , i t i s o f o u r g e n e r a l c o n s e n s u s t h a t f o c u s p a r t i c l e s c o n s i s t o f h e t e r o g e n e o u s c l a s s e s . I t has become
叩 stomaryt o assume t h e f o l l o w i n g t h r e e broad c l a s s e s o f f o c u s p 訂 t i d e sbased o f f 出 e i r s e m a n t i c s : e x c l u s i v e p a r t i c l e s such a s o n l y i n ( 3 ) , a d d i t i v e p a r t i c l e s such a s a l s o i n ( 4 ) , and s c a l a r p 紅 t i d e ssuch a s e v e n i n σ) ( K o n i g , 1 9 9 1 ) .
( 3 ) John o n l y had an [ a p p l e ] F f o r l u n c h .
( J o h n had an a p p l e a n d ) John had n o t h i n g e l s e f o r l u n c h ' ( 4 ) John a l s o had an [ a p p l e ] F f o r l u n c h .
John had an a p p l e f o r l u n c h ( a n d he had something e l s e , t o o ) ( 5 ) John even had an [ a p p l e ] F f o r l u n c h .
John had an a p p l e f o r l u n c h ( a p p l e was t h e l e a s t l i k e l y t h i n g f o r him t o e a t ) '
S i n c e Rooths ( 1 9 8 5 ) i n f l u e n t i a l a l t e r n a t i v e s e m a n t i c s a p p r o a c h , i t i s widely a c c e p t e d t h a t t h e s e p a r t i c l e s make t h e i r s e m a n t i c c o n t r i b u t i o n through t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n with t h e s e t o f a l t e r n a t i v e s i n 仕 oducedby f o c u s .
F o r b e t t e r e x p l a n a t i o n , l e t us t a k e a l o o k a t k 凸凶 gsp r o p o s a l . According t o h i m ,
血 emeaning o f s e n t e n c e s c o n t a i n i n g a f o c u s p a r t i c l e i s o f t w o ‑ f o l d s ; n o t o n l y do s u c h
s e n t e n c e s have t h e i r o r d i n a r y s e m a n t i c v a l u e a s t h e i r meaning ,出 eya l s o have an a d d i t i o n a l
meaning which i s o b t a i n e d by r e l a 出 l g t h e i r o r d i n a r y meaning t o t h e i r a l t e r n a t i v e
meanings by a p p l y i n g t h e q u a n t i f i c a t i o n a l f o r c e o f t h e f o c u s p a r t i c l e s o v e r t h e s e t o f
a l t e r n a t i v e s i n t r o d u c e d by f o c u s . Simply p u t , when computing t h e meanings o f s e n t e n c e s
c o n t 垣 ningf o c u s p a r t i c l e s , we t a k e t h e i r o r d i n a r y meaning, i n o t h e r words t h e r e l e v a n t s e n t e n c e s w i t h o u t t h e p a r 説 d e , and c o n t r a s t 託 wi 出 品 e a l t e r n a t i v e meanings o f t h e s e n t e n c e s , which a r e c o n s 廿 u c t e dby r e p l a c i n g t h e f o c u s e d e l e m e n t wi 血 b c o n t e x t u a l l y s a l i e n t a l t e r n a t i v e s . The ways i n which t h e s e t o f a l t e r n a t i v e meanings a r e r e l a t e d t o t h e o r d i n a r y me 自由 t gand t h e n a t u r e o f t h e i r s e m a n t i c c o n t r i b u t i o n d i 丘 e rdepending on 血 e t y p e o f p a r t i c l e s .
F o r be 社 e ri l l u s t r a t i o n , t a k e a l o o k a t t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s :
( 6 ) John o n l y had an [ a p p l e ] F f o r l u n c h .
a . John had an a p p l e f o r l u n c h ( p r e s u p p o s i t i o n )
b . John had n o t h i n g o t h e r t h a n an a p p l e f o r l u n c h ( a s s e r t i o n ) ( 7 ) John a l s o had an [ a p p l e ] F f o r l u n c h .
a . John had an a p p l e f o r l u n c h ( a s s e r t i o n )
b . John had something e l s e i n a d d i t i o n t o an a p p l e ( p r e s u p p o s i t i o n )
S e n t e n c e ( 3 ) r e p e a t e d i n ( 6 ) i s an example c o n t 司凶 ngt h e e x c l u s i v e p a r t i c l e o n l y . H e r e , t h e r e l e v a n t s e n t e n c e without 仕 1 ep 紅 t i d e J o h n had an a p p l e f o r l u n c h i s t a k e n a s a p r e s u p p o s i t i o n o r t h e f e l i c i ザ ーc o n d i t i o no f t h e s e n t e n c e . I t w i l l t h e n c o n s t r u c t a d d i t i o n a l me 紅 白 1 g sby r e p l a c i n g t h e f o c u s e d o b j e c t a p p l e with a v a r i a b l e , which t a k e s t h e c o n t e x t u a l l y g i v e n a l t e r n a t i v e s a s i t s v a l u e . I n t h e c a s e o f ( 6 ) , t h i s c o u l d be any o t h e r food John c o u l d have e a t e n f o r l u n c h . S i n c e t h e e x i s t e n t i a l q u a n t i 白 e rq u a n t i ち岨 go v e r t h e v a r i a b l e i s n e g a t e d , i t r e s u l t s i n t h e p r o p o s i t i o n J o h n had n o t h i n g o t h e r t h a n an a p p l e f o r l u n c h , which becomes t h e a s s e r t i o n o r t h e t r u t h ‑ c o n d i t i o n o f t h e s e n t e n c e . S e n t e n c e ( 4 ) r e p e a t e d i n ( η , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , i s an e x 倒 n p l ec o n t 話回 ngt h e a d d i t i v e p a r t i c l e a l s o . The s e n t e n c e f i r s t t a k e s i t s
5
p a r t i c l e ‑ l e s s p r o p o s i t i o n J o h n h a d a n a p p l e f o r l u n c h a s an a s s e r t i o n , and t h e n c o n s t r u c t s a d d i t i o n a l p r o p o s i t i o n s by r e p l a c i n g a p p l e with a l t e r n a t i v e s under c o n s i d e r a t i o n . U n l i k e t h e e x c l u s i v e p a r t i c l e , t h e a d d i t i v e p a r t i c l e i n t r o d u c e s b a r e e x i s t e n t i a l q u a n t i f i e r . T h u s , t h e r e s u l 白 l gp r e s u p p o s i t i o n i s J o h n h a d s o m e t h i n g e l s e i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e a p p l e f o r l u n c h f o r ( 7 ) .
To put t h i n g s s h o r t , s e n t e n c e s c o n t a i n i n g t h e e x c l u s i v e p a r t i c l e o n l y t a k e t h e r e l e v a n t s e n t e n c e s w i t h o u t t h e p 紅 t i d ea s i t s p r e s u p p o s i t i o n , and a s s e r t t h a t none o f t h e members o f t h e s e t o f a l t e r n a t i v e s t o t h e f o c u s e d e l e m e n t s a t i s f i e s t h e a d d i t i o n a l p r o p o s i t i o n . S e n t e n c e s c o n t 司 n i n gt h e a d d i t i v e p a r t i c l e a l s o , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , t a k e t h e r e l e v a n t s e n t e n c e s w i t h o u t t h e p a r t i c l e a s a s s e r t i o n , and f u r t h e r p r e s u p p o s e t h a t a t l e a s t one o f t h e members o f t h e s e t o f a l t e r n a t i v e s t o t h e f o c u s e d e l e m e n t s a t i s f i e s 出 e p r e s u p p o s i t i o n . 官 ms,t h e n o t i o n o f f o c u s and t h e s e t o f a l t e r n a t i v e s t h e y i n t r o d u c e become c r u c i a l when computing 血 emeanings o f f o c u s p a r t i c l e s .
P a r t i n g away from E n g l i s h , J a p a n e s e a l s o has s i m i l a r f o c u s ‑ s e n s i t i v e p 紅 t i d e 島
which Aoyagi ( 1 9 9 9 ) r e f e r s t o a s Q ‑ p a r t i c l e s . S i n c e Kuroda ( 1 9 6 5 , 1 9 6 9 , 1 9 7 0 ) , v a s t a r r a y o f t h e o r e t i c a l r e s e a r c h e s have been conducted on t h e t o p i c ( e . g ・
FA o y a g i , 1 9 9 8 , 1 9 9 9 ; K i s h i m o t o , 2 0 0 9 ; S a n o , 2 0 0 1 , 2 0 1 1 ) . I t i s widely a c c e p t e d i n t h e s e l i t e r a t u r e s 出 a tJ a p a n e s e Q ‑ p a r t i c l e s a r e synonymous t o 仕 l eE n g l i s h f o c u s p a r t i c l e s . N a t u r a l l y ,血 e i rs e m a n t i c c o n t r i b u t i o n s seem t o m i r r o r t h a t o f t h e E n g l i s h c o u n t e r p a r t s a s i l l u s t r a t e d b e l o w :
( 8 ) Taro‑wa s u s h i ‑ d a k e t a b e t a . T a r o ‑ T O P s u s h i ‑ o n l y e a t ‑ P A S T
T a r o o n l y a t e s u s h i
a . T a r o a t e s u s h i ' ( p r e s u p p o s i t i o n )
b . T a r o a t e n o t h i n g o t h e r t h a n s u s h i ' ( a s s e r t i o n )
( 9 ) Taro‑wa T a r o ‑ T O P
sushi‑mo s u s h i ‑ a l s o T a r o a l s o a t e s u s h i '
a . T a r o a t e s u s h i ' ( a s s e r t i o n )
t a b e t a . e a t ‑ P A S T
b . T a r o a t e something e l s e i n a d d i t i o n t o s u s h i ' ( p r e s u p p o s i t i o n )
J u s t l i k e t h e E n g l i s h o n l y , ‑ d a k e g i v e s t h e 陀 a d i n g 由討 T a r oa t e n o t h i n g o t h e r t h a n s u s h i , while‑mo 甘 i g g e r st h e p r e s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t T a r o a t e some 出 i n ge l s e i n a d d i t i o n t o s u s h i a s i n t h e c a s e o f a l s o i n E n g l i s h . T h u s , 加 t e r m s o f 世紀 i rs e m a n t i c c o n t r i b u t i o n , J a p a n e s e Q ‑ p a r t i c l e s 訂 ew i d e l y assumed a s b e i n g i d e n t i c a l t o t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e c o u n t e r p a r t s i n E n g l i s h . F o r t h e s a k e o f s 凶 p l i c i 切 wew i l l be r e f e r r i n g t o t h e J a p a n e s e Q ‑ p a r t i c l e s a s f o c u s p a r t i c l e s i n t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e p a p e r .
To sum, both E n g l i s h and J a p a n e s e f o c u s p a r t i c l e s can be c l a s s i f i e d 加 t ot h r e e broad s u b ‑ c l a s s e s based on t h e i r s e m a n t i c s . S e n t e n c e s c o n t 話 ningan e x c l u s i v e p a r t i c l e t a k e t h e i r p a r t i c l e
四l e s sp r o p o s i t i o n a s i t s p r e s u p p o s i t i o n , and c o n s t r u c t an a d d i t i o n a l p r o p o s i t i o n v i a t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f t h e f o c u s p a r t i c l e and t h e s e t o f a l t e r n a t i v e s t o t h e f o c u s e d e l e m e n t , which becomes t h e i r a s s e r t i o n . S e n t e n c e s with an a d d i t i v e p a r t i c l e ,加 con 柱筋七 t a k e t h e i r p a r t i c l e ‑ l e s s p r o p o s i t i o n a s i t s a s s e r t i o n , and c o n s t r u c t an a d d i t i o n a l p r o p o s i t i o n t h r o u g h t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between t h e f o c u s pa 吋 i c l eand t h e s e t o f f o c u s a l t e r n a t i v e s , which becomes t h e i r p r e s u p p o s i t i o n . T h e r e f o r e , t h e e x c l u s i v e and a d d i t i v e p a r t i c l e s c a n be d i f f e r e n t i a t e d 加
t e r m s o f 血 e i rs e m a n t i c c o n t r i b u t i o n ; t h e e x c l u s i v e p a r t i c l e m o d i f i e s t h e 仕 n t h ‑ c o n d i t i o no f a
s e n t e n c e , whereas t h e a d d i t i v e p a r t i c l e modi 自 白 血 ef e l i c i 句 r ‑ c o n d i t i o n .T h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n
with c o n t e x t and d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e i r s e m a n t i c c o n t r i b u t i o n becomes i m p o r t a n t when we
d i s c u s s c h i l d r e ns d i f f i α l t y w i 吐 l a d d i t i v e p a r t i c l e s .
3 . A c q u i s i t i o n o f f o c u s p a r t i c l e s
3 . 1 . C h i l d r e n s d i f f i c u l t y w i t h e x c l u s i v e p a r t i c l e s
As a l l u d e d t o i n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n , i t i s known s i n c e a t l e a s t C r a i n e t a l . ( 1 9 9 4 ) t h a t E n g l i s h ‑ s p e a k i n g c h i l d r e n i n t e r p r e t s e n t e n c e s c o n t 祖国 ng s u b j e c ト a t t a c h e d o n l y i n a n o n ‑ a d u l t ‑ l i k e f a s h i o n , o f t e n m i s i n t e r p r e t i n g s u c h i n s t a n c e s o f o n l y a s o b j e c t ‑ a s s o c i a t e d . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , no such t e n d e n c y i s o b s e r v e d f o r V 巳 a t t a c h e do 吻 ; c h i l d r e ndo n o t seem t o m i s i n t e r p r e t V P ‑ a t t a c h e d o n l y a s s u 同 e c t ‑ a s s o c i a t e d .
S u b s e q u e n t r e s e a r c h s u g g e s t s 血 a tt h i s pa 抗 emi s q u i t e r o b u s t ; i t h a s been r e p l i c a t e d c r o s s ‑ l i n g u i s t i c a l l y t h a t c h i l d r e n seem t o f a v o r o b j e c t ‑ a 仕 a c h e d o n l y r e g 紅 d l e s so f t h e t r u t h ・ v a l u eo f t a r g e t s e n t e n c e s . Such f i n d i n g s have l e d t o t h e c l a i m t h a t V P ‑ a t t a c h e d o n l y a 陀 moreb a s i c t h a n 世間 s u b j e c ι a t t a c h e d o n l y . 百四 ti s , c h i l d r e n make i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a l e r r o r f o r s e n t e n c e s c o n t a i n i n g s u b j e c t ‑ a 抗 ached o n l y a s t h e y have y e t t o a c q u i r e i t s grammar, more s p e c i f i c a l l y t h e i r s y n t a x ( C r a i n e t a l . , 1 9 9 4 ) . However, r e c e n t work by Sugawara ( 2 0 1 6 ) s u g g e s t s 也 a tc h i l d r e n ' s n o n ‑ a d u l t ‑ l i k e r e s p o n s e t o s e n t e n c e s c o n t a i 而 ngt h e e x c l u s i v e p a r t i c l e o n l y maybe g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e d by t h e i r premature p r a g m a t i c s .
According t o Sugawara ,出 et y p i c a l p r o t o c o l o f t h e T r u t h ‑ V a l u e Judgement T a s k
c o n n o t e s a p o t e n t i a l problem t o t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f c h i l d r e ns competence o f e x c l u s i v e
p a r t i c l e s . T a r g e t s e n t e n c e s used i n T r u t h ‑ V a l u e Judgement T a s k s a r e o f t e n p r e c e d e d by a
l e a d ‑ i n o f t h e s o r t o f Do you know what h a p p e n e d i n t h お s t o r y , which i n v o l v e s an embedded
mか q u e s t i o nw i t h s e n t e n t i a l f o α s . T h u s , i t i s e x p e c t e d by t h e he 紅 白 t h a tt h e l e a d ‑ i n i s
f o l l o w e d by a s e n t e n c e with t h e same s e n t e n t i a l f o c u s . τ b i s pa 仕 em,h o w e v e r , d o e s n o t h o l d
f o r t a r g e t s e n t e n c e s used i n C r a i n e t a l . ( 1 9 9 4 ) a s t h e s u c c e e d i n g s e n t e n c e i s o f e i t h e r s u b j e c t
o r o b j e c t f o c u s . Sugawara c l 討 mst h a t such v i o l a t i o n o f Question‑Answer Congruence
( R o o t h , 1 9 8 5 , 1 9 9 2 ) g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e s c h i l d r e ns i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f e x c l u s i v e p a r t i c l e s with r e s u l t s o f h e r e x p e r i m e n t s u p p o r t i n g t h e c l a i m 1 .
I f i t i s t h e c ぉ et h a t t h e l a c k o f proper c o n t e x t i n f l u e n c e s c h i l d r e n ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f e x c l u s i v e p a r t i c l e s , t h e same might be p o s s i b l e f o r a d d i t i v e pa 抗 i c l e sa s w e l l . We keep t h i s p o s s i b i l i 句 r i n r r 由 t da s i t becomes c r u c i a l when d i s c u s s i n g a p o t e n t i a l f l a w i n Matsuoka e t a l . ' s work
3 . 2 . C h i l d r e ns d i f f i c u l t y w i t h a d d i t i v e p a r t i c l e s
S む凶 l a rt o what i s o b s e r v e d f o r e x c l u s i v e p a r t i c l e s i n v a r i o u s l a n g u a g e s , Bergsma ( 2 0 0 6 ) and H i i t む l e re t a l . ( 2 0 0 4 ) r e p o r t t h a t both Dutch‑and German‑s p e 詠 i n gc h i l d r e n i n t e r p r e t s e n t e n c e s c o n t a i n i n g a d d i t i v e p a r t i c l e s o o k and a u c h i n a nm ト a d u l t ‑ l i k emanner. I n Dutch and German, a d d i t i v e p a r t i c l e s a p p e a r i n g 加 p o s ι 白 n i t ep o s i t i o n c o u l d e i t h e r have a s u b j e c t
四a s s o c i a t e do r an o b j e c t ‑ a s s o c i a t e d r e a d i n g depending on what i s s t r e s s e d wi 白 血 血 e s e n t e n c e i t a c c o m p a n i e s . Thus ,仕 l eGerman s e n t e n c e M 庇 w i l la u c h b o o t f a h r e n c o u l d have t h e f o l l o w i n g two meru 由 l g s :s u b j e c t ‑ a s s o c i a t e d i f t h e a d d i t i v e p 紅 t i c l ei t s e l f b e a r s s t r e s s , and o b j e c t ‑ a s s o c i a t e d i f 出 eo b j e c t DP i s s t r e s s e d . 官 官 samei s p o s s i b l e f o r o o k i n D u t c h , though o o k c o u l d a l s o appear i n t h e s e n t e n c e ‑ i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n unambiguously a s s o c i a t i n g with t h e s u b j e c t l i k e o n l y i n E n g l i s h .
To t e s t c h i l d r e ns a b i l i t y t o comprehend s e n t e n c e s c o n t a i n i n g p o s t −白川 t ea d d i t i v e p a r t i c l 伐 Bergsmaand H i i t t n e r e t a l . conducted an e x p e r i m e n t 回 n p l o y i n ga P i c t u r e S e l e c t i o n T a s k , where c h i l d r e n were asked t o c h o o s e which o f t h e p i c t u r e s shown t o them
1 F o r p r e c i s e d e t a i l s s e e Sugaw 紅 a ( 2 0 1 6 ) .
b e s t matched t h e t 訂 g e ts e n t e n c e 2 . T h e i r r e s u l t s show t h a t c h i l d r e n a r e prone t o make i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a l e r r o r s f o r s e n t e n c e s c o n t a i n i n g p o s t
圃f i n i t ea d d i 世 . v ep a r t i c l e s r e g a r d l e s s o f what i s b e i n g s t r e s s e d .
I n H i i t t n e r e t a l ゐ v e r s i o no f t h e e x p e r i m e n t ,仕 i emost f r e q u e n t e r r o r by c h i l d r e n was m i s i n t e r p r e t i n g o b j e c t ‑ a s s o c i a t e d a u c h a s s u b j e c t
司a s s o c i a t e d .Such e r r o r c o n s i s t e d o f about 50% o f c h i l d r e ns t o t a l e r r o r . I t was a l s o 仕 e q u e n t 田 nongstt h e youngest group o f c h i l d r e n ( 2 ; 8
皿3 ; 1 1 )t o i g n o r e t h e f o c u s p a r t i c l e c o n s i s t i n g o f about 30% o f t h e group 包 t o t a l e r r o r . T h i s t y p e o f e r r o r was more f r e q u e n t i n Bergsmas v e r s i o n o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t : a b o u t 50% o f t h e younger c h i l d r e n ( a g e 4 ; 2 t o 5 ; 4 ) and 40% o f t h e o l d e r c h i l d r e n ( a g e 5 ; 5 t o 6 ; 4 ) c o n s i s t e n t l y p i c k e d t h e p i c t u r e s which d e p i c t a s c e n e matching 血 ei n t e r p r e t a t i o n w i t h o u t o o k .
To sum, b o t h Dutch‑and German‑spea 恒 ngc h i l d r e n d i s p l a y d i f f i c u l ザ when i n t e r p r e t i n g s e n t e n c e s c o n t a i n i n g a d d i t i v e pa 抗 i d e sr e g a r d l e s s o f t h e i r a s s o c i a t i o n t y p e . Both i g n o r i n g t h e f o c u s p a r t i c l e and m i s s ‑ a s s o c i a 出 go b j e c ι a s s o c i a t e d a d d i t i v e p 訂 t i d et o t h e s u b j e c t a r e 台 e q u e n tt y p e o f e r r o r s d i s p l a y e d by c h i l d r e n . As f o r t h e s o u r c e o f t h e i r e r r o r , we w i l l d i s c u s s i n t h e s e c t i o n t o f o l l o w , where we w i l l s e e t h a t s 註 n i l a rpa 民 emf o l l o w s f o r J a p a n e s e ‑ s p e 比 i n gc h i l d r e n 邸 w e l l .
4 . C h i l d r e n ' s d i f f i c u l t y with t h e a d d i t i v e p a r t i c l e ‑mo i n Japanese
I n t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n , we went o v e r t h e works o f Bergsma ( 2 0 0 6 ) and H i i t t n e r e t a l . ( 2 0 0 4 ) c o n f i r r 凶 ngt h a t c h i l d r e n have d i f f i c u l t y i n t e r p r e t i n g s e n t e n c e s c o n t a i n i n g a d d i t i v e p a r t i c l e s
2