The Viability of Industrial Districts by Flexible Specialisation : A Comparison of Italy and Japan

The Viability of Industrial Districts by Flexible Specialisation : A Comparison of Italy and Japan

著者 OKAMOTO Yoshiyuki

出版者 Institute of Comparative Economic Studies, Hosei University

journal or

publication title

Journal of International Economic Studies

volume 7

page range 89‑105

year 1993‑03

URL http://doi.org/10.15002/00002100

、ｍｅⅥabilityofhdustIialDistHictsbymmbleSpecialisation：

Acompamsonofltalyandjapan＊

YoshiyukiOkamoto

Pro/bssoEDepQ7tme"to/SocjaJScje"ces,HOsejU7zjuersjty

１．Ｉｎｔｒｏｄｕｃｔｉｏｎ

Theflexiblyspecialisednetworksｗｈｉｃｈａｒｅｆｂｌｍｅｄｂｙｓｍａｌｌａｎｄｍｅｄｉｕm-sized companiesinltalianindustrialdistrictshavebecomeknownastheThirdltalyModel11．

Internationalattentionhasbeenfbcusedsincemid-1970，snotonlyontheirsuccessM resultｓ－ｓｕｃｈａｓｔｈｅｃｌｐｅａｔｉｏｎｏｆｅｍｐｌｏｙｍｅｎｔｏｐｐｏｒｔｕｎｉｔｉｅｓａｎｄａｈｉｇｈｌｅｖｅｌｏｆ internationalcompetitiveness-butalsoontheirtechnologicalinnovationandgreat adaptabilitytochangesintheeconomicenvlronｍｅｎｔ・Anindustrialdistrictofthe ThirdltalyModelhasspecialisedinproductsliketextiles,garments,furniture,shoes，

objectsofcraftwork,andceramics2LLocaleconomiesarebornupbytheeconomic activitiesofindustrialdistricts・InfHct,thosewholiveinthedistrictsenjoyhigher incomethanresidentsinlargecitiesinltaly,

ＩｎＪａｐａｎｔｈｅｒｅａｌｓｏｅｘｉｓｔａｌｏｔｏｆｔｒａditionalindustrialdistrictswithastructure similartothoseoftheThirdltalyModeLThedistricts，mostofwhichhavebeen fbrmedsincetheEdoperiod(1604-1867),producetraditionalgoodssuchastextiles，

furniture,ohjectsofcraftwork,andceramics,thoughsomeareshiftingintodistrictsof high-techindustrialgoods・ThedistrictsarelocatedinvarlouspartsofJapan,localand regionaleconomiesbeingｄｅｐｅｎｄｉｎｇｏｎｔｈｅａｃｔｉｖｉｔｉｅｓｏｆｔｈｅｉｎｄｕｓｔｒｉａｌ。istricts・

Recently,whilemostofindustrialdistrictsaredecliningand,ａｔｔｈｅｓａｍｅｔｉｍｅ,local economiesarestagnant，economicactivitiesandbusinessopportunitieshave concentratedinMetropolisessuchasTokyoandinlargecities・Atpresent,oneofthe mostimportantproblemsiｎＪａｐａｎｉｓｔｏrestructureregionaleconomies、

Inrecentyears,the"industrialdistrict"modelhasattractedattentionasamodelfbr thecreationofjobopportunities,andfbrregionalandeconomicdevelopment3)．Ｈｅｒｅ ｗｅｄｉｓｃｕｓｓｈｏｗｔｈｅ“industrialdistrict，，modelworksasasystemfbrjobCreation，

regionaldevelopment,andinnovationfTomacomparativepointofviewbetweenJapan andltaly・Ｗｅｗｉｌｌａｌｓｏｍａｋｅｃｌｅａｒｔｈｅｖｉａｂｌｅｃｏnditionsthatarerequiredfbran industrialdistrictcomprisingnetwoｒｋｓｏｆｓｍａllcompaniestofUnctionasastable system・

Inthenextsection,thestructureandcharacteristicoftheindustrialdistrictsofthe ThirdItalyModelwillbediscussed・Inthethirdsection，weexplainthepresent

＊PartofthisreseaTchwascarTiedoｕｔｗｉｔｈｔｈｅ「ｉｎａｎｃｉａｌｓｕｐｐｏｒｔｏ「ｔｈｅＪａｐａｎＦａｓｈｉｏｎＡｓｓｏｃｉａｔｉｏｎ．

8９

ＴｈｅＶｉａｂｉＩｉｔｙｏｆＩｎｄｕｓｔｒｉａｌＤｉｓｔrictsbyF1exibleSpecialisation：ＡｃｏｍｐａｒｉｓｏｎｏｒＩｔａｌｙａｎｄＪａｐａｎ situationoftheindustrialdistriｃｔｓｉｎＪａｐａｎｂｒｉｅｎｙ、Ｉｎｔｈｅｆｂｕｒｔｈｓｅｃｔｉｏｎ，the difYbrencesandthesimilaritiesbetweenltalianandJapaneseindustrialdistrictswill bediscussed・InthefHthsection，theviabilityconditionsfbrthedistrictswillbe discussed，ThefYnalsectioncontainsconcludingremarks．

2.Industrialdistrictsandtheeconomicstructureofltaly

Manyindustrialdistrictslocatedinthecentralandnorth-eastempartofltaly,ｏｒ ｔｈｅｓｏｃａＵｅｄ``thirdltaly，，,emergedwhentheltalianeconomywasrapidlygrowingafteT WorldWarⅡ4)．While］argeindustrieswerefacingacrisiswhichthreatenedtheir survivaliｎｔｈｅｌ９７０ｓ，ｓｍａｌｌｆｉｒｍｓｉｎｔｈｅｄｉｓｔｒｉｃｔｓｗｅｒｅｖｅryactiveandexhibited remarkableperfbrmance,ａｓＰｉｏｒｅａｎｄＳｅｂｅｌｗｒｏｔｅｉｎｔｈｅｉｒｂｏok5)．Thedistrictsinthe thirdltalyusedtobeftlrmingvillageswhichhadmadefblkartanddailynecessariesto sellinthelocalmarket6)．Thissidelineproductionturnedintoindustriesintheshort periodbetweenthel960-70s・ThephenomenonisspreadingtosouthernItalyalong

thecoastoftheAdriaticSeatoBarinow7'．

Therehavebeencontroversies8)ｏｎｔｈｅｄｅｆｍｉｔｉｏｎｏｒｔｈｅｃｏｎｃｅｐｔｏｆ“industrial districts"oftheThirdItalyModelamongeconomists,sociologists,anthropologistsand geographersBecauseitisdifT1culttoexplainthesuccessoftheThirdltalyModelasa pureeconomicphenomenonwithoutｔａｋｉｎｇsocialfHctorsinconsideration・Ｗｅｄｏｎｏｔ ｄｉｓｃｕｓｓｔｈｅｃｏｎｃｅｐｔｏｆｉｎｄｕstrialdistrictsoftheThirdltalyModelmrther，simply defmingaHexiblyspecialisedindustrialdistrictas‘`geographicaUydefinedproductive Systems,Characterisedbyalargenumberoffirmsthatareinvolvedatvanousstages，

ａｎｄｉｎｖａｒｉｏｕｓｗａｙｓ，ｉｎｔｈｅｐｒｏｄｕｃｔｉｏｎｏｆａｈｏｍｏｇｅｎｅｏｕｓｐroduct''9)．Although

"industrialdistricts，，difYbrinscale,theyallfimctioninthesameway:eachcompanyis engagedinoneproductionprocessandtheentireindustrialdistrict,asanintegrated network，producesgoods・Acoordinator，ｗｈｏｉｓｃａｌｌｅｄ“impannatore”ａｔＰｒａｔｏｏｒ ｃｏｎｖｅｒｔｅｒｉｎｔｈｅｃａｓｅｏｆｔｈｅｔｅｘｔｉｌｅｉｎｄｕｓｔｒｙ,ｏｒｇａｎｉｓｅｓｓｍａｌｌｃｏｍｐａｎｉｅｓｏｒ ｈｏｍｅworkerswhoassumeresponsibilityfbreachproductionprocessfbrcompletinga finalproduct,ｆｉ･omgettingmaterialstosellingittodistributorsortoretailers・Ｔｈｅ ｎｅｔｗｏｒｋｏｆｓｍａｌｌｐｒｏｄｕｃｅｒｓｉｓｏｒganisedflexiblyandtemporarily，dependingonthe qualityofproduct，ｔｈｅｋｉｎｄｏｆｍａｔｅｒｉａｌｏｒｔｈｅｌｅｖｅｌｏｆdemandEachcompany sometimescooperateswithothercompanies，ｂｕｔｏｎｅｍａｙｓｏｍｅｔｉｍｅｓｃｏｍｐｅｔｅｗｉｔｈ ｏthersinaglvendistrict・

Thereisarangeofindustriesinindustrialdistrictsfromlow-tech，suchasthe woolenfhbricsatPrato,knittinginＣａrpi,stockingsatCastelgofYTedo,ａｎｄｔｈｅｃｅｒａｍｉｃｓ ｏｆＳａｓｓｕｏｌｏ；ｔｏｈｉｇｈ－ｔｅｃｈｉｎｄｕｓｔｒｉｅｓｉｎｍａｃｈｉｎｅｒｙｆｍｍＣｅｎｔｏ,andmeasuring instrumentsofMiranｄｏｌａ(Modena）(see5gurel)．MorethanlOOindustrialdistricts arefbrmedinltaly(seetablel)．Theproducts,manyofwhichhavecompetitivenessin theinternationalmarket,areexportedtofbreignmarkets，

Ｗｅｔａｋｅａｎｅｘａｍｐｌｅｏｆａｔｙｐｉｃａｌｉｎｄｕｓtrialdistrict,PratoinToscanaPratoisa smalltownnearFlorenceanditspopulationｗａｓｌ６５,OOOinl988lo1、InPrato,blankets andclothesoflow-middlequalitywereproduced，usingwoolenfabricofsecondhand c]othesasmaterialsll1・Inl960sthesystemofmass-productioninlargecorporations lostcompetitivenessagainstthecountrieswithlowlabourcostandwentdown,ｓｏｔｈａｔ ｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｅｓｗｅｒｅ５ｒｅｄａｎｄｓｅｔｕｐｂusinessontheirownaccountascraftｓｍｅｎＡｓａ

9０

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Ｆｉｇｕｒｅ１．ＭａｐｏｆＩｎｄｕｓｔｒｉａｌｄｉｓｔｒｉｃｔｓｉｎｌｔａｌｙ

９１

TheViabilityoflndustrialDistrictsbyF1exibleSpecialisation：AcomparisonofItalyandJapan

ＴａｂｌｅＬＬｉｓｔｏｆｉｎｄｕｓｔｒｉａｌｄｉｓｔｒｉＣｔＢｉｎｌｔａｌｙ

<products＞

ｌｎｍｉｔｕｒｅ ｔａｎｎｉｎｇ ｓｈｏｅｓ ｓｈｏｅ目

｢urniture

woolentextile＆ａｐｐｒｅｌ

ｍｒｎｉｔｕｒｅ

ｇｒａｎｉｔｅ

ｒｉｍｏｆａｐａｉrofspectackes

corks toys（dools）

ｋｎｉｔｗｅａｒ＆apparel maTme

lbodprocessing shoes

musicinstruments ladies，ｓｔｏｃｋｉｎｇ ｍａｃｈｉｎｅｓ ｌＵｍｉｔｕｒｅ

ｓａｎｉｔａtionnxture siIkproducts

faucets

textile＆garments scissors＆ｅｄｇｅｔｏｏｌｓ ｅｍｂｒｏｉｄｅｒｙ

ｗｅａｐｏｎｓ

ｂｕttons＆ｍａｃｈｉｎｅｓｌｂｒｂｕｔｔｏｍ ｏｌｉｖｅｏｉｌ

ｓｈｉｐｂｕｉｌｄｉｎｇ metaProceBsing edgetools chair

fｕｎｉｔｕｒｅｌｂｒｇｕｅｓｔｒｏｏｍ

ｍａｃｈｉｎｅＩｂｒｂloodtest＆heartoeration shoes＆ｓｋｉｂｏｏｔｓ

ｇｌａｓｓｗａｒｅ ｂａｒｓｔｅｅｌ ｃｏｏｋｉｎｇｔｏｏ]ｓ

ｃｏｍｐａｓｓｅＢ ｈａｍ ｆｎｒｎｉｔｕｒｅ ｃｏｎｓｔｒｕｃｔｉｏｎ

ｗｏｏｌｅｎｔｅｘｔｉＩｅ＆appreI sciSsors＆ｅｄｇｅｔｏｏｌｓ ａｇｒｉｃｕｌｔｕｒａｌｍａｃｈｉｎｅｓ ｈｉｇｈｑｕａｌｉｔｙｌａｄｉｅｓ，ｓｈｏｅｓ

ｈａｍ

ｍｅａｓｕｒｉｎｇｍａｃｈｉｎｅｓ Ｌｏｍａｔｏｐｒｏｄｕｃｔｓ ｔａｎｎｉｎｇ

ｔｉＩｅ ｐｅｎｓ ｔａｎｎｉｎｇ ｃａｓｕａｌｗｅａｒｓ ｃｈｅｅｓｅ ｌｅｔｈｅｒｓ ｐｏｒｐｈｙｒｙ ｓｌａｔｉｎｇ

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ｐｒｅｃｉｏｕＢｍｅｔａｌｗｏｒｋ ｍａｃｈｉｎｅｌｂｒｓｈｏｅｓ

＜ｐｌａｃｅｎａｍｅ＞

AltaLivenza Arzignano

AscoliPiceno-Macerata Barletta

Ba8sano BieIｌａ Ｂｒｉａｎｚａ Ｂｕｄｄｕｓｏ Ｃａｄｏｒｅ Ｃａｌａｎｇｉａｎｕｓ Ｃａｎｎｅｔｏ Ｃａｒｐｉ Ｃａｒｒａｒａ

ＣａＲｎ１ｅＭｏｎにrrato Ca巳nrano

CasteMidardo CastelgofhPedo Cento

CereaBovolone CivitaCastellana Como

Cusio Empoli Frosolone Gallarate

GardoneValtrompｉａ ＧｒｕｍｅＩｌｏｄｅｌＭｏｎｔｅ ｌｍｐｅｒｉａ

ＬａＳｐｅｚｉａ Ｌｕｍｅｚｚａｎｅ Ｍａｎｉａｇｏ Ｍａｎｚａｎｏ Ｍａｔｅｒａ Ｍｉｒａｎｄｏｌａ ＭｏｎｔｅｂｅＩｌｕｎｕｎａ Ｍｕｒａｎｏ Ｏｄｍｏ Ｏｍｅｇｎａ Ｐａｌｏｓｃｏ Ｐａｒｍａ Ｐｅｓａｒｏ

Ｐossagno Prato Premana

ReggioEmilia

Rivierade］Ｂｒｅｎｔａ ＳＤａｎｉｅｌｅ

ＳＳｔｅｆａｎｏ Ｓａｌｅｒｎｏ

ＳantaCrocesull,Ａｒｎｏ ＳａｓｓｕｏＩｏ

Ｓｅｔｔｉｍｏｔｏｒｍｅｓｅ Ｓｏｌｏｈａ

Ｔｅｒａｍｏ Ｔｈｉｅｓｉ Ｔｏｌｅｎｔｉｎｏ ＶａｌｄｉＣｅｍｂＴａ ＶａｌＦｏｎｔａｎａｂｏｕｎａ ＶａＩｄｕｇｇｉａ

Ｖａｌｅｎｚａ Ｖａｒｅｓｅ Ｖｉａｄａｎａ Ｖiｃｅｎｚａ

Ｖｉｇｅｖａｎｏ

9２

result,theflexiblyspecialisedproductionsystemwasfbrmedthroughthedivisionof labouramongcraftsmenorsｍａｌｌｆＩｒｍｓＡｔｔｈｅｓａｍｅｔｉｍｅ，theyhadtochangethe strategy:toimprovethequalityandtodiversifytheproductsUntilthefbrmerhalfof l980s,thenumberoffirmshadincreased(seefigurｅ２),ａｎｄａｔｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｌ２,OOOflrms existand50,O00peopleareworkinginthetextileindustlyofPrato・

Inparticular，ｉｔｉｓｐｏｉｎｔｅｄｏｕｔｔｈａｔｉｔｉｓｔｈｅ``impannatore，，,orcoordinatorof production,ｔｈａｔｈａｓｌｅｄｔｏｔｈｅｓｕｃｃｅｓｓｏｆＰｒａｔｏ・Ｈｅｏｒｓｈｅｈａｓａｎｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｔｒｏｌｅｏｆ ｉｎｔegratingproductionFirstofall,ｔｈｅ``impanntore”plansanddesignsproducts，

ｐｒｏｄｕｃｅｓｔｈｅｓａｍｐｌｅｓ，ｃｏＵｅｃｔｓｔｈｅｏｒｄｅｒｓｆｂｒｔｈｅｍａｔｅｘｈｉｂitionsorthrough representatives，ａｎｄｆＩｎａｌｌｙｐｒｏｄｕｃｅｓｔｈｅｍ，Anetworkofsmallproducersand craftsmenischosenfi･omamongmanyproducersandcraftsmeninthedistrictand organisedatwiｌｌｂｙｔｈｅimpannatore,dependingontheirskill,aswellasthequality andthematelialofproduct・Thisisasubcontractingsystem・Heorsheplaysaroleof integratingmarketinfbrmationonthetrendsofconsumers，newideasinfnshion design，productiveknow-howandinnovativeactivitylnthedistricts，ａｎyonecan becomeanimpannatoreeasily，ｉｆｈｅｏｒｓｈｅｈａｓａｎｅｃｅｓｓａｒｙｋｎｏｗｌｅｄｇeandability、

EveryoneopensanewbusinesswithonlyasmallofYice・Ｆｏｒexample,ifhissamplesare highlyvaluatedatexhibitionsandhecantakeordersfbrthem,evenifhisbusinessis new,hewillbefinancedbylocalbanks・Ｔｈerefbre,themarketisseverelycompetitive andimpannatoricompetewitheachotherinasurvivalgame,sothattheyhavetobe innovativeandcreative・Atpresentabout500impannatoriworkinPrato、

Ingeneral，ｉｍｐａｎｎａｔｏｒｉｏｒｇａｎｉｓｅｐｒｏｄｕｃｅｒｓｏｒhomeworkersbyusinga subcontractingsystemWhenthequantityofordersfbraglvenproducerisoverhis productioncapacity,heoftenasksotherproducerstosupplytheexcesswhichhecannot produceAsaresultofthisreallocationoforders,anindustrialdistrictasawholecan flexiblyadapttofluctuationofdｅｍａｎｄＡｔｔｈｅｓａｍｅｔｉｍｅ，thisflexiblyspecialised systemisfittedtodiversifyproductsandtoincreaselinesofproductbasedon

consumer，sneeds

lnaddition，ｔｈｅｉｍｐｏｒｔｅｄｇｏｏｄｓｗｈｉｃｈａｒｅｍａｄｅｉｎlessdevelopedcountieswith cheaplabourcosthavebeenfloodingtheltalianmarket、Ｆｏｒexample，ｉｎｌ９９１，

16,000 14.000 12,000 10,000 8,000 ６，０００ 4,000 ２，０００ ０

1951６１７１８１ Source：ＤａｔａｏｆＢａｌｅｓｔｒｉＴａｂｌｌｐ､54．

Ｆｉｇｕｒｅ２、ＴｅｘｔｉｌｅｉｎｄｕｓｔｒｙｉｎＰｒａｔｏ

8８

9３

TheViabilityofIndustrialDistrictsbyFlexibIeSpecialisation：ＡｃｏｍｐａｒｉｓｏｎｏｌｌｔａｌｙａｎｄＪａｐａｎ importsofouterwearfbrladiesincreasedby419612l．Itmeansthatltalianproducers fHcelossesintheirowndomesticmarket、ItalianfIrmsarefbrcedtoshifttheirproduct linestohighergradesandhigherqua]ity・Atthispoint,asasingleproduceralone cannotcopewiththischangecompletely，anetworkorindustrialdistrictworking togetherasawholemustHexiblyadjustitselfintoanewsituatiolL

IntheThirdltaly，various“realservices，，ｈａｖｅｂｅｅｎｆｎｒｎｉｓｈｅｄｂｙｔｈｅｌｏｃａｌ ｇｏｖernmentsandproducers，associations．‘`Theleftistparties，andinparticularthe Communistpartywhichgovernedtheregion,developednotonlyapoliticalprogramme ofsupporttosmallentrepreneurship……，butalsoawide-scaleprogTammeofsocial servicessuchaspublictransport,inflantdaycentres，ａｎｄ］ow-costhousingdistricts whichprovidedanopportunityfbrwomentoenterthefbrmaleconomy'''３１．The Communistpartyanditsmunicipaladministrationsnotonlyprovidedtherealservices butalsomadeefYbrtstopullupworkers，wagesinthedistricts、Inparticular，asa resultofthelatter,theworkerswereabletofbllowtechnologicalprogressandtoobtain higherprofbssionalskilLwhichmadeitpossibletosetupnewbusinessesby themselvesAtthesametime,theyenjoyedahigher]evelofsociallifbandtookpride thegoodｓｏｆ塵made-in-Italy，，producedbythemselvesM1．TheCommunistpartyalso establishedtheAssociationfbrRecreationandCulture(ＡＲＣＤ１５)．InVeneto,onearea oftheThirdltaly,ｔｈｅＤＣ(ChristianDemocrats),whichisthegreatestpartyinltaly andgovernedtheregIon，ｐｌａｙｅｄｔｈｅｓｉｍｉｌａｒｒｏｌｅｔｏｔｈｅＣｏｍｍｕnistpartyinEmilia‐

Romagna,thoughtheDCdependedmoreonamarketmechanismandliberalism・

ThoughitvariesfiPomoneindustrialdistricttoanother,fmancialservices,support toconsortiamarketingandexportfncilities,materialpurchasingservices,andvarious consultmgservicesareindispensablefbrsmallentrepreneursthere16)．Ａｔｔｈｅｓａｍｅ ｔｉｍｅ,varioussocialservicesfbrworkerssuchaspublictransportation,publichousing andday-carecentreareprovided

Forexamplel71,`TheregionofEmilia-RomangaestablishedacentrecalledERVET (RegionalAgencyfbrtheEconomicEvaluationoftheTerritory）whichorganiseda seriesofotherservicecentresintheEmiliaarea,，．“ERVETsetupacentralisedservice toprovideinfbrmationaboutsuchmattersaspatents,andfbreignmarketswiththeco‐

operationoftheregiona］ｇｏｖｅｒｎｍｅｎｔｔｏｈｅｌｐｗｅａｋｅｒａｒｅａｓｍＥｍilia-Romagnato establishspeciHcvocationaltrainingandservicecentres.,，Aceramicscentrewas fbundedinSassuolo,af1amousindustria]districtofceramics,andafbotwearcentrein SanMauroPascolilnaddition,CERMETwasestablishedfbrtestingmetalmaterials inBolognaandCITERfbrclothinginCarpi・ＴｈｅＣＮＡ(NationalArtisans，Federation）

andtheCo-operativeLeaguealsoofYbrServices・

InEmiliaRomagna,professionaltraininghasbeenwellorganisedandresultsinthe goodperfbrmance、Ｔｈｅｍｕｎｉｃｉｐａｌａｄｍｉｎｉｓｔｒａｔｉｏｎ，ｔｈｅｌａｂｏｕｒｕｎｉｏｎｓａｎｄｔｈｅ ａｓｓｏｃｉａｔｉonsofsmallfirmsofYbTjobtrainingtosmallfnms・Publicauthoritiesand employers，ａｓsociationssupportopeningsofabusiｎｅｓｓｂｙｔｅａｃｈｉｎｇｈｏｗｔｏｍａｎａｇｅａ ｆｉｒｍorbyofYbringfmancialservices,andpromotetheorganisationofassociationsfbr exportormarketing・Theysometimesprovideculturalservicesfbrworkers・

Inltaly，inparticularintheThirdltaly，therearemanysmallcitieswhichhave theirowneconomicbasisandarericherthananyotherlargecities，Ｆｏｒexample,the smallMantovaRegionwithapopulationofonly373,154,hadthehighestpercapita income，andwastherichestinltaly,ｉｎ1991．Thehighincome,ｏｆcourse,isderived fYomtheeconomicactivitｙｉｎｔｈｅｉｎｄｕｓｔrialdistrict，whichfbcusesonproductionof

９４

ladies，stockingsandsockslnfact，ｍａｎｙｌｏｃａｌｃｉｔｉｅｓａｒｅｂｏｒｎｕｐｂｙｄｅｃｅntralised

industrialisation18)．

Ｏｎｔｈｅｏｔｈｅｒｈａｎｄ,theareafromTorino，ｔｏGenova，toMilanisthetraditional industrialareaofltaly・Thisiswherethenetworkscentringonlargecompaniesare fbundMoreover,thisareaisalsostuddedwithindustrialdistrictsintheareafi･om Milantothenorthernborder・WhilethedistrictsintheThirdltalyarenewand sharplyoutlined,thoseinthenorthoverlapwithoneanother・SilkgoodsfromComo，

cottongoodsfromVarese，woolengoodsfiPomBiella,andfUrniturefromLissoneare wellknown、Besidesthese,therearevelysmallindustrialdistrictsnkeSStefanonear Varesewhichproducesmeasuringinstruments，andValduggianearBiellawhich produceslightbulbs、

Theengmeeringmdustryinthisarea,whichhasremainedcompetitiveuntilnow，

hassupportedotherindustriestogetherwiththeelectronicsandsoftwaremdustries、

Thisareawherevariousindustriescoexistfbaturesstronginter-mdustryrelations，

whichhasbroughtaboutanexternaleconomywhichcanbackuptheactivityofsmall andmedium-sizedfirms(figure3l

Inter-industryrelationsalsoexistamongindustrialdistrictsengagingindifYbrent industries19)．Thedevelopmentofcomplementaryspecialisationamongindustrial districts,andtheexpansionofavarietyofrelatedserviceindustries,havehelpedinthe mdependenceofloｃａｌｅｃｏｎｏｍｉｃａｃｔｉｖｉｔｙａｎｄｉｎｔｈｅｆｂｒmationofadecentralised economicsystem・SuchaneconomicstructurefUnctionｓａｓａｎｉndustrialinfi･astructure thatcancreatenewindustriesandcanprovidenewbusinessopportunitiesfbr entrepreneursToscana,Veneto，Friuli，andMarchefbrmtheirownlocaleconomic area,whichhasbuiltthedecentralisedeconomicsystemofltalyand,atthesametime，

theprosperityofsmalllocalcities．

syntheticfiber／ ｡C

splnnlng manufacturer

ｙａｒｍ

spinning/weaving／

knitting spinning/weaving／

knitting g／

mamfacturer acturer

dｙ dyeing linshining

qy li「

texture

tradinghouse/wholesaleroftextile house/wholesaleroftextile lesaleroftextile

i:MLf馬FTL

stitcherinindu

district knitterinindustrial district

rial

誌芸芸涼Ｉｉ＝

maker appreIw ^{（叩｝一■■■己冗酔』〔』】ｍ宛』》菫■■■Ｓ（岸）函■＆■}

apprel-wholesaler _＿＿Ｉ

retailer

Source：Senken-shinbunp、６９．

Ｆｉｇｕｒｅ３・Ｄｉｇｔｒｉｂｕｔｉｏｎｃｈａｎｎｅｌｏｆａｐｐａｒｅｌ

9５

TheViabilityofIndustrialDistrictsbyFlexibleSpecialisation：ＡｃｏｍｐａｒｉｓｏｎｏｆＩｔａｌｙａｎｄＪａｐａｎ

3.IndustrialdistrictsandtheeconomicstructureofJapan

Japaneseindustrialdistrictshaveengagedinlocalproductionoftextiles,ceramic ware,fUmiture,traditionalshoes,tablewarepaperandcutlelywhichhasexistedfrom theEdoEraorearlier・Ａｔｔｈｅｓａｍｅｔｉｍｅ，theindustrialdistrictsengaginginsuch fbreignindustriesasWesternfUrmture,knitwear,machine,orglassesbeganduring andaftertheMeijiEra・Bothtypesoftheseindustrialdistlictsarescatteredallover Japanandtheirproductiveactivitiesgreatlyinfluenceregionaleconomies・The industrialdistrictsofmachineindustrylikeSakakiandKeihin2o)notonlyengagein partsprocessingfbrlargecompanies,butalsomanufHcturesHmshedmachinely・But inmanycases,industrialdistrictsproducetraditionaldailynecessitiesorindustlial

arts

Whilethenumberofindustrialdistrictswhichthenationalgovernmentprescribes bylaw2l)isabout200,thenumberdesignatedbymunicipalitiesisoverl,OOOincluding smalldistricts、Asamatteroffblct,therealnumberisvolatile,because,ｏｎｏｎｅｈａｎｄ，

someindustrialdistrictsdeclinedanddisappeared，and，ｏｎｔｈｅｏｔｈｅｒ，ｓｏｍｅａｒｅ ｇｒｏｗｉｎｇｌｎｌ９８８,thenumberofthedistrictswithsalesofmorethan500millionsyen isabout550,7.6％oftotalworkersinJapanareemployedthere，ａｎｄ4.5％oftotal productionsinJapanaremanufactured221・Theratioofthedistrictswithexportsof morethan２０％tosalesdeclinedfrom14.7％ｉｎｌ９８５ｔｏ７､896ｉｎ1990．Befbrel970s，

smaUfIrmsinthesedistrictshadstrongintemationalcompetitivenesstotheextentof theconflictwithU､SAincaseoftextileindustIy・

Goodsproducedinindustrialdistrictsaresoldnationwidethroughwholesalersand tradinghouses・TheproductionstructurewithinanindustrialdistrictmaydifYer slightlyaccordingtothetypeofindustly,bUtingeneral,smallcompaniesspecialisein oneproductionprocessandhaveadivision-oflabour,withastructurewhichisvely similartothatofItalianindustrialdistricts・Inthedistricts，technicalskills，

technologies，variousinfbrmation,ａｎｄｐｒｏｄｕｃｔｉｏｎｋｎｏｗ－ｈｏｗａｒｅｍｏｒｅｏｒless exchanged,ｂｕｔｐｒｏｄｕｃｅｒｓａｎｄｆｉｒｍｓｄｏｎｏｔａｌｗａｙｓｓeemtodosopositively・

ＷｅｔａｋｅａｎｅｘａｍｐｌｅｏｆａｔｒａｄｉｔｉｏｎａｌｉｎｄｕｓｔｒｉａｌｄｉｓｔｒｉｃｔｓｍｃｅｔｈｅＥｄｏｅｒａ，

FUjiyoshidaatthefbotofMtFUji・FUjiyoshidaisasmallcityanditspopulationwas 56,OOOinl9881nFUjiyoshida,ftlbrics,thoughtheyweretraditionallysilkfabricｓａｎｄ called‘`Koshu-fnbrics，'，ｈａｖｅｂｅｅｎｐｒｏｄｕｃｅｄｆｂｒｇａｒｍｅｎｔｓａｎｄｕｍｂｒｅｌｌａsof comparativelyhighqualitythroughyam-dyeingtechnology・Ａｔｐｒｅｓｅｎｔ８,OOOpeople areoperating9,ＯＯＯｌｏｏｍｓｉｎ３,OOOfirms，thoughthenumbershavebeenrecently diminishingduetotheincreaseofimportedgoods

TheproductionsysteminFUjiyoshidaisfbrmedthroughthediveisionoflabour,and theproducers,mostofwhicharesmall,areengagedinoneproductionprocesssuChas twisting，ｄｙｅｉｎｇ，ｗｉｎｄｉｎｇ，warping，weaving，ａｎｄｆＨｎｉｓｈｉｎｇ，Theproductionis organisedbySanchi-donya(wholesalersinthisdistrict),wholesalersortradinghouses，

Thisisasubcontractingsystem・However,theplanning／designofaproductisusually setupｉｎｔｈｅｈｅａｄｏｆＹＩｃｅｏｆｗｈｏｌｅｓａｌｅｒｓｏｒｔｒａｄｉｎｇｈｏｕｓｅｓｉｎＴｏｋｙｏｗｈｅｒｅｔｈｅ

ｉｎfbrmationonmarketandfnshionconcentrates

lnmanycases,atradinghouse,alocalwholesaleroramanufacturer,orso-called

"maker，，whichoftencontrolsdistributionchannelsorganisesthewholeproduction usmgasubcontractingsystem(Figure3)．Duetotherecentlackofsuccessorsoffamily

9６

businessesandcompetitionfi･omimportedgoods（manyofwhichareproducedin fbreigncountriesbyJapanesecompanies),quiteanumberofindustrialdistrictsareon thedecline・Recentlyanewtypeofbusiness，particularlyintheapparelindustry，

whichdirectlycombinesproductionwithretailusinginfbrmationtechnology23j,has erodedsmallproducersinindustrialdistlicts・Asfllmsgetmarketinfbrmationat

retailoftheirproducts,theycanchooseproperlinesofgoodsandreducestocks,which willdiminishthecostofproduct・

InmanyindustrialdistrictsinJapan,atechnicalcentre(Gijyutucentre),adesign centreoracentrefbrsupportingsmallfirmswasestablishedbyalocalgovernmentto providesmallproducersinthedistrictwithtechnicalservlcesmainly、Anassociation organisedbythefIrｍｓｉｎａｄｉｓｔｒｉｃｔｇａｖｅｔｈｅｍｅｍｂｅｒｓｇｅｎeralinfbrmationtogether withthetechnicalcentreandthelocalgovernment,thoughitwasnotimportant・Ｔｈｅ JapanesegovernmenthasglventhemservlceslikefInancialsupports,guidelinesfbr therelatedindustries,and,recently,profbssionaltraining24l．Generallyspeaking,ｉｎ Japan,theservicehasbeenlimitedtotechnicalsupportandtofmancialassistance，

suchasasubsidiarybythegovernment．

4.ComparlsonofthelndustrialStructuresofltalyandeJapan ^●

TheJapaneseindustrialstructureanddivisionoflaboursystemwithinan industrialdistrictarenotsodifYbrentfromthoseofltaly・However，asignificant

difTbrenceseemstoexistbetweenthetwocountriesinthefnnctionofindustrial

districts・ThisdifYerencemayresultpartlyfmmadiflbrenceintherolesthatindustrial districtsandsmallandmedium-sizedcompaniesplayintheeconomicsystemsofthe twocounties,aspreviouslystated

lnltaly，someoftheindustrieswhichproducegoodsinindustrialdistrictssuch apparel，shoes，furniture，ceramicsetc・ｍａｉｎｔａｉｎａｈｉｇｈｌｅｖｅｌｏｆｉｎternational competitiveness;ｔｈｅｙａｒｅ“star，，industriesinltaly,thoughtheyconsistofonlysmall firms・TYleproportionoflarge-sizedfirmsoftheltalianeconomywasthelowest,１８．５％

intermsofemployees25jinl981，inthedevelopedcountries，ａｎｄｔｈｅｙａｒｅｎｏｔｓｏ ｃｏｍｐｅｔｉｔｉｖｅｉｎｉｎternationaｌmarket･Moreover，Italianindustriesareincorporated intothedivision-of-labourschemaoftheECeconomy・Ontheotherhand,industriesin Japaneseindustrialdistricts，whichproducegoodsmainlyonthedomesticmarket now,ｏｆｔｅｎｓｅｅｍｔｏｂｅ"decliningindustries"・LeadingJapaneseindustries,fbrexample oftransportationequipment，precisionmachineryandelectricalmachinery，are comprisedoflargecompanies,thoughtheygreatlydependonsmaUandmedium-sized companiesassuppliersAmongthedevelopedcountries,theweightoflarge-sizedfirms intheJapaneseeconomyarethesecondlowest,27.5％intermsofemployees,though thedefInitionoflargefirmisdifYbrent26)．Therelationshipbetweenalargecompany andasupplier,whichiscalled"Keiretu，，,isnottemporarybutcontinuous・

Asasocialfactor,Italianpeoplehaveastrongsenseofregionalismandtheyare reg1on-oriented,sothattheItalianeconomyisdecentralised,aspreviouslymentioned，

Incontrast,Japanesepeoplearelarge-company-orientedandthemostcapablepeople tendtoconcentrateinurbanareas、Theperfbrmanceofindustrialdistrictsseemstobe afYectedagreatdealbythecontrastingcharacteristicsofbothpeople・Whenwe compareindustrialdistrictｓｉｎＪａｐａｎｗｉｔｈｔｈｏｓｅｏｆｌｔａｌy，thediffbrencesofsocial

９７

TheViabilityoflnduBtrialDistrictsbyFlexibleSpecialisation：ＡｃｏｍｐａｒｉｓｏｎｏｆｌｔａｌｙａｎｄＪａｐａｎ

factorscannotbenegligible・Inparticular,manyscholarshavepointedthatthesuccess oftheThirdltalymustbeexplainednotonlyinaneconomiccontextbutalsoinasocial

one･

Fromastructuralpointofview，certaindifYbrencesinthesystemsofindustrial distIictsalsoexist､IdentifyingthedifYbrencesbetweenindustrialdistrictsinltalyand Japan，ｗｅmightbeabletounderstandthestructureandworkingofaflexibly specialisedindustrialdistrictmodeL

Thediff℃rencesaretakenupinthefOUowingway：

(1)Concerningthechannelbetweenanindustrialdistrictandthemarketfbrits products,theJapanesedistributionchannelsarecomplicated,thoughtherelationship variesffomoneindustrytoanother・InJapan,traditionalSanchi-donyaorSanmotois ofbothamanufacturerandawholesalerinanindustrialdistrict・Sanchi-donya,as manufncturers,planproducts,subcontractproducersinsegmentedproductionprocess，

providethemwithmaterials，andseUfinishedgoodstotradinghousesorwholesalers incitieswhichhaveaholdoverdistributionchannels・Ｔｈｅｎumberofthistypeofthe wholesalersintheapparelindustrywasabout30,000inl988

Recently,tradingcompaniesorwholesalers,likeqppa7eZmahe沼27jwhichhaveboth thefimctionofmanufblcturersandwholesalersintheapparelindustly,arelocatedin largecitieslikeTokyo,OsakaorKyoto・Theyplanproducts,orderproductsthemfbr Sanchi-donnyaormanumcturersinindustrialdistricts,andsellthefinishedgoodsto retailers・Asamatteroffnct，ｔｈｅｑｐｐａ７ｅＪｍｑ虎erscontroldistributionchannelsto retailers・TheyintegratethefUnctionofmanufactureintoboththatofdistributionand thatofretail,and,therefbre,verticallydrivethewholeproductionsystem・Thistypeof wholesaleriscomparativelylarge-sizedandthenumberisestimatedabout3’000．

HowdowholesalersoraqppaFeJ-mαﾊe裾controldistributionchannels？Howdo manufncturersorSannchi-.onyasinanindustrialdistrictselltheirgoodstoaretailer directly？Therearetwomainreasons・IfthemanufbHcturesellsitsgoodstotheretailer，

awholesaleroraqppm9eJ-ma虎erwhohastransactedwiththeretailerwouldpunishthe manuftlcturerbyrefnsingtobuyitsgoods・Ａｔｔｈｅｓａｍｅｔｉｍｅ,ifgoodswereunsoldat theretailshopthewholesaleroftentakesbackthｅｍ,sothattheretailerprefbrsthe dependenceonthewholesalertothetransactionwiththemanuftlcturerwhocannot takereturnedgoodsduetolackofcapitaLInfHct,itisnoteasyfbranewentrepreneur tobecomeawholesaleromppameJ-muﾉbe7．Moreover,anyentrantwillnotreceivemuch benefitfiPombecomingamanufblcturerorSanchi-tonyaHowever,asapparel-makers orwholesalersarecomparativelylarge-scale,andoftenalsoimporters,theycanglve manufacturesandretailersinfbImationontheworldwidetrendsmfhShion,orthemost advancedtechnologymmanufacturingandmarketing,iftheythinkitnecessaly・

Inltaly,however,distributorscalled“rappresentante，，filnctionasmerebrokers，

refbrlingretailerstomanuftlcturers・Manufacturersinthedistrictsanddistributors areindependentofｅａｃｈother・Showsandexhibitions，wheremanufhcturersand retailerscandirectlyconductbusinessandexchangeinfbrmation，alsoservean importantrole・Particularlymtheapparelindustry，directdealsmadebetween manufacturersandretailersareontheincreaseForexporting,thecompanieseither useexportassociationsthattheyhavesetupwithintheirindustrialdistricts,orseek exportrouteSbythemselves・Exportsincludeoriginalbrandsaswellaswell-known brandsmanufactｕｒｅｄｂｙＯＥＭｓ、Ofcourse,inthedistricts,therearemanufblcturers

9８

whicharesubcontractorsofsuchbrands．

(2)Itisonlywhenproductplanningincludingdesign，productionknow-howand marketplanning,isintegratedthatamanufHcturercomesupwithaproductthat satisfHｅｓｃｏｎｓｕｍｅｒｓＢｕｔ，ｉｎｍｏｓｔＪａｐａｎｅｓｅｉｎｄｕｓｔｒｉａｌｄｉｓｔｒｉcts，、otonly

manufacturersbutalsoSanchi-donyaappeartobeisolatedfi､oｍｍａrketinfbrmation becausetheymustdependonthewholesalers,whichhaveaholdovertheirdistribution channelstoretailers・Theyaretherefbreleftwithonlyonefimctiontofnlfill：the

productionofgoods，

Ａｓｔｈｅｙｃａｎｎｏｔｋｅｅｐｉｎｔｏｕｃｈｗｉｔｈａｃｃuratemarketinfbrmation,ｔｈｅｙwill，ａｓｔｈｅ ｍｏｓｔｐｒｏｂａblecase,dependuponwholesalersfbrplanningproducts,aswellcontinue producingtraditionaltypesofgoodsorincreaselinesofgoodfbrriskaversion・Ｏｎｔｈｅ ｏｔｈｅｒｈａｎｄ，ifwholesalerstakechargeofplanning,theywillendupwithwastefhl prqjectsandinefYIcientproductionduetotheirlackoftechnologyandproductionknow- ｈｏｗ,Thewholesalersseemtotakethewholeriskofproductionand,asamatteroffact，

getahighershareofaddedvaluethandothemanufblcturerandretailer・However,in thissystem，noonegraspsalltherelatedinfbrmationanditisdifTIculttointegrate marketinfbrmationandplanningofproductsondesignandquantityintoproduction know-howInfact,intheapparelindustry,thecostofproducthasatendencytorise・as

aresultofoverproductionandwastefnlproduction

lncontrast，Italian“impannatori，，ａｎｄ``converters，'，iftheycangenerategood enoughideas,haveopenaccesstoproducersinindustrialdistricts，Theythemselves sometimesmaybeproducers,too・ＡＵｔｈｅｙｎｅｅｄｉｓａｎｏｆＹ１ｃｅｗｉｔｈａｔｅｌｅphone，Anyone canfreelyenterthemarketandtheentrancebarrierissensiblyｌｏｗ・Theoretically speaking,theycanexploitthemarketiftheyarecapableofintroducingcompetitive productsThisindicatesthatinltalycompetitionhasgeneratedadvancedplanning (designandmaterials)，productionsystems（organisationofsubcontractors)，

productiontechnology（useofinfbrmationtechnologyandmachinery）andmarket

development．

(3)Apparently,notonlywholesalersandapparel-makersbutalsomanufhcturersin

wholesalersand,ｉｎparticular,qppα犯J-majbe79swhicharelarge-sizedflrms,havemany linesofproductsincludingimportedgoods，ｔｈｅｙｃａｎｎｏｔｆｌｅｘｉｂｌｙｃｏｐｅｗｉｔｈｔｈｅ Ｈｕctuationofdemandandthevariationofeachlineofproducts、Asamatteroffact，

CZppa花ﾉｰ、αﾉｾershaveincreasedtheirbrand-namesasameasuretoincreaseproduct- lines,buttheyseemunabletomanagealotofbrand-nameseasily・Theymustproduce andsellacertaiｎｖｏｌｕｍｅｏｆｇｏｏｄｓｔｏｍａｉｎｔａｉｎｔｈｅｉｒｏrganisationordistribution

channe13

Inindustrialdistricts，ｍｏｓｔｏｆｎｏｔｏｎｌｙｍａｎｕｆａｃｔｕｒｅｒｓｂｕｔａlsoproducerslack

diversifytheirproductsandtoshifftotheirgoodsintohighergradesTheprofIt marginthattheygethaｓｂｅｅｎｇｏｉｎｇｄｏｗｎｄｕｅｔｏｔｈｅｄｅｐｅｎｄｅｎcetowholesalersAsa result，ｔｈｅｙｈａｖｅａｔｅｎｄｅｎｃｙｔｏｔｒｙｔｏｉｎｃｒｅａsetheirproHtmarginbyexpanding

productionvolume

lnItaly，businessadministrationisverylikelycentredonnichemarkets28)．

CompaniestlyhardtodifYbrentiatethemselvesfiPomothersbyexploitingmarketsthat

９９

TheViabilityoflndustrialDistrictsbyFlexibleSpecialisation：AcomparisonofItalyandJapan ａｒｅａsfreefromcompetitionaspossible・Inpursuitofhigh-value-addedproducts，

companlesalsotrytomaketheirproductsmoresophisticated・BecauseoftheirprofIt‐

dirivenpoliciesandawarenessoftheriskofexpansion,ｅntrepreneursarecautiousof extendingtheirfirmsandofproducingavolumeofproduct29)．Ｉｎｔｈｉｓｗａｙ，the prolifbrationofproductsisrealisedelupostinanindustrialdistrictasawhole．

(4)AdifYbrenceoftechnologyusedinＪａｐａｎａｎｄｌｔａｌｙｍａｙａｌｓｏｂｅａｆａｃｔｏｒｆbr comParlson、Ｉｎｔｈｅｐａｓｔ,equipmentandmachinemanufacturersinJapan，mostof whichweresmall-sized，suchasironworks,werelocatedwithinandnearindustrial districtsandsupportedproducersinthosedistricts・Nowadaysonlyseveraloravery fbwmanufncturerssurvivethroughcompetition：ｔｈｅｙｓｕｐｐｌｙｔｈｅｉｒｐｒｏｄｕｃｔｓ ｎａｔｉｏｎａlwideorworldwidefromahandfUlofproductioncentres・Asaresult,machines ingeneralhavebecomestandardised,sophisticated,andlarge-scalebyusingcomputer technology・Naturallyｃｏｓｔｆｂｒｓｕｃｈｔｅｃｈｎｏｌｏｇｙｔｅｎｄｔｏｂｅｈigher，whichseemsto encourageexPansionofscaleandtoincreaseproductionvolumeinordertomakeupfbr machineIydePreciation・Ｆｏｒexample,incaseofthefUrnitureindustry,awoodworking machinewithnumericalcontrolistooefYIcientandtooexpensivefbrasmallprodu-

cer3oL

Nearltalianindustrialdistricts，ｔｈｅｒｅｓｔｉｌｌｒｅｍａｉｎｓｍａｌｌ－ｓｉｚｅｄｍachine manufncturers、Cooperatingwiththelocalproducers,theydevelopandmanufacture sPecial-PurPosemachines・Japanesecompaniesintheshoe，furniture，andtextile industriesoftenimporｔｍａｃｈｉｎｅｓｍａｄｅｉｎｌｔａｌｙ・Systematictechnologyfbr manufacｔｕｒｉｎｇｓｕｃｈｍａｃｈｍｅｓｍａｙｂｅｏｎｅｏｆｔｈｅfnctorsthatsupportsdiversified，

small-lotProduction・Ｏｎｔｈｅｏｔｈｅｒｈａｎｄ，Benetton，afnmousltalianknittingfirm，

boughtknittingmachinesmadeinJapanwiththemostadvancedtechnology．

(5)Concernmgthemobilityamongprofbssions,ｔｈｅｄｅｇｒｅｅｏｆｂａｒｒｉｅｒｓｓｅｅｍｓｔｏｂｅ ｄｉfYbrent、InJapan,itseemsunusualfbrasubcontractorspecialisinginacertampart oftheproductionprocesstobecomeaconverteroramanufnctureroftheentire productionprocess,insofnrasheorshedoesnotfindoutanydistributionchannels，In ltaly,however,conversionsareoftenseenbetweensubcontractorsandmanufacturers･

Insomecases，subcontractorschangeintomanuftlcturers，butinothercases，the reversehappens，especiallywhenthemanufHcturersturntobeunsuccessfUlas

coordinators．

(6)TheItalianstyleofmanagementisdiffbrentfromthatofJapan、Incomparlson withJapanesesmall-sizedmanuftucturersandproducersofapparel，textileand fUrniture,Ｉｔａｌｉａｎｃｏｍｐａｎｉｅｓｏｆｔｈｅｓａｍｅｓｉｚｅａｎｄｉｎｔｈｅｓａｍｅｉｎｄｕｓｔｒｙｓｅｅｍｔｏｂｅｍｏｒe innovativeinmanagementparticulａｒｌｙｉｎｕｓｅｏｆｉｎｆｂrmationtechnologyandin overseasmarketing・InJapanthestructureofdivision-ofLlabouranddistribution channelissofixedthatitmightnotbeeasytoinnovatemanagementfTeely．

(7)WhilemostJapaneseentrepreneursinindustrialdistrictsaretroubledaboutthe lackofsuccessorsinfnmilybusiness，thesystemofeducatingsonsordaughtersto becomeasuccessorsfimctionswellinltaly・Thisispartiallybecauseofthehigherrate ofunemployment，10.996ｉｎ1991,ｉｎｌｔａｌｙ３'１.Ashumanresourcesfbrproductionare

plentifnlinltalianindustrialdistricts,entrepreneurscanemployableworkerseasily．

100

Asmanyscholarspointedout,anindustrialdistrictisalocalpoolofskinMoreover，

localgovernmentandassociationshavetriedtoattract“newblood，'withvanous policiesandservlces．

(8)Thefimctionofmdustrialdistrictsisdiffbrentbetweentwocounties,thoughthe systemofdivision-ofLlabourandmechanismissimilar、Italianindustrialdistrictsare autonomousandrelativelyindependentfTomotherlargefirmsorinstitutions，Ａｔｔｈｅ ｓａｍｅｔｉｍｅ,ｔｈｅｙｈａｖｅａｌｍｏｓｔａｌｌｆｉｍｃｔionsofboththeproductionoftheirspecialised goodsandthesociallifbofemployersandworkers,onwhichlocaleconomiesarebased Oｎｔｈｅｏｔｈｅｒｈａｎｄ，anindustrialdistrictinJapanholdsfbwfUnctionsexcept production:itseemscomprisedonlyofafactoriesorsubcontractors,thoughthereare someexceptions．

5.Ｔｈｅｖｉａｂｉｌｉｔｙｃｏｎｄｉｔｉｏｎｓｏｆａｎｉｎｄｕstrialdistrict

Theproportionofindustrialdistrictsinltalianeconomyisbyfnrlargerthanthatof Japaneseeconomy，ａｎｄｔｈｅｆｂｒｍｅｒａｒｅｍｏｒｅａｃｔｉｖｅｔｈａｎｔhelattenHowever,the fblmeralsoappearstohavereachedmature・ThegovernmentofEmiliaRomagna,itis said,hasimplementedahigh-wagepolicyfbrworkersBut,infHct,althoughonly underthecategolyofpiecework,thelongworkinghoursofperipherallabourers,and theirpoorworkingconditionshavelargelysupportedtheThirdItalymodeLBasedon theresultoftheauthor，sresearch32),ItalianmanufHcturersamidstrisinglabourcosts，

wereinclinedtousesubcontractorslocatedinlower-wagedistricts，ｆｂｒｅｘａｍｐｌｅｉｎ Ｍａｒｃｈｅ，ｏｒｉｎｔｈｅｍｏｒｅｓｏｕｔｈｅｒｎｒｅｇｉｏｎｓ・Ａｓｔｈｅｙｈａｖｅｌｏｓｔｃｏｍｐｅｔｉｔｉｖｅｃｏｓｔ ａdvantages,Italiancompanieshavesoughtnichemarketsandpursuedsophisticatioｎ ｉｎproductdesignandquality，Butapparentlythisstrategyisreachingitslimit．‘`At themiddlestageoftheirlifbcycles,industrialdistrictsencounterproblemsendemicto theirfbrmandfimctionthatrequirebothmternalreflectionandrepair,aswellassome

amountofoutsideassistance''33)．

Ｔｈｅｒｅａｒｅｔｗｏｖｉｅｗｓｏｎｔｈｅｆｎｔｕｒｅｏｆｌtalianindustrialdistricts、Istheltalifm industrialdistrictｓｍｏｄｅｌａｎｈｉｓｔｏｒｉｃａｌｓｔａｇｅ，ｏｒｍｅｒｅｌｙａｎｉｎｉｔｉａｌｓｔａｇｅｏｆ ｉｎｄｕｓｔrialisation，suchthatoftheindustlialdistricｔｓｉｎＵ.Ｋ・ｗｈｉｃｈＡ､Marshallhad watcheddi8appearcompletelylOOyearsago？Ｄｏｍｏｓｔｏｆtheltaliandistrictsdecay withtheadvanceofindustlialisation？Doonlyafiewfirmssurvive,mergmgwithothers

？Fromthispomtofview,theadvanceofindustrialisationmeansthatthesizeoffirms becomeslａｒｇｅｒａｎｄｌａｒｇｅｒｃｏｎｔｉｎｕｏｕｓｌｙａｎｄｔhatlargefIrms,insteadofsmall corporations,becomethemajority・Wemustconsiderthatelsewhere,however,ｉｎ Europe,smallandmedium-sizedfirmshaveplayedanimportantroleinaneconomｙａｓ ａｗｈｏｌｅ、Moreover,largefirmslikelBMandGMarefbrcedtodecentralise,ｂｒｅａｋｉｎｇ ｄｏｗｎｉｎｔｏｓｍａｌｌｅｒｕｎｉｔｓ，ｉｎｏｒｄｅｒｔｏｃｏｐｅｗｉｔｈｔｈｅｒａｐｉｄｃｈａｎｇｅｏｆｅｃｏｎｏｍｉｃ

ｅnvironment・

Canweregardflexiblyspecialisedindustrialdistrictsinltalynotasastage,but merelyasaunlquetypeofindustriansation？Ｏrcanthesedistrictsserveasmodel substituteｓｆｂｒＦｏｒｄｉｓｍｉｎｌａｒｇｅｆＩｒｍｓｌｎｆａｃｔ，ｔｈｅｙｌｏｏｋａｓｉｆｔｈｅｙａｒｅｍａｔｕｒｅａｎｄ ｄｅcaying,aspreviouslystated・Conditionssuchaslowlabourcostortechnoｌｏｇｙｇａｐ ｄｏｎ，tlastlongInamarketeconomy，anyeconomicactivityandsystemmusｔｂｅ

101

TheViabilityoflndustrialDistrictsbyFlexibleSpecialisation：ＡｃｏｍｐａｒｉｓｏｎｏｆｌｔａｌｖａｎｄＪａｐａｎ ^ｑＰ adjustedtothechangeofaneconomicenvironmenhOtherwise,evenoneofthelargest companieswillnotbeabletosurvive・Asanyindustrialdistrictmustbealsoadaptable tochange，adaptabilityisindispensablefbrthedistrictsltalianindustrialdistricts havecopedwithimportedgoodswithloｗprice,greatlyshiftingintoproductionofhigh- qualitygoodsanddiversificationproductslines・

Atthispoint,theltaliandistrictsseemtobemoreadaptableandflexiblethanthose ofJapan，becausethefbrmerarebothautonomousandHexible，havingalmostall fimctionsincludingvariousservicesButthelatterarepartiallydependenton wholesalersorapparel-makersandhavethefimctionofproductiononly・Evenifthe wholesalersortheapparel-makershaveanadaptabilityandcansurvivechangesinan economiceｎｖｉｒｏｎｍｅｎｔｓｕｃｈａｓｔｈｅｒｉｓｉｎｇｙｅｎ，producersandmanufncturersin industrialdistrictsaswellasthedistriｃｔｓｍａｙｎｏｔｄｏｓｏ・Asamatteroffnct,mostof thewholesalersandtheapparel-makersarealsoimporters,thoughtheyhavevarious managerialresourcesandinfbrmationandmaytrytosupporttheproducersand manufncturers、Therefbre，itisanecessaryconditionthatanindustrialdistrictbe

autonomous

Fortheadaptabilitytochanges,itisimportantfbrindustrialdistrictstofbllowthe trendoftheadvancedtechnologiesanddevelopnewtechnologies,atleastpartially,ｂｙ themselves．Ｍostindustrialdistrictsinltalyprovidefirmsandcraftsmenwithvarious services，ａｓｉｎｔｈｅｃａｓｅｏｆＥｍｉｌｉａＲｏｍａｇｎａｌｎＭａrche，institutionsrelatedtolocal universitieshavealsoassumedakeyroleindevelopinglocalindustriesbyoffbling educationfbrworkersandmanagementandconsultingfbrmanagement,alongwith otherservices34)．However，ｉｎｍｏｓｔｄｉｓｔｒｉｃｔｓｔｈｅｆｎｎｃｔｉｏｎｏｆＲ＆Dwhichlarge corporationsstrivetｏｈｏｌｄｉｓｗｅａｋ，thoughtheycanuseadvancedtechnologies，

improvetechnologiesandcreatenewideasonmanagementorproduction351．Notonly inhigh-techindustlybutalsoinlow-tech,evenifthedegTeeofimmediatenecessityis difYbrent,Ｒ＆ＤisthekeyfHctor，Atthispoint,ascholarsuggestedthatthedistricts shouldtlytoinvitelargecompaniestosetuptheirplantsorofficesfbrtransfbrring advancedtechnologiesandinfbrmationThewriterdoubtswhetherthispolicyis efYbctｉｖｅｏｒｎｏｔ、ThecentrefbrR＆Ｄｓｅemstobenecessaryinthedistrictsinthelong‐

ｒｕｎ･

Oneoftherequirementsfbrsurvivalistheexistenceofdivisionsorinstitutionsthat arecapabletransfbrringtechnologiesandinfbrmationtoproducersandcompaniesin thedistricts・Ｔｈｅｐｒｏｂｌｅｍｉｓｈｏｗｔｏｌｏｃａｔｅｔｈｅｍｔｈｅreorwhetherexistinginstitutes areavailabletofillfiUthisfimction・Theinstitutionscouldbeuniversitiesorcollegesas inthecasesofSiliconValleyinU・SAandBurden-burkinGerman36),ortheycouldbe selfLgoverningbodiesorresearchinstitutes,ｓｕｃｈａｓｓｏｍｅｉｎＥｍｉｌｉａａｎｄＭａｒｃｈｅ．

６．Ｃｏｎｃｌｕｄｉｎｇｒｅｍａｒｋｓ

Nonationalorreglonaleconomiescanworkwellwithouttheentrepreneurshipof smallfirms・Buttheycannotsurviveontheirown、Theycanbeputintotwocategones：

ａｎ“industrialdistrict，，wheresmallandmedium-sizedcompaniesfbrmanetworkm responsetomutualdependency,ｏｒａｓｇｒｏｕｐｓｏｆｓｍａＵａｎdmedium-sizedcompanies whichworkfbrlargecorecompanieswithinanintegratedsystem・Thecoreneednotbe necessarilyasinglecompanyandbothgroupsareoftensynchronised、Ｈｅｒｅｗｅｈａｖｅ

1０２

discussedtheviabilityofthefirsｔｍｏｄｅＬ

Ｗｅｍａｙａｐｐｌｙｔｈｉｓｍｏｄｅｌｔｏｐｏｌicyfbreitherdevelopingcountriesorunder- developedregions，Therehavebeenalotofcontroversiesonthispoint,suchasthoseon thedevelopmentofsouthltaly371．WhiletheareaalongAdliaticSeeinSouthltalyhas succeededinindustrialisation,ｔｈｅａｒｅａｏｎｔｈｅｏｔｈｅｒｓｉｄｅｓｅｅｍｓｔｏｈａvelaggedbehind ForfiDrminganindustrialdistrict，togetherwiththevarlousservicesfnrnishedby publicandprivateentities,themostimportantfactoristheentrepreneurshipofpeople wholivethere・Thoughhowtoactivateandhowtomeasuretheentrepreneurshipare anotherproblems,thedegreeofentrepreneurshipinmdustrialdistrictsseemstobe higherthanthatoutsideindustrialdistricts・Astherelatedservicesareprovided there,asthedegreeshouldincrease・Aninitiatorisnecessaryfbrgoodcoordination betweenentrepreneurshipandtheservices・Theextentofentrepreneurshipgreatly valiesfromoneareatoanotherbothinltalyandinJapan，Manyhavepointedout that,inthecaseofltaly,theindustrialdistrictsandtheentrepreneurshipderivedfYom theexistenceof"metayage，，ｏｒ``mezzadria',,asystemofpeasantmrminginapartof Europe・Because,underthissystem,farmersmuststrivetofindoutsomethingtosell asasidebusiness,theymanufactureddailynecessitiesorcraftarts・

Theremainingsubjectistounderstandthemechanismthattheentrepreneurship generates，However,ａｔｔｈｅｓａｍｅｔｉｍｅ,thewayofcreatingautonomousstructuresand vanousservicesshouldbetakenintoconsideration,ｉｎparticular,inindustrialdistricts orunder-developedareasofJapan．

Ｎｏｔｅｓ

ｌ）AgeographictriangledefinedbyUdine,PisaandAscoliPicenoandcentredon BolognaandFlorence、

２）SiliconValleyandRoutel28intheUnitedStatesareoftencitedasanindustrial districtofhigh-techindustries、

３）SeeBergmanetaJ.[19911

４）See,fbrexample,Valli[1992]ｐｐ､242-8.

5）See,Piore＆Sebel[19841

６）AsfiDrthehistoly,ｓｅｅＢｌｉｍ[1990]andCappello＆Prandi[1973]、

７）Accordingtomyresearchinltaly、

８）SeeBecattini［1990],“TheMarshallianindustrialdistrictasasocioecnonncno- tion"ｉｎＰｙｋｅ[l990LBecattini[1989][1992],ａｎｄＰｙｋｅ[1990]、

９）Ｐｙｋｅ[1990]ｐ2.

10）ThepopulationofthetextileareaincludingPratocitywas315,000.

11）SeeBalestri[19901

12）AccordingtothedataoflnstitutoNazionaleperilCommercioEstero(ＩＣＥ)．

13）ＳｅｅＰｙｋｅ[1990]ｐ33

14）Concerningltaliafiashiongoods,wecannotignorethemctthattheproducersof

lta1ianfashionarealsotheconsumers

l5）SeeSengenberger[1990]ｐ154.

16）Privateconsultingcompaniesandprivatebusinessschoolsalsoarelocatedinthe

districts，

17）Privateconsultmgcompaniesandprivatebusinessschoolsalsoarelocatedinthe

103

TheViabilityoflnduBtriaIDistrictsbyFlexibleSpecialisation：AcomparisonofltalyandJapan

districts

l8）Inltaly,thereseemsbeamoredistmctcharacteristicfbreachregionoreachcityto maintainitsownculturalidentitythanthoseinanyothercounties・Ｉｔｉｓｃａｌｌｅｄ

“Capmanilismo'，.``Capmanello'，meansachurchbell,thatistosayeachdistricthas

itsownchurchbelL

19）Capecchi,Ｖ､pointsthisout､ＳｅｅＰｙｋｅ[1990]ｐ29.

20）‘`Sakaki":Thesmallindustrialdistrictofthemachineindustryinthecentralpart ofJapan,Naganoprefbcture.“Keihin，';TheindustrialdistrictlocatedbetweenTo‐

kyoandYokohama，andspecialisedinthemachineandelectronicsindustries Smallenterprisesinthisdistricthaveanimportantroleassuppliersfbrlarge high-techfirms、

21）Forthepurposeofvariouspolicies、

22）ｓｅｅｓmallandMediumEnterplisesAgency[1992]ｐ､99.

23）Anewfbrmatofretailshop

24）TheJapanesegovernmenthascarriedoutalotofindustrialpolicies,inthefblmof providingfimdsand,atthesametime,regulatmgfirms・However,mostofthem,in particularthepoliciesfbwardsacertainmdustlyschasthetextileindustly,did

notsucceed

25）SeeSengenberger[1990]ｐ､145.TableLLargefirmsaredefinedashavingover ５００employees

26）Largecorporationsaredeflnedashavingover300employees、

27）Ｆｏｒexample；Renown,ｗｉｔｈｔｈｅｔｏｔａｌｓａｌｅｓｏｆ２３２ｂｉＵｉｏｎｙｅ､;Kashiyama,with salesof208billionyen;World,withsalesofl54billionyen

28）Accordingtomyfieldresearchinltalyinl992.

29）SeeKiyonari[1992]ａｎｄOkaｍｏｔｏ[19921

30）AccordmgtomyresearchinShizuokaPrefbcture,anentrepreneurwithawood‐

workingmachinewithnumericalcontrolbegandoingnewbusiness，assumesa cuttingprocessonlyEvenifaproducerbuysitfbrhisownuse,theoperationratio wiUbeveIylow，

31）Thisfiguremaymislead,because,intheThirdltaly,therateofunemploymentis verylow、

32）MyresearchinCarpi,anindustrialdistrictofknittingwear、

33）ＳｅｅＢ１ｉｍ[19921

34）SeetherelationshipbetweenAnconaUniversityandlSTAO

35）ThetechnologicallevelofsmallCorporationsisthesameasthatoflargeSeePyke

［19901

36）TheSteinweisfbundationorganisesuniversitiesandcoUegesfbroffbring techonicalandtechonologicalconsultingfbrsmallenterprises、

37）Forexample,ｓｅｅＰｙｋｅ[19901

38）Ｔｈｉｓｍａｙｂｅｎｏｔｔｈｅｖｅｒｙｓｏｌｕｔｉｏｎｔｏｍyquestin，thewayofrestructuring industiraldistrictsandofdecentralisingthｅＴｏkyoMetropolis､However,fromthis pointofview,concretepouciesshouldbefbrmulatedandcarriedout．

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1０５