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(2) 近 畿 大 学 語 学 教 育 部 紀 要8巻2号(2008・12). daunting,yetvital,subject.Curriculumdesignersareincorporatinggoal-oriented. frameworksdirectlyintotheclassroomtoraisestudents'metacognitiveawareness.. Theproblemisdueinparttotheslowpaceofchangeintherolesofbothuniver-. sitiesandstudents,howthislackofchangeaffectsclassroommethodology,andtohow. thislackofchangemaybeperceived.Socio-historically,thelifestylesandrolesofthe. Japanesewerequiteuniform.Theexpectationsofsuchahomogenousculture,where. theeducationalinstitutioncouldassumeanindividual'sneeds,ledtolittleonusonthe. studentdirectly.Accuracy-basedgrammar-intensivecurriculapreparedstudentsforac-. curacy-basedgrammar-intensiveuniversityentranceexaminations.Ifstudentspassed. theentranceexamtoaJapaneseuniversity,theirperceptionofaneedforEnglishdi-. minishedsignificantly.Inthislinearsystem,theuniversityassumedtheroleofcareer. counselorandprovidedthenecessarynetworkingtoensurefutureemploymentandlife-. timesuccess.Aftergraduation,thegraduate'semployertookoverresponsibilityforde-. terminingthenewemployee'seducationalplanandprovidedtheappropriatetraining.. However,inthe21Stcentury,andamidextendedeconomicdeterioration,thesecurityof. lifetimeemploymentisnolongerguaranteed.Thepercentageoffi^ee-tags,orfreelance. ortemporaryworkers,isgrowingsignificantly.Permanentfull-timejobswithbenefits. arebecominghardertofind.Atthesametime,Englishhasbecomethelinguafrancaof. travel,business,theInternet,media,andinternationalpoliticsandeconomics.Theedu-. cationsystemhasbeenslowtorespondtothesesocialchanges.Majorissuesexistcon-. cerninglanguagelearningandlanguageusing,theallimportanceofentranceexams,and. lowgraduationstandards.Howcaneducatorsencouragestudentstoindependentlyseek. language-learningexperiencesthatcanmakethemmorecompetitiveinthejobmarket?. Atthesametimemodernideasoncommunicativelanguageteaching(CLT)activi-. tiesareenteringclassroomsviaforeignpublishedtexts,nativeteachers,andacademic. research.MethodsofEnglishteachinginuniversityandinsomehighschoolclass-. rooms,areincreasinglyfluency-basedwithgreaterexpectationsofbothverbalandwrit-. tenproduction.Studentswhomayhaverarelybeenexpectedtoexpresstheiropinions. inhighschoolarenowbeingaskedtodosoinaforeignlanguagetheyrarelyexpected. 一128一.
(3) ThePsychologicalNeedsofJapaneseUniversityStudents touse.Notonlythat,buttheiracademicgradesarebasedonthese"English"responsesaswell.Lackingenoughpreparationatthehighschoollevelforthisdrasticchange, theymaybeembarrassedbytheirinabilitytoperformadequately. Thisdisruptiontothestudents'worldviewcouldnotcomeataworsetimepsychologically.AlmostallJapaneseuniversityfreshmenentercollegedirectlyaftergraduatinghighschool,andarenotyetexperiencedenoughtobeconsideredadults,according topsychologicaldevelopmenttheory.Theyare`young'adultsontheirwaytomaking decisionsbasedontheirownbeliefsandexperiences.Theyarepassingthestageofadolescencewhentheyfeelthatthey,insteadoftheirteachers,aremoreknowledgeable. Youngadults,regardlessofculture,arenotpsychologicallymature.Theyareatavery self-centeredandcriticalstageoflife,when,accordingtopsychotherapists,friendships, intimacy,self-respect,andself-esteemarecrucialtomaturationandpsychologicaldevelopment. WithoutawarenessorunderstandingofCLTtechniquesstudentsmayexperiencea cognitivedissonancethat,intheworstcase,maycausethemtorejectthelearningor cometohatelanguagelearning.Thoughsuchreactionsarenotuniversal,thisgap,due totheparadigmshifttoCLToccurringattheuniversitylevel,maybeoneoftheprimarscausesforthelackofmotivationEnglishteacherslament.Itisimportantfor educatorstobeawareofhowthecurrenteducationcultureaffectsstudents'psyches. Havingadirectunderstandingofstudentneedsatthispointintheirdevelopmentminimizesthisexpectationgap.. TheParadigmShiftinJapanAndItsEffects Curriculuminnovationisopaque,complex,anddifficultfortheteachersandadministratorsinvolved,butmoresoforstudentswhofindthemselvesimmersedinitwithout havingbeengivenanysayorinformationaboutthechangesaffectingthem.Suchis thecaseinJapantodayduringitslengthyandlumberingchangefromitstraditional passivegrammar-translationmethodsofteachingEnglishtomodernactiveCLT. UniversitystudentsinexperiencedinCLTtechniquesmaylosemotivationupon. 一129一.
(4) 近 畿 大 学 語 学 教 育 部 紀 要8巻2号(2008・12). encounteringexpectations,concepts,andmaterialsthatareforeigntothemandwhich,. basedonhighschoollanguagelearningexperiences,theymaydeem`inappropriate'or. ineffectual.. Startinginthe1970s,thefieldofTeachingEnglishasForeignLanguage(TEFL). hasshiftedfromafocusonaccuracytowardafocusonfluencybasedinpartonrefor-. mationsinthefieldsofpsychologyandeducation.Traditionally,curriculawerecen-. teredontheclasssubjectandrootedina`teacherknowsbest'philosophywhere. students'needs,bethey`real'orperceived,wereoftenignored.Humanism,orthein-. terestinthewelfareofpeopleisthefoundationforsuchtraditionalsubject-centered. learning(Young,1971).WhenHumanisminitsclassicalformisappliedtolanguage. learning,itseekstodeductivelyanalyzecomponentsofthetargetlanguageinorderfor. thestudenttogainanaccuratefoundationonwhichtobasecommunication.Itwaside-. allysuitedtotheuniform`group-culture'ofhistoricallyisolatedJapan.However,revo-. lutionaryadvancesinthefieldofhumanisticpsychology,startinginthe1920s,affected. thefieldofeducationinaperiodcalledReconstructionism.DuringthistimeTyler. (1949)publishedaninfluentialworkonsystematiccurriculumdesign,whichdictated. thatcurriculaspelloutobjectives,methods,organizationofcontent,andevaluation.. Thoughachangeforthebetter,thiswasstillaproduct-basedapproachthatfocusedon. theneedsofstudents,astheteacherorinstitutionperceivedthem.Itwasnotuntilthe. periodofProgressivisminEnglishlanguagelearningthattheneedsoflearnerstruly. becamethefocus.Duringthisperiod,researchers(seeBreen&Candlin,1980;Prabhu,. 1983;Long,1983;andLong&Crookes,1986)advocatedmethodology,wherebylanguage. learnersbecomelanguageusers.Thismethodologyrequiresaflexibleprocessapproach. withrealisticopen-endedtask-basedactivitiesderivedfromthelearner'sneeds.. CLTclassesmeanttoengageandmotivate,canbeseenasineffective,inappropriate,. orevenvaluelesstostudentsarrivingatuniversitywithpreconceivednotionsof`correct'. languageteachingmethodologyderivedfrompreviousschooleducation.Tse(2000)and. Kumaravadivelu(1991)botharguethatsuchamismatchinvaluesandexpectationscan. seriouslydemotivate,upset,andeventhreatenalearner.Dornyei(1998)lists10. 一130一.
(5) ThePsychologicalNeedsofJapaneseUniversityStudents demotivatingfactorsrelatedtolanguagelearninginorderofimportanceasidentified bystudents.Agapinhowstudentsbelievelanguagesarelearnedandhowcoursesare actuallytaughtrankedfifthonthescaleofdemotivatingfactors.Thisisundoubtedly moreproblematicduringtheparadigmshiftfromgrammar-translationtoCLTthatis currentlyhappeningthroughouttheJapaneseeducationsystem.However,itisnot onlythestudents'preconceivednotionsofEnglishlanguagelearningthathavebeenresistanttochange.Sakui(2004)foundthateventhoughJapaneseteachershavesome understandingoftheusefulnessofCLTtheytendtoconductclassesusingtraditional teacher-centeredmethods. RarelyhavingencounteredCLT,itisnotsurprisingthatJapanesestudentsareunconvincedthatitcanbeasgoodastraditionalgrammar-translationinstruction. Matsuura,Chiba,andHilderbrant(2001)showedthatJapaneselearnersexpectinstructionusingthegrammar-translationmethod.Burden(2005)pointsoutthatlearners comingfromatraditionalclassroomhavenotbeentaughthoworwhycommunicative activitieswork.Nunan(1988)posits,"ltisunrealistictoexpectlearnerswhohave neverexperiencedaparticularapproachtobeabletoexpressopinionsonit,"(p.6). O'Donnell(2003)echoesthisfortheJapanesecontext,suggestingthataslongastraditionalteachingmethodologiesprevailatthehighschoollevel,learnersmaynotbe equippedtoswitchtoCLTtechniquesattheuniversitylevel. Notonlydosocio-historicalfactorscreateobstacles,butsocio-culturalfactorsdo too.MostnativeEnglishteacherscomefromcultureswheremanystudentsstudytheir courseswithfairlyequalintensity,notoutofintrinsicinterestnecessarily,buttoattainthehighgradepointaverage(GPA)potentialemployersdemand.Theseteachers mayexpecttheirJapanesestudentsareprimarilyatuniversitytoachievesimilarlyhigh grades.Asaculture,however,JapanhasnotstandardizedaGPAsystem.Intheinterestoftheirstudents,somenativeEnglishteachersmayinappropriatelypushtheir studentstoachievewhattheythemselveshavebeensocio-historicallytaughttoexpect intheWest.Additionally,theunfamiliartopics,concepts,opinions,andcommunicative techniquesregularlyintroducedattheuniversitylevelthroughWesternpublished. 一131一.
(6) 近 畿 大 学 語 学 教 育 部 紀 要8巻2号(2008・12). textbooksmayinterestadultteachersbutmaynotinterest`young'adultJapaneseuni-. versitystudents.Suchwidespreadmismatchofteacher-studentexpectationsmakesit. imperativetoinvolvelearnersinnegotiatingtheirownlearning(Brindles,1984,Nunan,. 1995),otherwisetheymaylackthemotivationtosucceed.. Indeed,currentresearchonJapanesestudentswithpoorEnglishcommunication. skillsfrequentlyfocusesonmotivation.Inregardstothepotentialexpectationgapbe-. tweenteacherandstudent,itisimportanttounderstandsocialmotivationtheory,which. positsthatenvironmentalfactorsinfluencemotivation.Thistheoryassumeslearners. aremotivatedtolearnlanguageeithertointegrateintothesecondlanguage(L2)envi-. ronmentortousetheL2forinstrumentalgoals(Weiner,1986).Thoughattitudesin. JapantowardEnglishspeakingcountriesaregenerallypositive,theuniformity,group-. orientation,andrigidroleexpectationsofJapaneseculturemakeintegrationarare. motivator.Instead,thegoalistogetahighscoreonanaccuracy-basedtestinorder. togetagoodjob.Goal-orientationtheorypositsthatsuchperformancegoalsarelessmoti-. eatingthanmasterygoalswhereinthelearnerhastheintrinsicmotivationtothoroughly. learnthesubject(Ames,1992).Goal-settingtheoryfurthercontendsthatgoalsnotpur-. suedbychoicewillnotbefulfilled(Locke&Latham,1990).Theextrinsicmotivationin-. herentinJapaneseeducationsystemmayaccountfortobeineffectuallanguage. learning.. Whatmayshowmorepromiseinmotivatinglanguagelearnersisintrinsicmotiva-. tion,especiallyfactorsthatpromoteasenseofself-worth.Indeed,havinglowself-. confidencestemmingfromalackofsuccessorabjectfailureisnumberthreeonDornyei's. listofdemotivatingfactors(1998).Achievementmotivationtheory(McClelland,1961)and. expectancy-valuetheory(Fishbein&Ajzen,1975)bothsuggestthatifapotentialforsuc-. cessexistsandlearnersvaluethetaskmotivationwillbehigh.If,ontheotherhand,. apotentialforfailureexists,learnersmayavoidthetaskandmotivationwillbelow.. Similarly,tasksdeemedtoodifficultorrequiringtoomucheffortwilldecreaselearner. motivationaspositedbytheself-efficacytheory(Bandura,1977).Alearner'sactionsand. effortsaregreatlyinfluencedbypastsuccessorfailureofperceivedabilityasput. 一132一.
(7) ThePsychologicalNeedsofJapaneseUniversityStudents. forwardinattributiontheoり7(Heider,1958).Accordingtoself-worththeory,learnersgoto. greatlengthstoavoidalossofself-esteemiftheirsuccessisthreatened(Covington,. 1984).. Self-determinationtheorymaintainsthatmotivationisacombinationofbothextrinsic. andintrinsicmotivation,butwhentakingintoaccountthedisproportionateegocentrism. oftheアo珊gadultstageofcognitiveandpsychologicaldevelopment,thebalancetendsto. shiftheavilytowardintrinsicmotivation(Deci&Ryan,1985).Tofosterthisnecessary. intrinsicmotivation,raiseself-esteemandpersonalizethelearningprocessteachersmust. takeintoaccountthatlearnersatthisstagearebiologicallyprogrammedtofocuson. developmentoftheir`self.'Thereforehavinglearnerstakepartinthedecisionmaking. stageoftheirlanguagelearning,andpresentinglearner-centeredactivitiesrecognizing. theirindividualgoalsandinterestsareprimary(Brindly,1984,Williams&Burden,. 1997).Whetherconsidered`real'orperceived,learnerneedsandmotivationareinextri-. cable.Teacherscannotaffordtoforgetthedeeperpsychologyofneediftheyaretoef-. fectivelymotivatetheirstudentstobesuccessfulinEnglish.. CognitiveandPsychologyNeedsDevelopmentofYoungAdults. Notbelievingthatmotivationwasmechanicalbutratherthatpeoplestrivetosuc-. teed,AbrahamMaslow,apsychotherapistoftheHumanistschool,devisedthefirst,and. perhapsbest-knowntheoryregardingneed,humanpotential,motivation,andinnatecu-. riosity(1943).Bystudyingwhatmadesuccessfulpeoplewhattheywere,Maslowdevel-. opedahierarchyofneeds(1954),inwhichbasichumanneedswerecategorizedintofive. tiers:physiological,safety,belongingandlove,esteem,andself-actualizationneeds.. Illustratedintheshapeofapyramid,thelowerorderneedsprovideafoundation. forthehigherorderneeds.Furthermore,thehigherordersaredependentonthelower. orders,sopeopleareawareof,actonthelowestneedsfirst.Maslowpurportstheful-. fillmentoftheseneedsistheprimemotivatorofhumanaction,andtheneedsatone. levelmustbesatisfiedbeforethenextlevel'sneedscanbeaddressed.Onceanyofthe. firstfourlevelshavebeensatisfied,itandthosebelowitarenolongerprioritized‐. 一133一.
(8) 近畿大学語学教育部紀要. Mallow'sHierarchyofNeeds. 8巻2号(2008・12). Ma510w,5Need5Exemph血ed. →. 騨 ■. el. nlor噂,creVl卑. ctualizati 6. a。ptance,proB " g,la。k。f【 絢u'巳. Esteem 呂e且f-esteem,achieve皿ent, re呂pecち 祀sp已pctofothers. Bel。皿gh19㎝dIのv￠ friendship,fa皿ily,i皿 髄maσy. Safety. ofemployment,ofhealth,offamily,of body,ofproperty,ofmorality. Physiological. fbod,shelter,s且e叩,water,sex,life. Σ. unlessthereisatemporarylackofsatisfaction.However,thehighestlevel,termed growthneeds,oncereached,neverceasestodrivemotivationanditsresultingbehavior. Thoughseenasprogressiverelativetothetheoriesofitsday,someresearchershave arguedthereexistslittleevidenceforahierarchicalrankingofneedsasdescribedby Maslow(seeWahba&Bridgewell,1976;Revich,2006).Levenstein(1988)sitedthelack ofanorderlyprogressioninMaslow'stiersexemplifiedbytheextremecaseof AmericanprisonersduringtheKoreanWarwhoignoredTierlphysiologicalandTier2 safetyneedsbychoosingstarvationoverthetypicallocalcuisine.Otherscholarsand psychotherapistswentbeyondcritiquetocreatemorecomplexparadigmsoftheirown (seeGaltung,1980;Mallmann,1980;Max-Neef1991;Max-Neef,1992).EvenMaslow himselfrevisedhisownhierarchy,recognizingthathumansaremotivatedmorebytheir needforesteemortranscendencethanbyanybasicmaterialorphysicalneed(1968). Whilearguablynotperfect,Maslow'shierarchycanbeappliedtothesituationoflanguagelearninginJapaneseuniversitiesbecauseitremainsthesimplestandmostwell known. Regardlessofthemodelused,needsrelatetomotivation,whichinturnrelatetothe cognitiveandpsychologicaldevelopmentstagesoflife.EarlypsychologistJames Baldwinfirstdelineatedthefourstagesofdevelopmentcommonlyusedtoday:infant,preschooler,child,andadolescent(1896).Noticingthepatternofmistakeschildrenmadeon intelligencetests,JeanPiagetprogressedBaldwin's4-stagetheorytoexplainhowadult. 一134一.
(9) ThePsychologicalNeedsofJapaneseUniversityStudents. Age. PiagetStages. Birth-2. Sensori-motor. 2-7. Pre-operational. 7-11. Concrete-operational. 11十. Formal-operational. AbilitiesofCognitiveDevelopment. Recognizesselfandobjects Learnsabstractthinking,objects,words, andclassification,butstillegocentric Thinkslogicallyaboutobjects,events,and others Thinkslogicallyandsystematicallyabout abstractconcepts,problems,thefuture,etc.. cognitivethoughtdiffersfromthoseofachild(1961).. LikeMaslow,eachofPiaget'sstagesrequiresmasteryoftheprecedingstages;. thereforePiaget'sstageshavesimilarlybeencriticizedforrigidity(seeDonaldson,. 1984).MoreimportantlyfortheJapanesecontextiswhethersuchstagesareapplicable. acrosscultures,althoughDasen(1977)providesevidencethattheyare.Freudwasthe. firsttolinkaperson'spsychologytobehavior,anditwastheNeo-FreudianErik. EriksonwhoexpandedthestagesofhumandevelopmentfromFreud'sfivetoeight. (1950).Erickson'stheorynotonlylinksgeneralagerangesbutalsoattributesofpsy-. chologicaldevelopmenttocognitivedevelopment.Histeenagerisexemplifiedbyidentity. vs.roleconfusionconcerns;moresimplyputas,`whoamIandwheredoIfitin?'. Erikson'syoungadult,age14to40,ischaracterizedbyintiina(ッvs.isolationissues,or ` whatandwithwhomamIgoingtobeinthefuture?'Thiscrisisofself-questioning. peaksbetweentheagesof19to34,whenteenageroleconfusionlingersandyoungadult. isolationissuesarise(Erikson,1950).Feelingfulfilledatthisisolationstageisimpera-. tivetoeaseunexpectedisolationinlaterlife(Erikson,Erikson,Kivnick1986).. Psychologicallyyoungadultsneedtoblendtheiridentitieswithfriendsinordertofeel. apartofthegroup.InJapan,thisneedtoassimilateismagnifiedbytheextreme. group-orientationoftheculture.Whenapersoncannotreconciletheirbeliefofthe. worldandhowtheyfitintoit,apersonexperienceswhatEriksontermedanidentめ. ・cri-. sis.Thisperiodofextremeself-consciousnessismostcommonintheteenageyearsand. canresultinpossibleregressionfromsocietyandclass.Theseage-relatedcognitiveand. psychologicaldevelopmenttheoriesthatpositthe`self'asmostimportantareconsistent. 一135一.
(10) 近 畿 大 学 語 学 教 育 部 紀 要8巻2号(2008・12). withMaslow'sTier3intimacyandTier4self-esteemneeds.. Maslow'sstagesofneedcorrelatetostagesoflife.Atfirst,babiescomestounder-. standandtrusttheimmediateworldaroundthemwhileaparent-figureprovidestheir. food,shelter,andotherTierlneeds.Asbabiesages,theylearnaboutabstractcon-. ceptsandtheybegintoassertautonomy.Aslongasparentsaretheprimarycaregiv-. ers,childrennothavingtosatisfytheirphysiologicalneedsareleftfreetodeveloptheir. Tier2needs.Primaryschoolagechildrenstarttogainphysicalandemotionalinde-. pendencefromthefamilyunit,atwhichpointTier3friendships,belonging,andequal-. ityarekey.Youngpeopleonlybegintothinksystematicallyabouttheirfuturesupon. reachingPiaget'sformal-operationsstageafterwhichtheycanprogresstowardbuilding. Tier4esteem.However,thebiological,psychological,andcognitivetransitionscoalesce. intheteenageyearsasyoungpeoplereachouttoexplorewhotheyare.Asyoung. adultslearntoanalyzeandquestiontheworldaround,needsprovidedbythefamilyare. takenforgrantedandascribedrespectgiventoparentsandteachersceasesbeingauto-. matic.Theopinionoffriendsbecomesmorevaluableintheattempttofitinandmake. aplaceforthefuture.Thepushforautonomyandtheneedtofeelcompetentbeginto. clashwhenadolescentteenagersbelievethattheyarefullycompetent,yetexperiences. failureaclassiccaseofidentitycrisis(Erickson,1950).Enteringtheformidablenew. arenaofcollegelifewithitsnewpeople,newplaces,andnewmethodsofdoingthings. mayindeedproveextremelythreateningtoimmaturepsyches.. Inmanycultures,childrenleavetheparentalhomedirectlyafterhighschoolas. theyaregenerallyconsidered`responsibleadults'atthisageandmatureenoughto. meetmostoralloftheirneedsontheirown.ChicagoadultsinterviewedbySetterstein. (1998)feltthatchildrenshouldleavehomebetweentheagesof18and25inorderto. developtheir`self'andtheirpersonality.AsopposedtoAmericanswhoculturallyvalue. self-relianceandindependence,theroleofmothersinJapaneseculturerigidlydictates. theresponsibilityofparentstoprovide,notonlythecostoffoodandshelter,butserv-. iceslikelaundry,housecleaning,andmeals.TheFourthNationalSurveyonHousehold. Changes(2001)statedslightlylessthan80%ofchildrenages20to24inJapanstill. 一136一.
(11) ThePsychologicalNeedsofJapaneseUniversityStudents. livedintheparentalhouse.Inthesecases,theroleco吻lioncommonlyexperiencedin. theteenyearsissignificantlyprolonged.Friendshipsandintimaciesmaybesolidlyde-. velopedatthistime,buttheelationorself-respectandthesatisfactionofhavingper-. sonallyachievedrespectfromothersthroughabsoluteindependenceremainselusive.. Ergo,youngadultsinJapanmayidleattheself-esteemTier4stageindefinitely,never. reachingTier5self-actualizationorpsychologicalmaturity.. Sowhatdefinesmaturity?Freud(1920)assertedittobethat,afterexperiencing. increasinglevelsofself-acceptanceandself-control,peoplereachapointwhentheyare. capableoflovingandworking.Mead(1934)definedmaturityintermsofsocialappro-. priateness,orhavinganabilitytointeractwithawiderangeofpeoplewithoutbeing. tended.Meadalsopositedthatmaturityrequiresbothself-acceptanceandtheabilityto. respondtoothers'needs,expectations,andfeelings.OnestudyofAmericanuniversity. studentsfoundthatasignificantnumberhadnotyetreachedPiaget'sformaloperation. levelofcognitivematurityandcontendedaneedtoexaminestudents'learningstyles. andcognitivematuritywhenchoosingcoursematerial(Hudak&Anderson,1990).. Psychologicalmaturityrequirestheabilityofindividualstotakeresponsibilityfor. themselves,tocopewithchange,topostponeimmediategratification,tosettheirown. goalsandworktowardthem,tobeself-confident,andtoliveontheirown.According. totheseguidelines,typicalJapaneseuniversityfreshmenarenotpsychologically`ma-. ture.'. ThislackofmaturityinyoungadultscomesatthesametimetheyreachMaslow's. Tier3belongingandloveandTier4self-esteemdevelopmentalstages,makingtheiregos. extremelyfragile.Failureismagnifiedatthistimewhenyoungadultshavefewskills. toovercomesetbacks.Havingcomefromaneducationalcultureofpassivityandaccu-. racyfocus,thesuddenshifttoactiveproductionandfluencyexpectedinauniversity. Englishclasscanproveoverwhelming.Students'intrinsicmotivationmayfalterand. theymaybereticenttoapplythemselvesduetoamismatchofexpectationsandadis-. agreementwithanewlyexperiencedteachingmethodology.Motivationisfurthercom-. promisedbytheproductionaspectofCLT,whichdrasticallyhighlightsmistakes.An. 一137一.
(12) 近 畿 大 学 語 学 教 育 部 紀 要8巻2号(2008・12). understandingofthecomplexegocentricandselfesteemneedsofyoungadultscanhelp. aCLTteacherbetterchooseappropriatematerials,dealwithaffectiveandbehavioralis-. sues,andraiseoverallintrinsicmotivationinapotentiallypsychologicallythreatening. communicativeEnglishclass.Thisisaccomplishedmosteffectivelybyperformingan. overtneedsanalysis.. CurrentNeedsAnalysisandImplications Aneedsanalysisistheprocessofidentifyingandprioritizingtheneedsofindividualsorgroups.Practically,thesubjectofEnglishistoovast,sotheneedsanalysisaims toidentifytheobjectivesoflearners,thedegreeofproficiencyrequired,andhow,where, andwhythelanguageistobeused.Forlearningtobeeffective,Kumaravadivelu (2001)pointsoutthatteachersmustbesensitivetotheneedsandgoalsofstudentsin relationtotheirsocioculturalsetting;however,desiringtolearnabouttheirJapanese studentsWiddowsandVoller(1991)foundlittleresearchspecificallyontheneedsof Japanesestudents.Burden(2005)bemoansthatstudentsinJapanarerarelyaskeddirectlyaboutneedsbecausemotivationincreaseswhenlearnersbecomepartofthelearningprocess.Hestatesthatby"sharingtheexperiencesoftheteacher"(p.7)andbeing allowedtoprovidefeedbackonlessons,theycanmoreobjectivelyanalyzetheirlearning experience.Tofurtherpiquemotivation,aneedsanalysiscandeterminetopicsofinteresttotheegocentricyoungadultlearner.Beforeallowingstudentswhoarenotpsychologicallymaturetochoosetheireducationalpathbasedondesireinsteadof`real' need,Reichterrich(1972)suggeststwotypesofneeds:objectiveneedsarethoseidentified byexaminingthetargetlanguageandsituationslearnersmayencounter,whereassubjectiveneedsarethoselearnersbelievearedesirable.Astudentanalysis,whichincorporates psychosocialinformationsuchaslearningstylesandmotivators,ishighlyeffectiveat establishingtheneedsoflearnerswhentheyarehighlysensitivetofailure,aspromoted bySysoyev(2000).WhetherJapanesefreshmenarepsychologicallymatureenoughto selectappropriatematerialmightbecalledintoquestion,althoughinastudybyBurden (2005),highschoolstudentsrankedEnglishactivitiesverydifferentlyinregardsto. 一138一.
(13) ThePsychologicalNeedsofJapaneseUniversityStudents. DepartmentNumber. Department. N=1134. (years). Law. 1. 5%. 53. ShokeiCommerce. 11(^2002). 337. 30. ShokeiEconomics. 12(^2002). 290. 26%. Economics. 14(2003,2004). 15. 1%. BusinessAdministration. 16(2003,2004). 40. 4%. 17(2005^). 342. Commerce. 30. InformationScience. 37. 17. 1%. ElectronicEngineering. 38. 14. 1%. 26. 2%. 151(2005^). Economics. usefulnessandenjoyment.Thisindicateshisstudentscoulddistinguishbetweena ` useful'activitytheyneedandan`enjoyable'activitytheydesire. InordertoascertaintheneedsanddesiresofuniversityfreshmentakingBusiness EnglishorOralCommunicationcoursesatKinkiUniversity,an8-questionneedsanalysiswasadministeredoverthecourseof10yearsfrom1998to2008.Rangingfrom18 to20yearsold,1134subjects,ofwhom665weremalesand467werefemales,in21sets ofclassesweregiventheassessmentduringthefirstorsecondmeetingoftheschool year.KinkiUniversityisa4-yearinstitutionwithsixdepartmentsonitsmaincampus withanaveragestudentTOEICscoreinthemid-300sforfreshmenafteroneyearofinstruction.. Question1.HowmuchdoyoulikeEnglish? N=1057. ApoorattitudetowardtheL2ranked. NumberofStudents. 1donotlikemuch. 39. 4. fourthonDornyei's(1998)listofdemo-. 21ikealittle. 99. 9. tivatingfactors.However,ona5-point. 3somewhatlike. 253. 24. 4mostlylike. 408. 39. 51ikealot. 258. 24. LeichertScaleonly4%ofthe1057subjects whoansweredthisquestionstatedthat they`didnotlike'English.Thelargest. percentageofsubjects,39%,reportedthatthey`mostlyliked'English,andfully24%. 一139一.
(14) 近 畿 大 学 語 学 教 育 部 紀 要8巻2号(2008・12). saidthatthey`likeditalot'.Thatthemajorityofthosesurveyedhadapositiveatti-. tudetowardsEnglishbodeswellforlearnersuccessandforthecreationofgreaterin-. trinsicmotivation.Burden(2005),findinganegativecorrelationbetweenusefulnessand. enjoyment,arguedthatifclassroomactivitiesarepersonallyrelevant,studentsaremore. likelytocompleteagiventask.Usefulnessandenjoymentdonotneedtobemutually. exclusive.Workingwithstudentstochooselearningactivitiesandtopicsthatstimulate. themensuresattentionandeffortinclass.. Question2.HowdifficultisEnglish?. N=1056 o●. 1. itiseasy. 2. itisnotsodifficult. 3. Numberof. Students. 7. <.001. 34. 3%. itissomewhatdifficult. 233. 22%. 4. itisfairlydifficult. 380. 36%. 5. itisdifficult. 402. 38%. Ofthe1056respondents,782re-. portedthatEnglishwas`fairlydiffi-. cult'or`difficult,'whereasonly7,. lessthanO.001%,reporteditwas ` easy'ona5-pointLeichertScale.. Interestingly,thoughthreequarters. ofsubjectsfoundEnglish`difficult'or`fairlydifficult',nocorrelationwasfoundbe-. tweenlikeabilityandperceiveddifficulty‐infact,notasinglecorrelationwasfoundbe-. tweenanyfactorsontheneedsanalysis.ThoughstudentsconsideredEnglishtobe. fairly`difficult',thefactthattheystillgenerally`like'itshowspromiseforbuilding. motivation.Success,ontheotherhand,mayproveelusive.Unfortunatelyforteachers,. thereislittletobedonetomitigateheightenedfeelingsofself-doubtand,sensitivityto. failureexperiencedinyoungadulthood.Regularaffirmationandsupporttoraiseself-. esteem,afeelingofachievement,andself-respectareastart.Pushingorberating. youngadultlearners,inanattempttoexternallymotivatethem,onlyservestoalienate. thembycreatingasituationinwhichthe`holderofknowledge',teachers,areincompe-. titionwiththeperceived`holdersofknowledge',youngadults.Showingrespectforthe. learners'opinionsbyinvolvingtheminthedecision-makingprocessinclassnotonly. servestoincreaseself-esteembutitcanalsoaidintheadjustmentofandgapsin. expectations.. 一140一.
(15) ThePsychologicalNeedsofJapaneseUniversityStudents Question3.WhatdoyoudobestinEnglish?(Chooseone) 1::. Numberof. Readinggarnered41%astopchoice. Students. 1. listening. 178. 16%. for`bestEnglishskill'outof1088re-. 2. speaking. 230. 21%. sponses,whichisnotsurprisingconsid-. 3. reading. 447. 41%. 4. writing. 220. 20%. 5. other(unspecified). 13. 1%. ●o. Bringthisneedsanalysisisareflection ofhighschoolEnglishlearningexperiences.Somewhatsurprisingly,asignifi-. cantportionofsubjectsfelttheyweregoodspeakers,apointwithwhichmany speakingteachersmightbegtodiffer.Theseteachersshouldkeepinmindthedifferent methodologytheirstudentsareaccustomedto.Sakui(2004)showedthat,while Japaneseteachersunderstandthevalueofteachingusingcommunicativelanguagetechniques,theychooseinsteadtousemoretraditionalteacher-centeredmethodsinorderto preparestudentsfortheir"grammar-skewed"(p.158)universityentranceexams. Burden(2005)recommendsincorporatingbothtraditionalandcommunicativeteaching methods,whichbridgesgapsbothinexpectedteachingstylesandinskilldeficiencies. Teachingcommunicationandotherstrategies,whichlearnerscanuseintimeswhen teachersareunavailabletoassist,canraiselearners'linguisticself-confidenceandencourageautonomy.Afocusonfluencyatthisstageofdevelopmenthelpslearnersprogresstoself-actualizationinEnglish.OncelearnerssolidifytheirEnglishgoals,theycan returntoaccuracypracticerequired.. HowdoyoulearnEnglishbest?(Chooseone). Question4. N=1101 1. Numberof. withafriend .・. Students. Memorizing,translating,andtaking. 447. 41%. notes,reflectingaccuracy-basedandpassivemethodsoflanguagelearningexpe-. 2. memorizing. 242. 22%. 3. translating. 178. 16%. 4. takingnotes. 195. 18%. 5. other(unspecified). 9. 1%. riencedinhighschool,togetherearned 56%ofresponses.However,thesurvey choicetogetthesinglemostnumberof. responseswas. `l earningwithafriend',whichreflectsmoreonyoungadultstudents'. 一141一.
(16) 近 畿 大 学 語 学 教 育 部 紀 要8巻2号(2008・12). needsofbelonging.Breen(1989)andWilliamsandBurden(1997)believeininvolving. learnersintheentirelearningprocess,includingallowingthemtochoosewhatconsti-. tutes`good'criteriaandcreatingtheirownactivities.Activelyreflectingontheirlearn-. ingprocessanddirectlynegotiatingitwiththeteacherfostersintrinsicmotivationand. raisesbothlearnerandteacherawarenessoflinguisticgoalsandneedsinawaythatis. notthreateningtoJapaneselearnerswhohavepreviouslyheldpassiverolesintheir. education.. Question5.WhydoyoustudyEnglish?(Circleasmanyasyouwant) `W N=1058. Numberof. Students. ork,'at27%edgedout. 670. 27%. `t ravel'at25%asthemainrea-. 622. 17%. sontostudyEnglish.Only5%. 452. 25%. tomakeforeignfriends. 439. 6%. tobethebest. 151. 18%. musttakeforschool. 124. 5%. accordingtoDornyei's(1998). 65. 3%. ranking,isthesixthmost. togetwork totravel tounderstandmusicor. o. movies. other. reportedtheytookEnglishbecauseitwascompulsorywhich,. demotivatingfactorofL2study. AttheextremesforQuestion5,0nlythreerespondentsreportednoreasonandseven respondentschoseallavailableoptions.Mosthadbetweenoneandthreereasonswith themediannumberofchoicesbeingtwo.. 一142一.
(17) ThePsychologicalNeedsofJapaneseUniversityStudents. Question5‐Numberofpurposesperperson. Numberof. Total. Purposes. Extrinsic. N=1058. zero. 3. 1. 290. 2. 318. Intrinsic. N=728. <1%. N=597. Reasonswerebrokendown. intoextrinsicpurposes(`toget. 330. 31%. 162. 15%. 27%. 662. 63. 360. 34. 30%. 66. work'and`musttakefor. 6%. 3. 267. 25%. 一. 4. 124. 12%. 一. 5. 38. 4%. 6. 16. 2%. 7. 2. <1%. 183. 17%. 48. 5%. 6. 1%. school')andintrinsicpurposes.. Reasonswereselectedbasedon. perceiveduseofEnglishinthe 一. 一. future.TOEICandothertests. ofEnglish,beingameansto. anendnota`use'ofEnglish,weredeliberatelyomitted.An`other'optionwaspro-. videdforsubjectstofillinmorepersonalreasonsforstudyingEnglish,whichwereall. consideredintrinsic.Only7280fthe1058responderschoseextrinsicmotivators,mean-. ingasignificant31%weremotivatedbytheirownneedswhereas15%indicatednoin-. trinsicmotivator.. Question5‐Otherpurposes. `Oth. er'PurposesListed. 1.. tobeableorcompetent. 2.. havealoveofEnglishorit's fun/interesting. NumbersofStudents. Only65subjectschoseto. 12. writeinapurposefor`other'.. 11. Thoughfewinnumber,most. reflectaspectsofMaslow'sneed. 3.. tomeetforeignpeople,friends, orhostfamily. 9 forbelongingandloveandthe. 4.. tostudyabroad. 8. 5.. foraspecificpurpose(TV news,TOEIC,etc). 7. onesubjectwroteinthepur-. 6.. toliveabroad. 6. poselyleftout`TOEIC'.Al-. 7. tolearnabouttheculture. 6. thoughintrinsicmotivationis. 8.. forlove(of?). 4. 9.. forfutureneedordream. 2. needforpersonalsuccess.Only. thestrongesttypeofmotiva-. tionamongegocentricyoung. 10.. toworkabroad. 1 adults,developingahigher. learnerawarenessofgoals,betheyintrinsicallyorextrinsicallymotivated,isrequisite. 一143一.
(18) 近畿大学語学教育部紀要. 8巻2号(2008・12). tofuturesuccessinallaspectsoflife.. Question6.WhatdoyouwanttostudyinEnglishclass?(Circleasmanyasyouwant.) N=1134. Morethanhalfoftherespondentschosea. NumberofStudents 928. 24%. communicativelanguageskill,whereasonly6%. 793. 28%. chose`grammar'.Itisdifficulttoconjecture. pronunciation. 378. 10%. vocabulary. 377. 8%. reading. 317. 6%. writing. 274. 12%. cativenatureoftheclass.Whetherthesubjects. grammar. 195. 12%. recognizedtheirneedforcommunicationskill. speaking listening ●o. ... why.Thesimplestexplanationisthatthesubjectswereexhibitingawarenessforthecommuni-. buildingortheywereexpressingtheirdesirefor activitiesperceivedasfunisunknown.. Question6‐Numberof`wants'. NumberofWants. AswithQuestion6,subjectswereasked. NumberofStudents. zero. 7. 1%. 1. 215. 19%. 2. 268. 24%. 3. 269. 24%. 4. 164. 14%. 5. 53. 5%. answer.Obviouslythetopicoftheclasswill. 6. 29. 3%. dictatecoursecontenttosomedegree.. 7. 87. 8%. tocircleall`wants'thatapplied,andsimi-. larly,67%selectedbetweenoneandthree. choiceswiththemediannumberofchoices. beingthree.Onlysevenrespondentsdidnot. However,creatingaflexibleclassroomenvi-. ronmentinwhichpracticeofallthelan-. guageskills,especially`listening'and`speaking,'whichgarneredsuchhighratings,is. possible.Thisensuresthatallstudentsgettheirindividualneedsmet.Havingthem. writegoals,acceptablyinJapanese,raisesstudents'metacognitiveawarenessand. teachesthemtodifferentiatebetweenneedanddesire.. 一144一.
(19) ThePsychologicalNeedsofJapaneseUniversityStudents Question7.Doyouwanttheteachertocorrectyourmistakes? N=1106. That89%ofsubjectswantedexplicit. NumberofStudents. correctme. 988. 89%. correctionbyteachersagainreflectsatradi-. donotcorrectme. 117. 11%. tionalaccuracy-basededucation.However, therepeatedpracticeofthisinclasshigh-. lightsmistakeswhichleadstoanexperienceoffailurepoorlytoleratedbytheegofragileyoungadultandintroducesthethirdmostdemotivatingfactorontheDornyei list(1998).Thisagainhighlightsthegapinexpectationsbetweenstudentsandteachersattheuniversitylevel,whichisDornyei'sdemotivatingfactorNumberFiveand leadstolackofself-confidence.Thoughfeedbackisaninvaluablepartofthelearning process,manylearnersfindovertcorrectionthreatening.Also,somestudentscoming fromanaccuracy-basedculturewillbeunawareorunacceptingofthefactthatduring communicativeactivities,fluencyisvaluedoveraccuracyandthat,infact,teachersdo notexpectlearnerstoexpressthemselveswithoutmistakes.Forlearnerswithalow toleranceforfailure,Jones(2007)recommendspointingoutmistakesafteranactivity ends,prioritizingtypesofmistakes,andnotmentioningeverymistake.Forastrongly group-orientedculturelikeJapan,itmaysuitlearnersnottobeaddressedasindividualsatall,especiallyinsuchaface-losingsituation.Teachersshouldinsteaddiscuss commonlymademistakestotheclassasawhole.Settingasidededicatedtimesforaccuracyworkandusingdiagnostictestingwithappropriatefeedbackcanteachindividual learnerswhattheirspecificdeficienciesareindependentoffluency-basedcommunicative activities.. Question8.HowmuchJapanesedoyouwantyourteacherstouse? N918. Only918studentsofthetotal1134subjectsre-. NumberofStudents. English. 624. 68%. spondedtoQuestion8perhaps,notbecausethey. Japanese. 294. 32%. lackedanopinion,butbecausetheydidnotknow whatthe`correct'answerwasreflectingtheteacher-. centerednessoftheJapaneseeducationsystemandmirroringthelackofactiveresponse. 一145一.
(20) 近 畿 大 学 語 学 教 育 部 紀 要8巻2号(2008・12). instudentsinclassesattheuniversitylevel.ThemedianamountofEnglishstudents wantedspokenbyteacherswas68%acrossalldepartmentsexceptforInformation Science,forwhichthedesiredmedianwas50%.. PercentageofEnglishwantedbydepartment N=918. Percentage. Maximum. Minimum. 1. 69%. 100%. 10%. ShokeiCommerce. 11. 69%. 100%. 1%. ShokeiEconomics. 12. 66%. 100%. of. BusinessAdministration. 14. 67%. 100%. 50%. BusinessAdministration. 16. 66%. 100%. 40. Commerce. 17. 69%. 100%. of. InformationScience. 37. 51%. :1',. 20%. ElectricalEngineering. 38. 68%. 99%. 30%. Economics. 151. 71%. 100%. 20%. Law. WhileInformationSciencehadthelowestmedianandmaximumpercentagefor teacherEnglishwitharangebetween20and80percent,theDepartmentofLaw'sminimumpercentagewaslowerat10%,andShokeiCommerce,ShokeiEconomics,and Commerceeachhadsubjectswhowanted99to100%Japanesespokenbyteachersin theirEnglishoralcommunicationclasses.Thoughthreebusiness-relateddepartments showedthelowestminimums,otherbusiness-relateddepartments,BusinessAdministration 14and16,hadthehighest,at50and40%respectively.Thestandarddeviationfrom the68%medianforalldepartmentswasalowO.18.Otherwise,nosignificant correlationswerefoundforanythingbasedonindividualclassesordepartment. MoststudentsrecognizetheneedforEnglishtobespokenintheCLTclassroom. Howevermanymaynotfeelconfidentabouttheirownlisteningabilitiestodesireitto betheprimarymediumforcomplexinstructionsorforalengthyandtiring90-minute period.Jones(2007)promotesanEnglish-onlyclassroom,whichworkswellwithhighlevellearnerswhoareconfidentandhaveahightoleranceforambiguityandfailure.. 一146一.
(21) ThePsychologicalNeedsofJapaneseUniversityStudents InsteadofapotentiallydebilitatingruleofstrictEnglish-onlyforJapaneseuniversity freshmenlackingconfidenceinspokenEnglishwhoareunusedtoCLTteachingtechniques,acompromisecanbemadebyspeakingEnglish-onlyduringcommunicativeactivities,duringasettime-periodintheclass,ortoteachersassuitsthelevelofthe class.TheEnglish-onlyperiodcanbeextendedslowlyasstudentsgainmorestrategies, skills,andconfidenceasthesemesterprogresses.. Conclusion Confidencebuildingandidentifyingtheneedsanddesiresofindividualsintheimmatureandegocentricyoungadultstageofpsychologicaldevelopmentiscriticalifintrinsicmotivationistobetrulyincreased.Notonlydotypicaluniversitystudentsin Japanhavetodealwiththepsychologicalissuesofyoungadulthoodeverywhere,they arestrictlyboundbysocio-culturalnormsuniquetothecountry.Classesarecomprised ofpeopledependentonbelongingentirelytoahomogeneousgroup,whoarerelianton groupconsensus,andwholackanindependentsenseofself.AftersixyearsofEnglish education,taughtpredominantlybytraditionalsubject-andteacher-centeredmethods thataregearedtopassingarguablyinvaliduniversityentranceexaminations,thesestudentsarefalsebeginnersnotpracticedinrealisticcommunication.Afailureforthe paradigmshifttowardcommunicativemethodsinTEFLtobeadoptedbyallteachers hasledtoamethodologicalmismatchinlevelsofeducation.Theresultinggapbetween teacherandstudentexpectationsfurthercomplicatesthelanguagelearningexperience foralreadypsychologicallysensitiveyoungadults.Studentswhodonotvolunteerto speak,checkdictionariesforconfirmationofeveryunknownword,andhaltcommunicationtoseekconsensusfromfriendsregularlyexhibitthistouniversityoralcommunicationteachers.Thisgapinexpectationspotentiallyleadstofrustrationandlackof motivationinlearners. Withtheseandotherpracticalfactorstoconsider,universityteachershaveneither availableclasstimenortrainingtoadequatelycounseloraddresspsychologicalissues, northetimetodirectlyraisemetacognitiveawareness.Activitiesthatindirectly. 一147一.
(22) 近 畿 大 学 語 学 教 育 部 紀 要8巻2号(2008・12). addresstheseissues,arepersonallyrelevanttostudents,andincorporatebothtradi-. tionalandcommunicativelearningtechniqueswillservetobothbridgetheexpectation. gapandsupportthefragileegoofthedevelopingadult.Allowingstudentstochoose. topicsofwhichtheyareknowledgeable,withinageneralthemeshowcaseswhatstu-. dentsknowoftheirworld.Whicheveractivitiesarechosen,supportofthepsychologi-. calneedsofyoung-adultleaner'sandbuildingself-esteemareimperativetomitigating. theirreluctancetostudyEnglish,increasingmotivation,andsupportingthemintheir. evolutiontothenextstageofmaturity.. Appendix. FreshmenDiagnosticNeedsAnalysis:Circleyourchoice. 1.HowmuchdoyoulikeEnglish?(alittle)12345(alot) 2.HowdifficultisEnglish?(easy)12345(difficult) 3.WhatdoyoudobestinEnglish?listeningspeakingreadingwriting 4.HowdoyoulearnEnglishbest? withafriendmemorizingtranslatingtakingnotes 5.WhydoyouwanttolearnEnglish?(Circleasmanyasyouwant.) togetworktomakeforeignfriendstotraveltobethebest tounderstandmusicormoviesmusttakeforschoolother 6.WhatdoyouwanttostudyinyouruniversityEnglishclass?(Circleasmanyasyouwant.) listeningspeakingreadingwritinggrammarpronunciationvocabulary 7.Doyouwanttheteachertocorrectyourmistakes?yesno 8.HowmuchJapanesedoyouwantyourteacherstouse? English%Japanese. References. Ames,C.(1992).Classroom,goals,structuresandstudentmotivation.ノ. ∂urnal(ゾEぬcα'加. Psychology.84,267-271. Baldwin,J.(1896).Mentaldevelopmentinthechildandtherace.NewYork:Macmillan&Co. BanduraA.(1977,March).Self-efficacy:towardaunifyingtheoryofbehavioralchange, PsychologyReview.84,2,191-215. Breen,M.(1989).Theevaluationcycleforlearningtasks.InR.Johnson(Ed),Thesecond languagecurriculum(pp.187-206).Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.. 一148一. α1.
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東京大学 大学院情報理工学系研究科 数理情報学専攻. [email protected]
情報理工学研究科 情報・通信工学専攻. 2012/7/12
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学識経験者 小玉 祐一郎 神戸芸術工科大学 教授 学識経験者 小玉 祐 郎 神戸芸術工科大学 教授. 東京都
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