Ken-ichiTamai StrategyFormationandOrganizationalCulture

StrategyFormationandOrganizationalCulture

Ken‑ichiTamai

Introduction:AutonomousActorsinS廿ategy

Organizationalculturehasalreadyknownasaprimaryfactorthatde‑

termineseffectivestrategiesinstrategicmanagementtheory.Thisrecogni‑

tionwasspreadfromaperspectivethatorganizationalculturedoesnotonly causeinternalconsistencybutalsocontributestoexternaladaptation.

(Schein,1985)Thisviewfacilitatedthetheorydevelopmentdifferentfrom conventionaltheoriesbasedondeterminismthatorganizationalculturede‑

termineseffectivestrategiesandprovidedanewframeworkinstrategic management.(ArogyswamyandByles,1987)

Incontrasttosuchpositiveeffectsoforganizationalculture,itwasalso pointedoutthatstrongculturespreventstrategicchanges(Lorsh,1987)by thedecliningofexcellentcompanieswithuniquefeatures.(Petersand Waterman,1982)Inaddition,thevalidityofthepropositionthatstrategies determineorganizationalculturewasfbundoutinpaststudies.(Outsuki, 1999)Thesediscussionsindicatethattherelationshipbetweenthetwocon‑

ceptsisintricateandsubtleandthereforeevokethenecessityofreconsid‑

erationofit.

Theissueofthisarticleistoarticulatetherelationshipbetweenorgani‑

zationalcultureandstrategymorestrictly.Thekeyofunderstandingsuch complexinteractionsarenottof6cusonthestatesthatbotharealreadyco‑

〔189〕

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商 学 討 究 第52巻 第4号

hered,butontheprocessthroughwhichbotharebeingdone.Therefbre weshouldpayattentiontostrategymakingandconsiderhowthatprocess isrelatedtobothconcepts.

Therecentstudiesofstrategymakingareamoreinterestingresearch area,comparedtothatofstrategycontentinstrategicmanagementtheory.

Thesestudieshavesomeinherentcharacteristics.Firsちtheresearchobjective isnottoproposethenormativetheoryofstrategymakingasarationalmodel, butrathertodescribetherealprocessindetail.Second,moreorless,they retainanassumptionthatstrategydeterminesenvironment,althoughnotall thereverserelationisexcludedcompletely.Third,theunitofanalysiscomes toindividualsinanorganizationtoanalyzetheircognitionoractions.By thismeans,thescholarsapproachautonomousactorsratherthanautomatic onesinstrategymaking.

Thethresholdofstudiesofputtingsuchactorsinstrategiescanbe fbundoutinorganizationaltheory.Itiscalledstrategicselectiontheory presentedbyChildinthebeginningofl970's.Childcriticizedtheviewof

determinismbeingassumedincontingencytheoryoforganizationand attemptedtoputautonomousactorsinanorganization.Sincethen,his theorybegantobeadoptedbysomescholarsinstrategicmanagement theory.Althoughwecannotsaythatthemovementestablishesthemain‑

streamnow,itwouldbecertainthatmanyscholarswereawareofthe necessityofpositingsuchactorsinordertounderstandstrategymaking.

Inthissense,theattemptshasmadesteadyprogress.

Inthismovement,oneoftheleadingstudiesthatmovedforwardthese awarenessisaseriesofstrategicmanagementtheoriesbyMintzberg.且e hasattemptedtoplacevarioustypesofactorsinthedifferentstrategymak‑

ingbyusingmultiplestrategyconcepts.Wecanunderstandtwosignifi‑

cantrelationshipsbetweenorganizationalcultureandstrategy,oneinwhich

StrategyFormationandOrganizationalCulture191 0rganizationalcultureinfluencesstrategy,andtheotherinwhichstrategy influencesorganizationalculture.Thecontrastingrelationsarearticulated byconsideringthestrategymakingthatfbcusesonthecharacteristicsof variousactors.Andthattellsustheimportanceofunderstandingactorsin strategy.

Accordingly,wewillinvestigatetherelationshipbetweenorganizational cultureandstrategywhileapproximatingtotheaspectofactorsinthisarti‑

cle.First,wewillreviewstrategicselectiontheorythatfacilitatedtoput autonomousactorsinorganizationaldecisionmakinganditsapplicationto strategicmanagementtheory.Second,wewillconsiderstrategicman‑

agementtheoriesofMintzbergastostrategyconceptandstrategymaking respectively.Third,threekindsofstrategymakingcloselyrelatedtoorga‑

nizationalculturewillbediscussedandwewillclarifytherelationshipof bothconceptsbasedontheviewoftheassociationofactionswithcognitioll instrategyfbrmations.

TheDevelopmentofStrategicSelectionTheory

StrategicseleetiontheorybyChild

StrategicselectiontheorybyChild(1972)startedfromquestioningthe studiesintermsoforganizationalstruceurebasedontheviewofdetermin‑

ism.Thesestudieshadabasicpropositiontocollductempiricalresearch thatsomesituationalfactorsdeterminesomespechicorganizationalstruc‑

tureandtheresearchersattemptedtopursuetherelationshipsofboth variables.Ifsomesituationalfactorscanbearticulatedasconstraintsofthe structure,itispossibletodesignanadaptiveorganizationalstructure.

Childcriticallyexaminedtheargumentsfbrenvironment,technology,

andsizetobeassumedasconstraintsandfbundouttheproblemsofdeci一

192商 学 討 究 第52巻 第4号

sionmakinginthem.ThefUndamentalreasonwhythesefactorswerere・

gardedasconstraintswasbecauseeachorganizationhastoachieveitsvi・

ableperf6rmance.Fromthisreason,researcherscouldassumethat decision‑makersmayselectsomeadaptivestructureinordertofulfillthe performancerequirements.Thisassumptionfordecision‑makersjustified theempiricalresearch.(Figure1)

〈Empiricalstudy>

constraints→structure→performance→viability

〈thewayofthinkingbydecisionmaker basedonperformancerequirement>

Figure1.TheAssumptionofDecisionmakingontheBasisofDeterminism.

ButChildsuspectedtheassumptionandexamineditsvalidityindetail, Onewasaboutdecisionmakingfortherelationshipof̀constraint‑structure', Anotherwasaboutonef6rthatof̀structure‑perf6rmance'.First,aboutthe fbrmer,hetookaccountoftheenvironment.regardedbydecision‑makers,uS・

ingtheconceptoforganizationaldomain.OrganizationaldomainconsistsoJ

"thespeci且cgoalswhichorganizationaldecision ‑makerswishtopursueand

thefunctionswhichtheycauseanorganizationtoundertakeinordertoim・

plementthosegoals".(pp.8‑9)Bythisnotion,theenvironmentinwhich decision‑makerscanpositivelydefineandmanipulatewasdistinguished.In turn,theycanreflecttheirpreferencesofordersandpower.

Thismeansthattheboundarybetweenanorganizationanditsenviron・

mentregardedbyorganizationaldecision‑makersdonotexistasgiven, Thatis"definedinlargedegreebythekindofrelationships‑whichits decision‑makerschosetoenteruponwiththeirequivalentsinotherorga・

nization,orbyconstraintswhichmoredominantcounterparts.imposeupon

StrategyFormationandOrganizationalCulture 193

them".(p.10)Inthatway,theexistenceofspecificgoalsofdecision‑makers, organizationaldomain,cametobeIostthevalidityastodecisionmakingde‑

terminedbytheirenvironmentandtheunilateralpropositionthatenviron‑

mentdeterminesstructurewasrejected.

Next,Childexamineddecisionmakingbetweenperformanceandorgani‑

zationalstructure.Inthetheoryoforganizationalstructure,therewere twoassumptionsofdecisionmakingtodeterminethestructure.Ohewas thattheselectionofsomespecificstructuredeterminestheperformance leve1.Anotherwasonethattherequiredstandardofperfbrmanceandthe expectationoftheirdegreeofachievementdeterminesomespecificorgani‑

zationalstructure.Decision‑makersinanorganizationwasassumedtocon‑

cernwithperfbrmanceasoutput(theresultofdecisionmaking)andasinput (therequirementofdecisionmaking)oforganizationalstructure.

First,intermsofthelatterdecisionmaking,Childpointedoutitsappli‑

cabilityislimitedbysomeconditions.The且rst60nditionistheavailability ofresourcesf6rdesigningsomeadequateorganizationalstructure.

Decision‑makerscannotselectthatstructurewithoutsuf丘cientresources.

But,eveniftheresourcesareavailable,decision‑makerscannotnecessarily selectthat.Thesecondconditionisthebeliefofdecision‑makersinwhich theselectiollofsomespechicstructurewillfuhilltheirperformance achieved.Inshort,theydonotlikelytoseleCtthestructurewhentheydo nOtbelieVeit.

Besidesthethirdconditionmustbeaddedsothatthefirstassumption

maybesuf且cient.Theconditionwasthattheexpectationofperf6rmance

attainedisnotbeyondthestandardofperformance.Whenthefbrmeris

overthelatter,organizationalslackisgeneratedanddecision‑makerscan

usethemarginofsurplusinaccordancewiththeirpreference.Inthisway,

itwasclarifiedthatdecisionmakingoforganizationalstructuredetermined

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bytheperf6rmancerequirementisextremelylimitedunderthesecon‑

ditions.

Next,abouttheformerdecisionmaking,Childtooknoticethatdecision‑

makersconsidertheirenvironmentsandtechnologiesasthefactorsin且uenc‑

ingolltheperformanceasweHasthestructure.Unlesstheselectionsof thesewillnotworsenperfbrmance,decision‑makerscanextendthedegree ofthepossibilityofselectingotherstructure.Theselectionoforganization‑

alstructureisonlyonefactordeterminingperformancethatdecision‑makers consider.Therefore,theassumptionthatdecision‑makingintermsoforga‑

nizationalstructuredeterminesperfbrmancecametobelostitsvalidity.

Asstatedabove,theinvalidityoftheassumptionsofdecisionmaking,on whichdeterministicstudieswerefounded,wasdemonstratedexhaustively andstrategicselectiontheorywasdevelopedasthealternativetheory,parti‑

cularlyfocusingontheexistenceofdiscretioninorganizationaldecision making.

Thistheorypositsdominantcoalitionasthecentralconcept.Dominant coalitionispeopleholdingpowertoimportantdecisionsintheirorganization.

Theselectionprocessistogiveweighttoeconomicandadministrative issuesinordertomanipulatesomepreferenceofcoalitionmembersand othermembers.Thisprocessisofstrategicselectionthatismissedby scholarsrelyingondeterminism.Childproposedthetheoreticalmodelof strategicselectionexertedbydominantcoalition.(Figure2)Thereisthe detaileddescriptionabouttherealmofdiscretionofdecision‑makers,which isapplicabletodescribethestrategicdecisionmakinginstrategicman‑

agementtheory.Therefore,theviewofstrategicselectiontheorywasgra‑

duallyincorporatedintothattheory.

Variability, Complexity,

〜

Environmental

Conditions

Rewardsexpected byresourceproviders

Strategicchoiceby ヱ)ominantCoalition

1.Evalutionof thesituatlon 2.Choiceofgoals

3.Strategy

Prior ideology

Organizational strategy

1.Scaleof operatlons 2.Technology 3.Structure 4.̀Human

Resources'

Organizationaleffectiveness (Overallleveloforganizational

pe㎡brmance)

→ 謙 鑑ss

(ef[iciency)

̀Marketef丘ciency'

(Choiceoffavourable environmentfordisposal ofgoodsorservices)

Environmental

receptlvlty

(Demandforgoodsor servicesprovided)

Figure2.TheRoleofStrategicChoiceinaTheoryofOrganization.Source=Child(1972),p.18.

ω 嘗 鉾 紹 ︽ 切 o 同 日 銭 8 p 巳 O 困 ひq 窪 冒 巴 8 巴 〇 三 窪 お N ℃ 飢

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TheapPlica伽nofs廿ategicselectiontheoryintostrategicmanagementtheo】 写

Sincetheperspectiveofstrategicselectiontheoryhadbeenaddressed, theworksfbcusingonautonomousactorsemerged丘omtherealmof

strategicmanagementtheory.Theypositedtopmanagementasstrategic decision‑rnakersintodominantcoalitionandproceededthediscussionof strategicmanagement,though￠hilddidnotnecessarilyIimittheposition.

MilesandSnow(1978)paidattentiontothedecisionmakingprocess basedonsubjectivecognitionofenvironmentsbytopmanagement.The processwascalledtheadaptivecycleresolvingentrepreneurial,technical, andmanagerialproblems.Theyfbundouttheprospector,thedefender,the analyzer,andthereactorasthestrategictypesbasedonthiscycle.The threeofthemexceptfbrthereactorhadadaptivemechanismconsistent withenvironmentalchanges.

Thisargumentindicatesthatadaptivestrategiesfbrenvironmentsare formedasaresultofthestrategicselectionoftopmanagement.Inshort, strategicmanagementcanbeexplainedbytheviewofstrategicselectioh theory.Therefore,theproblemofstrategicmanagementtheorydepending ondeterminismwascometolightandtheapproachbasedonstrategic selectiontheorybegantoberecognizedasthealternativeofunderstanding strategy.

Bougeois(1984)designatedtheviewthatdeterminismfbrceingreduc‑

tionismisprevailinginstrategicmanagementtheoryaswellasorganization‑

altheoryandpolicystudies.Instrategicmanagement,thestudiesdepend‑

ingondeterminismpursuedtherelationshipbetweenenvironmentand

strategybasedonanassumptionthatfhmsareconstrainedbysomespec置c

environmentthattheyenter,socalledindustries.Andanumberof

hypothesesextractedthroughempiricalresearchwereincreasingendlessly.

StrategyFormationandOrganizationalCulture ヱ97

Theproblemofrelyingondeterminismwasthatthestrategicdecision makingislimitedtoberegardedasproductsofenvironmentalfbrces,which ismereanautomaticprocesstodecidestrategiesdirectedbyagivenen‑

vironment.Bourgeoisrecognizedtheabsenceoftheessenceofstrategic conceptthatactorsdistinguishtheirownfirmfromcompetitorsand enumeratedthelimitationsofstrategicmanagementtheorybydeterminism asf()llOWS.

They"(1)arereductionist,resultinginlosingrichnessofbothindepen‑

dentvariables(suchastheenvironment)anddependentvariables(structure, strategy);(2)ignorereciprocalcause・effect;(3)ifpursuedtotheirextreme, resultinhyper‑contingencytheoriesorstudiesofsituationalcases;mostim‑

portallt;(4)reducemanagerstomechanisticcomputerswhomustapplysci‑

entificlawstoresults;and(5)relegatemanagerstoapassiverole,con‑

strainedbyavarietyofforces  .(P.590)

Inthatway,strategicselectiontheorywasregardedasthealternative toovercometheselimitations.Hepointedoutthatthemembersofadomi‑

nantcoalitioninanorganizationusetheirowndiscretiontoselectthe situations,domain,andindustry.Inaddition,theydonotonlyhavethedis‑

cretiontoselecteconomicallyrationalgoalsbutalsotogenerateorganiza‑

tionalslack.Thusstrategicselectiontheoryprovidedtherealmwhere actorsvolitionallydevelopsomestrategyandtherefbrebecameinevitableto explaintheessenceofstrategicmanagement.

Inadditiontosuchatheoreticalimportanceonthistheory,healsorefer‑

redtotheeffectiveresearchstrategiesbeyondnarrowempiricalstudies.

Thosewereto1)adoptdialecticalviews,2)recognizereciprocalcauseand effectrelationships,3)combinemultipleresearchperspectives,and4)com‑

binequantityandqualityresearch.

Bythismeans,themovementofstrategicmanagementtheorytaking

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accountofautonomousactorswasspreadtothedevelopmentofthere‑

searchmethodologyaswellasthetheoreticalapplication.Ofcourse,we cannotsaythatsubsequentstrategystudiescompliedwithsuchatheoretical andmethodologicalstandardstrictly.Yetitwouldbecertainthatthesestu‑

diesstimulatedthereconsiderationofconventionalstrategicmanagement' theories.

WecanseeatheoreticalconsequenceinaseriesofstudiesbyMint‑

zbergnow.且istheorydidnotdirectlystartedfromdepelldingonstrategic selectiontheorybutfromsuspectingtheeffectivenessoftherationalstrategic planning.Buthehadalsorecognizedtheimportanceofautonomousactorsin strategy.Inaddition,headdedhisownviewsnotseeninstrategicselec‑

tiontheory.First,whereasthestudiesbasedonthistheorybeganthe argumentbyassumingthepositionoftopmanagementasstrategicactors, membersofadominantcoalition,inadvance,Mintzbergattemptedtoliber‑

atetheactorsfromthatposition.Andhedidnotonlyassumetheirvarious levelsasanindividua1,agroup,andevenanorganization,butalsofbcusedon theemergenceofthemnotgiveninadvance.Therefore,hehadcomet6 findoutvariousstrategicprocessesbasedondifferentstrategicactors.

Mintzberg,sStrategyCo耳ceptsandStrategyFormation

Strategyconceptas5P

OneoftheuniquenessofMintzberg'strategicmanagementtheoryis theuseofmultiplestrategyconceptstoexplainstrategicphenomena.Heis attentivetotheanswerf6rthequestion,"Whatisyourcompany'sstrategy?"

Theresponsescouldbedescribedbylookingatthepastandfutureaswell astheoutside(below)andinside(above).(Mintzberg,1994)(Figure3)The

descriptionscouldbedistinguishedtheoretica皿ybyexistingconceptstobe

StrategyFormationandOrgallizationalCulture ヱ99

above(inside) strateg1C

actor(S)

down(outside)

position

plan,ploy

Figure3.Fivetypesofstrategyconcept.

dispersedinstrategystudiesandbegenerahzedasstrategyconceptsof且ve (plan,ploy,pattern,position,andperspective)withempiricalvalidity.(Mint‑

zberg,1987a)

Firstら̀plan'poin廿ngtothefutureisan"intendedcourseofac廿on,guide‑

linestodealwithasituation"(p.11).Second,̀ploy'alsoindicatesthefuture andmeans"aspecdic̀maneuver'intendedtooutwitanopponentorcompeti‑

tor"(p.12)Third,̀pattern'relevanttothepastdescribes"consistencyinbe‑

havior,whetherornotintended"(p.12)

Fourth,̀position'describingtheoutsideofanorganizationisdefinedas

"ameanslocatinganorganization

."(p.15)Lasし̀perspective'isaconceptde‑

scribinginsideofanorganization.Itmeans"aningrainedwayofperceiving aworld(inanorganization)"(p.16)Although,asmentionedabove,five strategyconceptsweredistinguished,ploywasincludedintoplanasaspeci一 且cformofthat.

Inthisway,theconceptsofplan,pattern,position,andperspectivewere suggestedasstrategiesthatrepresentdifferentaspects.(figure4)Andthe

reasonwhyorganizationsneedstrategiesis(1)settingdirection,(2)focusing

efforts,(3)definingorganization,and(4)givingconsistency.Allofthemare

thingsregardingstabilityofanorganization.(Mintzberg,1987b)Thatisim一

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商 学 討 究 第52巻 第4号

PIan as Position

Pattern

a)Conventionalhierarchy

昏

ゆ

◎

c)Pattern(orposition)producingperspective

b)Formalizingonemergentstrategywithina perspective

N

︑

d)Perspectiveconstrainingshiftinposition (圏IEggMcMuffin"syndrome)

Figure4.SomePossibleRelationshipbetweenStrategy AsPlan,Pattern,PositionandPerspective.

Source:Mintzberg(1987a),p.18

StrategyFormationandOrganiza廿onalCulture201

aginedtousthatfourkindsofstrategyconceptonlydescribetheprocesses pursuedconsistently.

However,Mintzbergalsointendedtodescribetheprocessesofstrategic changebyusingfburconcepts.Bykeepinguptheantitheticaspectsas weUastheeclecticuseoftheseconcepts,variousprocessescametobeargued exhaustibly.Theseareaseriesofdiscussionsregardingstrategyformation.

Frameworkforstrategyformation

Mintzberghadalreadypresentedtheentrepreneurialmodeandadaptive modeaswellastherationalplanningmodeasrealstrategymakinginhis

earlyarticle.(Mintzberg,1973)Thisfindingwasturnedtothereconsideration oftheconventionalframeworkintermsofstrategymaking.Thenew

frameworkwasstartedtoposittheconCeptofpatterninadditiontothatof planthatwasprevailedascentralinstrategicmanagementtheory.(Mint‑

zberg,1978)

Heattemptedtocomprehendtherealizingprocessesofstrategybythe mindsetthatstrategyhasbeenfbrmedwhenasequenceofdecisionsbe‑

comeapattern.Theprocesswascalledstrategyformation.Asshownin hisframework,threeprocessesexistbetweeǹintended'strategy(plan)and

̀ realized'strategy(pattern).(figure5)Theprocessesoftwoarerelatedto

intended strategy

⇒=二「耐 ⇒

realized strategy

unrealizedemergent StrategyStrategy

FigUre5.Typesofstrategy.Source:Mintzberg(1978),p945.

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Table1.SummaryofStrategyType.SourceMintzbergandWaters(1985),p270.

KINDOF

STRATEGY

MAJORFEATURES

Planned

Entrepreneurial

ldeologica1

Umbrella

Process

Unconnected

Consensus

Imposed

Strategiesoriginateinf6rmalplans;preciseintentionsexist, fbrmulatedandarticulatedbycentralleadership,backedup byfQrmalcontrolstoensuresurprise‑freeimplementationin benign,controllable,orpredictableenvironment;strategies mostdeliberate

Strategiesoriginateincentralvision:intentionsexistasPer‑

sonalvisionofsingleleader,andsoareadaptabletonew oPPortunities;organizationunderpersonalcontrolofleader andlocatedinprotectednicheinenvironment;strategies broadlydeliberatebutcanemergeindetailandeven

  の

orlentatlon

Strategiesoriginateinsharedbeliefs:intentionsexistasco1‑

lectivevisionofallactors,ininspirationalformandrelatively immutable,cohtrollednormativelythroughindoctrination and/orsociali乞ation;organizationoftenproactivevis‑a‑vis environment;strategiesratherdeliberate

Strategiesoriginateinconstraints;leadership,inpartialcon‑

troloforganizationalactions,definesstrategicboundariesor targetswithinwhichotheractorsrespondtoownex‑

periencesorpreferences;perspectiveisdeliberate,posi‑

tions,etc.canbeemergent;strategycanalsobedescribed asdeliberatelyemergent

Strategiesoriginateinprocess:1eadershipcontrolsprocess aspectsofstrategy(hiring,structure,cte.),leavingcontent aspectstootheractors;strategiespartlydeliberate,partly emergent(and,again,deliberatelyemergent)

Strategiesoriginateinenclavesandventures:actor(s) 100selycoupledtorestoforganizationproduce(s)patterns inownactionsinabsenceof,orindirectcontradictionto, centralorcommonintentions;strategiesorganizatiollally emergentwhetherornotdeliberateforactor(s)

Strategiesoriginateinconsensus:throughmutualadjust‑

ment,actorsconverge、onpatternsthatbecomepervasivein absenceofcentralorcommonintentions;strategiesrather emergent

Strategiesorigillateinenvironment:environmentdictates patternsinactionseitherthroughdirectimpositionor throughimplicitlypreemptingorboundingorganizational choice;strategiesmostemergent,althoughmaybeinterna1‑

izedbyorganizationandmadedeliberate

StrategyFormationandOrganizationalCulture 203

therealizedstrategy.Deliberatestrategyisaprocessthataplanrealizes asapatternbythecontrol.Emergentstrategyisonethatapatternisreal‑

izedbythelearning.Eachprocessistheextremebetweentheexistence andnon‑existenceofplan.However,theprocessesareonlyidealtypesto capturerealstrategicphenomenainterwoventhedeliberateaspectwiththe emergentone.Realstrategyformationshadvariousformstorealize strategy.(MintzbergandWaters,1985)(table1)Theyaredif且culttoex‑

plaintheoreticallyonlybyusingtheconceptsofplanandpattern.

Asaresult,theconceptsofperspectiveandpositionwereintroduced.

Mintzbergexaminedexistingstrategicmanagementtheoriescomprehen‑

sivelyanddiscernedeachsetofthepremisesofstrategyf6rmationinten schools.(Mintzbergeta1.,1998)Wethinkthattherelationshipbetween organizationalcultureandstrategyisarticulatedinthisstudy.Speci丘cally, theconceptofperspectiveismostsignhicantonerelatingorganizationalcul‑

turetostrategies.Asstatedbelow,wewillfocusonhisthreetypesof strategyfbrmationsregardingorganizationalculture.Theyarethree strategyfbrmationsas1)acollectiveprocess,inwhichorganizationalculture influencesstrategies,andthoseas2)avisionaryprocessand3)anemergent process,inwhichstrategiesactonorganizationalculture.

StrategyFormationRelatingtoOrganizationalCulture

S廿ategyfbrmationasacollectiveprocess

Thestrategyf6rmationdrivenbyorganizationalculturecanbecalleda collectiveprocessandbeexplainedbyusingtheconceptofperspective.

(Mintzbergetal.,1998)Atfirst,Mintzbergconsideredtheconceptofculture

thatanthropologistshadde且ned.Thereasondatingbacktoanthropology

isthatbecausestrategicmanagementtheoriesrelatingtoorganizationalcul一

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商 学 討 究 第52巻 第4号

tureintroducedcharacteristicsofcultureusedbyanthropologists.The essntialcharacteristicwasthedualitybetweenpervasivenessanduni‑

queneSS.

Inanthropology,thecultureconsistedof"interpretationsofaworldand theactivitiesandartifactsthatreflectthese".(p.265)Andtheseinterpreta‑

tionswereassumedtobesharedcolectivelybeyondanindividualinsocial processes.Fromthispoint,Mintzbergrefereedtheinterpretationstocol‑

lectivecognitionandadoptedtheconceptof̀organizationalculture'by addingtheterm̀organizationarbef6rèculture'.Therefore,organizational culturew .asde且nedorganizationalmindorsharedbeliefswhichstandsfor collectivecognitionthatarereflectedintangibleorintangiblemanifestations (objectsoractivities).

Basedonthisdefinition,hedrewontheessentialcharacteristicoforga‑

nizationalculturethatismesuredbythedegreetowhichcollectivecogni‑

tionanditsmanifestationsareinterwoven.Fromthisapproach,itwasar‑

ticulatedthatorganizationalcultureisdif且culttounderstandatadeeper level,becausecoHectivecognition(interpretations)istakenfbrgrantedand themeaningisnotreflected.Thenatureoforganizationalculture"exists belowthelevelofconsciousawareness".(p.266)Mintzbergusedtheword

̀ideolog

y'toclarifysuchanorganizationalculturedefined̀̀astrongsetof beliefs,sharedpassionatelybyitsmembers,thatdistinguishthisorganiza‑

tionfromallothers"(p.267),andheturnedtoexploretherelationshipbe‑

tweencultureandstrategy.

Invariousdevelopmentsofstrategicmanagementtheoriesrelatingto organizationalculture,hef6cusedontwomovements.Theywerethose whichattemptedtoexplainorganizationalcultureas1)thesubjectiveinter‑

pretationsbyinsider'sviewsandas2)theuniquesubstanceofeconomicre‑

lationshipsbyobjectiveones.

StrategyFormationandOrganizationalCulture 205

First,thestudiesadoptingasubjectivestancewaspresentedbySIAR (ScandinavianInstituteForAdministrativeResearch)inSweden.These studiesofferedaconceptualframework,astyleoftheorizing,andamethodo‑

logicalapproachrelevanttoorganizadonalculture.Althoughtheydidnot exploretherelationshipbetweenorganizationalcultureandstrategyasthe immediatesubjectofinvestigation,Mintzbergdetecteditsrelationshipin theirconcerntoadaptationwithacollectivecontextandintheirsearchto thecauseofimpedingitinasocialsystem.

Particularly,hepaidattentiontotheconceptofmyth(atheoryofthe worldstoredasconstructsinhumanbrains),whichisequivalenttoorganiza‑

tionalculture,andfbundoutstrategymakingrelatingtoit.Thisprocess wasputbetweenmythandreality.Anditfunctionedtooperationalize hypothesesofthemythandtotesttheminthereality.Bythismeans, thesestudiesseizedthestrategyfbrmationthatorganizationalcultureis realizedasastrategy.

Second,themovementofstudiesf6rorganizationalcultureandstrategy is̀resourcebasedtheory'recentlywel1‑debated..Thesestudiesintroduced theconceptofmaterialculturederivedfromanthropology.Materialculture ishumanmade‑objectsinwhichthebeliefsofindividualsinteractingwith eachotherandthoseofasocietytowhichtheybelongarere且ected.Mint‑

zberginsistedthatmaterialcultureisnotonlycreatedbypuresocialactivi‑

tiesbutalsodone"whenpeopleworktogetheroncommontasks,including theinteractionthattakesplacebetweenthemandtheresourcetheyem‑

ploy".(p.274)Thushesupposedtheinteractionbetweenorganizational membersandtangibleandintangibleresourcesinbusinessorganizationsand

approximatedtomaterialculturethatarisesfromeconomicrelationships.

Thisaspectwasadoptedbyresourcebasedtheory.Thetheoristsre‑

gardedtheuniquenessofasystemasthesourceofcompetitiveadvantages.

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商 学 討 究 第52巻 第4号

Afirmisabundleofresourcesandconstructstheuniquesysteminaninte‑

gratedwebofsharedinterpretations.Andtheessenceofcompetitive advantagesisarisenfromthebarriertoimitationsorsubstitutionsofthe system.Fromthesepoints,thetheoriststurnedouttopositorganizational culture,whichbringaboutuniqueoutcomesandcasualambiguities,asthe basicconceptexplainingsustainedcompetitiveadvantages.

Bythismeans,thesestudiescapturedthesubstancethatisrealizedby thestrategyformationbasedonorganizationalculturewhilethestudiesof SIRArevealedtheprocessitself.Mintzbergintegratedthesetwo movementsandclari且edthepremisesofstrategyf6rmationasacollective process.(table2)

Table2.ThePremisesofCollectiveProcess.

1.Strategyformationisaprocessofsocialinteraction,basedonthebeliefs andunderstandingssharedbymembersofanorganization.

2.Anindividualacquirersthesebeliefsthroughaprocessofacculturation,or socialization,whichislargelytacitandnonverba1,althoughsometimesrein‑

fbrcedbymoreformalindoctrination.

3.Themembersofanorganizationcan,therefore,onlypartiallydescribethe beliefsthatunderpintheirculture,wh且etheoriginsandexplanationsmay remainsobscure.

4.Asaresult,strategytakestheformofperspectiveaboveall,morethan positions,rootedincollectiveintentionsandre且ectedinthepatternsby whichthedeeplyembeddedresources,orcapabilities,oftheorganization areprotectedandusedforcompetitiveadvantage.

5.Cultureandespeciallyideologydonotencouragestrategicchangesomuch astheperpetuationofexistingstrategy;atbest,.theytendtopromoteshifts inpositionwithintheorganization'soverallstrategicperspective.

Source:Mintzbergeta1(1998),p267.

StrategyFormationandOrganizationalCulture 207

Thesepremisescharacterizetheprocessthataperspectiveformsas someuniquepatternandposition,(thoughMintzbergquestionsthattheuni‑

quenessisrelatedtocompetitiveadvantages).Wecan丘gureouttheaspect ofculturedeterminingstrategyintheprocessrealizingtheperspective.

S廿ategyfbrmationasavisionaryproeess

Astrategymakingoftenhasbeendelineatedasaprocessthatreflects thepersonalityofaprominentleaderwhomwewaitforeagerly.Thispro‑

cessisimpossibletoexplainwithoutreferringtocreativeactionsandworth oftheIeader.Suchastrategyformationischaracterizedasavisionarypro‑

cess.(Mintzbergetal.,1998)

Thecentralconceptofthisprocessistheperspectiveasmentionedin thestrategyfbrmationasacollectiveprocess.且owever,itisnotcognition atacollectivelevelbutatanindividuallevel,aconstructofaleader.This constructiscalledvision,whichmeans"amentalrepresentationofstrategy, createdoratleastexpressedintheheadoftheleader".(P.124)Itexistsas animageratherthanasaformalplanandgives.flexibilitytoitstreatments.

Thismeansthataleadercanadapthisorhervisiontocurrentexperiences.

Inthisway,strategyisformedthroughtheprocessthat"isdeliberateinits broadlinesandsenseofdirection,emergentinitsdetailssothatthesecan beadaptedenroute".(P.125)

Inordertotheorizethevisionaryprocess,Mintzbergreferredtoitscor‑

respondingworks.Atfirst,hefiguredoutthattheterm̀entrepreneur'in classicaleconomics.Butitsrolewaslimitedtosettingthepriceandvolume ofgoodsandservices.Onthecontrary,Schumpeter(1912)foundoutthe

aspectsofthevisionorcreativityofentrepreneurs。 、且eintroducedthecon‑

ceptofcreativedestructionineconomicsandgaveentrepreneurstheposi‑

tioncreatingbusinessideas.Asaresult,theroleofnewcombinationswas

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商 学 討 究 第52巻 第4号

articulated.Yethisaspectswerenottreatedasmainstreamineconomics.

Accordingly,Mintzbergturnedtomanagementstudiesthat.hadtaken overtheaspectofentrepreneurs.Theseargumentsf6cusedonitspersonal‑

izedleadershipintheperiodofsettinganeworganizationorofaturnar‑

oundinanorganization.Whilevariousstudiesintermsofleadershipspeci‑

ficallyrelatedtothepersonalitywereproceeded,hehadalreadyattempted tocomprehendthestrategyforlnationbytheleadershipofentrepreneurs.

Theprimarycharacteristicsofthestrategyf6rmationare1)active searchfornewopportunities,2)centralizationofpowerinthehandsofthe chiefexecutives,3)dramaticleapsfbrwardsinthefaceofuncertainties,and 4)growthasthedominantgoal.(Mintzberg,1973)

Inthisstudy,hisreferencetothepowerofleadercomestogiveabasis ofintroducingtheconceptofvisiontotheentrepreneurialstrategyforma‑

tion.Thereferencewasthatthesourceofthepowerdonotdependonfor‑

malauthoritiesbutpersonalcharacteristics.Theuseofthepersonalpower wasassumedtobesomethingotherthanaformalplan.Itwasvision.

Asaresult,thevisionwithaleaderoccupiedthekeypositioninthis process.Visionaryprocesswascapturedasametaphoroftheaterconsist.

ingof̀repetition'(rehearsa1),̀representation'(perfbrmance),and̀assistance' (attendance).(WestleyandMintzberg,1989)

First,̀repetition'relatestohowleader'sprof6undknowledgeofthesub‑

jectathandisacquired.Theknowledgeiscausedbypastexperiencesofa leaderinaspecificcontext(specificbusiness).Itmeansthatwhatheorshe havedone,seen,andsensedinbusinessexperiencesisimportant.Thusthe softandpersonalizedk耳owledgebecomesthesourceofmakingvision.

Second,̀̀representation"referstotheactofaIeaderbasedonhisorher

knowledge.Itisthearticulatedfbrmofvisionwhichisappearedinactions

andwords(ratherpicture)oftheleader.Thewordsexistasasymbolic

StrategyFormationandOrganizationaICulture 209

formderivedfromleader'sabilitiesusingsymboliclanguagesandfUnctionto getfbllowerstoseeavisionasanewperspective.Inaddition,thevisionis re且ectedininformalactionsbywhichtheleaderrepresentstacitaspectsof ittothemimmediately..Thus,thevisionisrepresentedtof6110wersasges‑

taltofactionsaswellaswords.

Last,"assistance"isnotattributedtoaleaderhimselforherself,but ratherdonetotheaudience,fbllowers.Itindicatesthattheyempowerhis orherleader.Aslongastheydonotadvocatethevision,thecontinuityof visionaryactsisnotensured.Thefulfillmentisdependentonthem.Even ifthesourceofvisionispersonal,theprocesshassocialaspects.(Westley,

1992)

Asmentionedabove,thevisionaryprocessisthataleaderacquirespro‑

foundknowledgeinhisorherexperiences(source),translatesitintosymbo‑

licwordsandactionstoshowf6110wers(medium).Besidesthisprocess f()rmsonlywhentheyfavorsthevisionandsupportsitsachievement(con‑

text).

Inthisway,Mintzbergarticulatedthepremisesofstrategyformationas avisionaryprocess.(table3)Thesepremisescharacterizetheprocessthata visionformsthepatternandposition(niche).Thisprocessmaybeseemed unrelatedtoorganizationalculturebecauseitisdrivenbythethoughtand actionsofaleader.Yet,wecanseesomerelatedfactorsactingonthecul‑

tureintheprocess.Thoseareexistedintheaspectthatavisionaryleader makeshisorhervisionvisibleforfollowersandtheyempowertheleader.

Thismeansanpersonalvisioncanbereflectedinacollectivecontext.In

thissense,weassumethatthevisionaryprocesscanexplaintherelationof

strategywithorganizationalculture.

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商 学 討 究 第52巻 第4号

1.Strategyexistsinthemindoftheleaderasperspective,specificallya senseoflongtermdirectiol1,avisionoforganization'sfuture。

2.Theprocessofstrategyformationissemiconsciousatbest,rootedinthe experienceandintuitionoftheleader,whetherheorsheactuallyconceives thestrategyoradoptsitfromothersandtheninternalizesitinhisorher ownbehavior.

3.Theleaderpromotesthevisionsingle‑mindedly,evenobsessionally,main‑

tainingclosepersonalcontroloftheimplementationinordertobeabletore‑

fbrmulatespecificaspectsasnecessary.

4.Thestrategicvisionisthusmalleable,andsoentrepreneurialstrategy tendstobedeliberateandemergent‑deliberateinoveralvisionand emergentinhowthedetailsofthevisionunfold.

5.Theorganizationislikewisemalleable,asimplestructureresponsivetothe leader'sdirectives,whetheranactualstartup,acompanyownedbyanindi‑

vidual,oraturnaroundinalargeestablishedorganizationmanyofwhose proceduresandpowerrelationshipsaresuspendedtoallowthevisionary leaderconsiderablelatitudeformaneuver.

6.Entrepreneurialstrategytendstotaketheformofniche,oneormore pocketsofmarketpositionprotectedfromtheforcesofoutrightcompetition.

Source:Mintzbergetal(1998),p143.

S廿ategyjbrmationasanemergentprocess

AlthoughMintzgerghadalreadyproposedthestrategyformation termedemergentstrategy,heputitinstrategystudiestoemphasizelearn‑

inginordertogiveitstheoreticalfoundation.(Mintzberg,etal.,1998)In thisprocess,learning,meaningthat"peoplecometolearnaboutasituation aswellastheirorganizationalcapabilityofdealingwithitscircumstance"

(p.176),f6rmsstrategy.Theprocessisstrategiclearning.

ThestrategicleaningcannotbedescribedfromtheconventionaI

frameworklikestrategyfbrmulationandimplementation.ThusMintzberg

attemptedtoseekthedifferentframeworkinthestudiesofstrategies.The

StrategyFormationandOrganizationalCulture 211

theoristscapturedsomestrategicphenomenafromsomedifferentaspects.

Forexample,oneofthemdescribedastrategymakingthatisd血1singa wholeorganizationfromactorsintheoperationlevel,notfromtopman‑

agementorstrategystaff,andemphasizedtheprocessasleaning.(Burgel‑

man,1983)

Buthepointedoutthatthestudydidnotcapturestrategicleaningasa whole.Thereasonwasthatbecausetheexplanationofthed血singby Iearningdependsonapoliticalprocess.Theproblemwasthatthepolitical processbringingaboutinternalcompetitionscannotnecessarilyformacoor‑

dinatedpatternattheorganizationalleve1,astatethatanorganizationis pursuingconsistently.Accordingly,theorganizationalintegrationhadtobe explainedbygenuinestrategiclearning.

Thenotionreliedontoresolvetheissuewasemergentstrategy.This strategyisfbundedonthelogicoflearningthatis"comingtounderstand throughthetakingofactionswhatthoseintentionsshouldbeinthefirst place".(p.189)Thislogicmeansthatintentionsareadaptedtounderstand‑

ingsofactions.Basedontheorganization'scapabilitytoexperiment,the processcanbedescribedasactionsandthefeedbackprocessesthatinevit‑

ablyresultinastrategypattern,integration.Theref6re,emergentstrategy cancaptureactualstrategiclearning,whichemergeseverywhereinanorga‑

nization,whetheritarisedfromtoporfrombottomaswellasfromanindi‑

vidualorfromagroup.

However,theexplanationofemergentstrategybasedonlearninghada problem.Theproblemwasthatthisstrategymeansunintendedorder,a patternwithoutitspriorplan.Accordingly,thestrategycannotbe strategiclearningpurely.Inshort,emergentstrategyconnotedthatapat‑

ternisnotfbrmedsomuchbyunderstandingsofactionsasbyexternalf6r‑

cesorinternalneeds.Thiswascausedbyitsmodelwhichdidnotshow

2ヱ2商 学 討 究 第52巻 第4号

theunderstandingprocessofadaptingintentionstoactions.(Figure5)Asa result,theconvergencebyreactionswasalsoincludedinstrategiclearning.

Aboutthispoint,Mintzbergrecognizedthenecessityofdescribingthat thepatternformedthroughlearninghavetobeassociatedwithorganiza‑

tionalintentionsinordertoexcludedif〔erertprocessesfromstrategiclearn‑

ing.Andheattemptedtoreconsidertheaspectofunderstandingsof actionstobere且ectedinemergentstrategy.

Thesolutionwasfoundoutinatheoryexplainingtheprocessinwhich actionsarerefiectedinthought.Therefore,retrospectivesensemaking presentedbyWeick(1979)waspositedtocomplementemergentstrategyas aninevitablenotion.Thisnotioncapturestheprocessofimposingsenseon pastexperiencesanddescribesthatpeopleactonsomethingandthensee andexplaintheconsequence,unlikerationalthinking.Suchcharacteristics ofhumanbeingarebasedonthepremisethatsocialrealitiesdonotpre‑

viouslyexistbutbesociallyconstructed.Basedonthisaspect,retrospec‑

tivesensemakingwasconstructedastheprocessesofvariation(enactment), selection,andretentioninsocialevolutionmodel.(Figure6)

Eco1()9ical Change今Enactment

V

→ ・Selection→Retention

L」

(+,一)

FigUre6.SocialEvolutionModel.Source:Weick(1979),p132.

Inemergentstrategy,wecandescribeactionsas̀enactment',under‑

standingsofactionsas̀selection',andtheconsequenceOfunderstandingas

̀retention'

.Theref6re,strategiclearnillgcomestobedescribedcompletely asathinkingProcessthatbringsaboutanorganizationalintention.

Mintzbergcalledthisprocess̀emergentsensemaking'inwhichactions

StrategyFormationandOrganizationalCulture 2ヱ3

andtheretrospectivethinkingmakeanorganizationalintentionaswellas anorganizationalpattern.Andheenumeratedthewaytomanagethepro‑

cessorganizationalabilitiestolearnbringabout.First,Itispossiblethatan organizationtransf6rmssomeemergentstrategyfromthepastintoaplanin thefuturebyrecognizingemergingbehavioralpatterns.Second,strategic learningcanbeemergedonthebasisofabroadvisionbytopmanagement.

Third,Itcanbefacilitatedbywhichexecutivesestablishsomenewventure groupandleavethedetailtoothers.

Aslongasactionsareconvergedasanorganizationalpatternwithre‑

trospectivesensemaking,emergentstrategyismanageableinadvanceor enrouteaswellasexpostfacto.Theref6re,Mintzbergexhibitedthepre‑

misesofstrategyf6rmationasanemergentprocess.(table4)

Table4.ThePremisesofEmergentProcess.

1.Thecomplexandunpredictablenatureoftheorganization'senvironment, oftencoupledwiththediffusionofknowledgebasesnecessary.f6rstrategy, precludesdeliberatecontrol;strategymakingmustabovealltaketheform ofaprocessoflearningovertime,inWhich,atthelimit,formulationandim‑

plementationbecomeindistinguishable

2.Whiletheleadermustlearntoo,andsometimescanbethemainlearner, morecommonlyitisthecollectivesystemsthatlearns:therearemany potentialStrategiStSinmostOrganizatiOnS.

3.Thislearningproceedsinemergentfashion,throughbehaviorthatstimu‑

1atesthinkingretrospectively,sothatsensecanbemadeofaction.

4.Theroleofleadershipthusbecomesnottopreconceivedeliberate strategies,buttomanagetheprocessofstrategiclearning,wherebynovel StrategleSCanemerge.

5.Accordingly,strategiesappearfirstaspatternsoutofthepast,onlylater, perhaps,asplansforthefuture,andultimately,asperspectivestoguide overallbehavior.

Source=Mintzbergetal(1998),p208.

b

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商 学 討 究 第52巻 第4号

Thesepremisescharacterizetheprocessthatnovelactionsfbrmthe planorperspectiveaswellasthepattern.thisprocessispurestrategic learningthatdoesnotincludepoliticalorreactiveconvergence,nottomen‑

tionplannedone.Althoughthefbcusislearningitse比whichextendstothe wholeorganization,wecanseetherelationshipwithorganizationalculture init.Itiscausedbythereasonthattheprocessretainstheaspectofform‑

ingthestrategyasaperspective.Inthisrespect,wecanseemthatthe emergentprocessisafactorin且uencingorganizationalculture.

Conclusions:StrategicActors,StrategyFormation,andOrganizationalCulture

ThestrategystudiesofMintzberggaveenoughanswersfortheprob‑

lemofactorsexposedbystrategicselectiontheory.Someactororactors whoemerge(s)everywhereinanorganizationwasfiguredoutbyshowing variousstrategyf6rmationsbasedonhisstrategyconcepts.Suchattempts provideusacluetounderstandtheintricaterelationshipbetweenstrategy andorganizationalculture.Aboveall,thekeyisthatheintroducedthecon‑

ceptoforganizationalcultureasperspectiveintostrategicmanagement theoryandputitasthemostabstractandcentralconcept.Asaresult, strategyf6rmationsbetweentheperspectiveandotherstrategyconcepts canbeapproximatedtotherelationshipbetweenorganizationalcultureand strategy..

Theyarestrategyfbrmationsasacollectiveprocess,avisionaryone, andanemergentone.Whenwecomprehendeachprocessasanassociation processofactionsandcognition,therelationshipcanbeclardied.

First,thestrategyformationasac611ectiveprocessexpoSestheaspect

oforganizationalculturedetermillingstrategy.Thisprocessbeginswitha

perspectiveandthecollectivitysharingitasacentralactorapPearsonthe

StrategyFormationandOrganizationalCulture 215

scene.Membersofthecollectivitybehaveinaccordancewiththeperspec‑

tive.Thus,individualbehaviorsaredescribedarecurrentprocesstopro‑

ceeddeliberatelyalongit,toproduceauniquepatternandtobere且ectedin aposition.Yettheprocessalsoincludesareconfirmingprocessinwhicha perspectiveisinterpretedahdretainedassocialcognition.Aslongasthe recurrentprocessf6110wsthatprocess,alloftheoccurringactionsarecom‑

prehendedintheperspectiveandarecoheredwithpastactions.Inthis manner,thestrategyformationasacollectiveprocessindicatesthatorgani‑

zationalculturedeterminesstrategy.(Figure7)

Existing

Per・p・ ・tiv・ 一>c・llecti・ityL瀦i翫::轄1惣Perspecti・ ・

Figure7.TheMechanismofCulturalProcess.

Next,thestrategyfbrmationasavisionaryprocessandanemergent one(emergentsensemaking)revealstheaspectofstrategyactingonorgani‑

zationalculture.Thereasoniscausedbythatbothprocessesformthenew perspectiveasorganizationalcognitionanditssubstanceindifferentways.

First,thevisionaryprocessstartswithavisionthataleaderconceived basedonpastexperiences.Thisprocessmaybedescribedasadirected processinwhichfollowersbehavetoperf6rmthevisionbypersonalcontrol oftheleader.Butwecanseedifferentaspectsasaperspectiveformation whereanpersonalvisionisdivertedtoasocialvisionintheprocessof̀re‑

petition',̀representation',and̀assistance'.Thisprocessmaintainstheinter‑

facebetweenaleaderand・followersandtheref6reincludesthevisionasa

socialprocess.(Westley,1992)Therearesymbolicwordsandactionsofthe

leaderthatmakeitsensibleforothersandempowermentbythefollowers

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商 学 討 究 第52巻 第4号

thatadvocatesvisionaryactsintheprocess.Fromthelatter,theprocessis describedasasupportiveprocessoffollowers,ratherthandirectedone,to f()rmapattern.

Inaddition,theformergivessuggestionthatf6110wersunderstandavi‑

sionthroughinspirationalleadershipassocialcognitionapartfromthebrain oftheirleader.(Weick,1992)Thismeansthatsuchavisionaryprocessis

describedasasharingprocess,whereavisionispervadedinf6110wersper‑

ceptually,toformtheirperspective.(shiotsugu,1998).Theprocessmakes asocialvisiontoinducesupPortiveactionsthatarere且ectedinthepattern andpositionafterwards.Asaresult,thesoialvisionisreflectedinthecon‑

cretesubstanceandformsanewperspectiveultimately.(Figure8)Asabove stated,thisstrategyf6rmationisthesourceofperspective,whichmeans thattheprocessin且uencesorganizationalculture.

New

Vi・i・n+L・ader〔:::畿

i罪::::,藩 肇il:lti。n}Persp・ ・ti・ ・

FigUre8.TheMechanismofVisionaryProcess.

Second,aboutthestrategyf6rmationasanemergentprocess,thecen‑

tralactorisanindividualoragroupasalearnerorIearnerswhoact(s) withoutanorganizationalintelltion.Inthepointofconvergenceofactions, thisprocessisdescribedasacoordinatedprocessinwhichnewactionsare

adjustedautonomously.However,understandingsofactionsarefunctioning atthebackofthisprocess.Accordingly,theprocessisalsoofconstructing

anorganizationalintention.Thatisdescribedasaretrospectiveprocessin

whichnewactionsareunderstoodmeaningfUllybyanorganization.This

StrategyFormationandOrganizatiollalCulture2ヱ7

process,inducedbythecoordinatedprocess,developsanorganizationalin‑

tentioninordertobeconsciousofactionsorganizationally.Anditcomesto formaperspectivethroughconvergencewiththoseactionsultimately.(Fi‑

gure9)Asabovestated,thisstrategyfbrmationisalsothesourceofpers‑

pective,whichmeansthattheprocessinfluencesorganizationalculture.

New

A・ti・n(・)一>Leaner(・)〔 畿:畿 欝il望1謙 一 ・tive

Figure9.TheMechanismofLearningProcess.

Inthisway,theaspectoforganizationalcultureinfluencingstrategy andstrategyinfluencingorganizationalcultureareexplainedbydifferent strategyformations.But,aboutthevisionaryprocessandtheemergent one,wecannotsaythattheydetermineorganizationalculturebecauseboth processesdoesnotnecessarilyensuretherecurrentprocessbasedonpers‑

pective(organizationalculture).Accordingly,theconditioninwhichthese processesarerecurredsteadilyhastobeexplored.However,Itiscertain thatthef6rmationoforganizationalculture,organizationmind,isderived frommeaningfUIcoherencebetweenactionsandcognitionandfromthepro‑

cessrealizingit.Whenactionsareanalyzedwiththeirsensemakingorin‑

terpretations(Weick,1995)andtheirconsequencesarecapturedinhistorical

contexts,therelationshipbetweenstrategyandorganizationalculturewill

becomeclearer.

2ヱ8

商 学 討 究 第52巻 第4号

Acknowledgments

TheAuthorgratefulwithcommentsofProfessorHenryMintzbefg,McGill University,attheearlierstageofmakingthisarticle.

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