第 56 卷 第 1 期
2021 年 2 月
JOURNAL OF SOUTHWEST JIAOTONG UNIVERSITY
Vol. 56 No. 1
Feb. 2021
ISSN: 0258-2724 DOI：10.35741/issn.0258-2724.56.1.21
Research article Education
M
EANINGFUL
L
EARNING AND
U
SE OF
M
IND
-M
AP IN
G
EOGRAPHY
S
UBJECT AT
S
ENIOR
H
IGH
S
CHOOL
在高中地理学科中有意义的学习和思维导图的使用
Epon Ningrum *, Ahmad Yani, NandiDepartment of Geography Education, Faculty of Social Science Education, Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia Bandung, Indonesia, eponingrum@upi.edu, ahmadyani@upi.edu, nandi@upi.edu
Received: November 14, 2020 ▪ Review: December 17, 2020 ▪ Accepted: January 6, 2021
This article is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0)
Abstract
A mind map is a cognitive scheme visualization tool that can be used in meaningful learning. It can illustrate students’ logical thinking ability and cognitive scheme development. This research studied the efficacy of using mind maps in geography learning for senior high school students. The method used in this research was classroom action research conducted in parallel at eight senior high schools in West Java, Indonesia. A total of 223 students participated in the study. The efficacy of using mind maps in meaningful learning was confirmed by student assessment scores in two learning cycles. The assessment scores can be used as achievement evidence that is equal to other objective test results. In the first learning cycle, the obtained mind map cumulative score was 762.17 points and that for the second cycle was 1,421.72 points, showing a gain difference of 659.55 points. Therefore, the results demonstrate that the use of mind maps improved students’ logical thinking and cognitive schemes. Hence, this technique can be used in meaningful learning processes in the geography subject for senior high school students.
Keywords:Constructivism, Geography, Meaningful Learning, Mind-Map
摘要 思维导图是一种可以在有意义的学习中使用的认知方案可视化工具。它可以说明学生的逻辑 思维能力和认知方案的发展。这项研究研究了在高中地理学习中使用思维导图的功效。本研究使 用的方法是在印度尼西亚西爪哇的八所高中并行进行的课堂行动研究。共有 223 名学生参加了该 研究。在两个学习周期中，学生评估分数证实了使用思维导图进行有意义的学习的有效性。评估 分数可用作与其他客观测试结果相同的成就证据。在第一个学习周期中，所获得的思维导图累积 得分为 762.17 点，而在第二个学习周期中为 1,421.72 点，显示出差异为 659.55 分。因此，结果 表明，思维导图的使用改善了学生的逻辑思维和认知方案。因此，该技术可用于高中地理课程中
有意义的学习过程。
关键词: 建构主义，地理，有意义的学习，思维导图
I. I
NTRODUCTIONStudies on meaningful learning have been initiated by many experts. For example, Novak [1] suggested that the learning process not only involves the transfer of knowledge but also the organization and development of the chain of ideas that should be learned by students in response to new concepts that are introduced to them. To determine the relation between a known and a new concept, the use of concept maps has been suggested, which are considered “tools for organizing and representing knowledge” [2].
Slightly different from Novak, Ip [3] interpreted meaningful learning as a kind of learning that is based on experience. As cited by Kolb [4], this refers to a process wherein the “starting point [consists of] concrete experience, observations and reflections, [and the] formation of abstract concepts and generalization, and [the] testing implications of concepts [under a] new situation.” Meaningful learning practice begins with the teacher’s perception, which views students as individuals who have concrete experiences; thus, in the beginning of learning, students are asked to make concrete observations and work on certain topics. In the second stage, students are invited to reflect and identify meaningful ideas from the observation results. The third stage involves conceptualizing abstract ideas to describe the new knowledge they have acquired. The activities undertaken during the learning process involve discussion, creation of concept maps, and the drawing of conclusions.
The meaningful learning model is rarely used in Indonesia, because the government does not give “freedom” to teachers to use their own learning models in class. In the last three years, the Indonesian government has only recommended the use of scientific learning models. Thus, other learning models have received less attention from teachers. In fact, every subject that has scientific characteristics requires many approaches to deliver the learning materials, as in the study of geography. Geography is deemed relevant if delivered through scientific learning models. However, it also aims to present meaningful learning that highlights concept comprehension. Thus, it is more appropriate to use the deductive method than the typically used silogismus thinking pattern or abductive approach considered as a
presumption in drawing conclusions from a number of assumptions while avoiding prejudices attributed to the interpreter.
In addition, the study of geography has descriptive characteristics that rely on the strength of logical thinking. This is implemented to understand the causal factor and correlative relations among physical and social phenomena as well as the processes involved as part of its traditional interest. In a publication on the subject of geography entitled “Rediscovering Geography New Relevance for Science and Society,” the Rediscovering Committee stated that:
In its explorations as a science of flows, geography has been a leader in understanding spatial interactions as a subject of broad interest to both science and society. Moreover, geography’s long-standing concern with interdependencies among scales is relevant to discussions across the body of science of relationships between microscale (small or local) and macroscale (large or global) phenomena and processes [5].
The characteristics of geography study explained above surely have implications for learning geography in school. In particular, students are required to have conceptual comprehension and logical thinking. Reflecting on current practices, it is not enough for students to simply be able to recall names or terms pertaining to various phenomena and processes. Rather, it is necessary for them to develop the abilities to understand causal relations in order to help them use the concepts and logically interpret and apply them to concrete situations.
Based on those backgrounds, the current research presents the use of mind maps as an alternative tool in learning geography. First developed by Tony Buzan [6], a mind map is used to observe the connection processes between known concepts and “additional” knowledge provided by the teacher. A student’s accuracy in relating the suitable concepts with their cognitive scheme development is shown through assessment scores in the second cycle, wherein the mind map is used. One of the variables that will be observed is the students’ ability to explain a mind map as a dynamic image while they are involved in the process of thinking. It is assumed that the greater the branching on the
mind map, the greater the development of the students’ cognitive scheme.
II. L
ITERATURER
EVIEWA. Process of Thinking and Knowledge Addition
Thinking is a process that is difficult to measure, yet the actual result of thinking can be easily measured. A conventional measurement tool is the test, which can be either oral or written. Students who answer a question are involved in the process of thinking. By asking questions, people are encouraged to try to answer these questions. One’s thinking ability can be calculated by the amount of concept that has been explained when answering a given question. In other words, this is “a technique of concept analysis that begins with a literature search using keywords, titles, or abstracts that include the concept of interest” [7], [8].
The process of thinking can also be conducted in relation to the concepts and/or hidden terminologies (hidden concepts). For example, people understand the context of a certain sentence, because they have basic knowledge of a number of concepts saved in their memory. As an example, note the statement, “One of factors that cause flooding is housing development in upland areas.” That sentence has some hidden concepts, which are: (1) settlement can decrease the ability
of rainwater to infiltrate soil layers, so that ... (2) rainwater is more being runoff. The consequences are ... (3) runoff volume is more than river channel capacity; the following effect ... (4) water in the river are overflowing (flood).
In some cases, the thinking plot was not that simple but could be branching and expanding along with the discussed theme. Pay attention to this statement: “Weak law enforcement towards
land-use rule violations in up-land has an impact to the damage of riverbanks along the flow”.
This statement was a branch of settlement development that influenced many factors such as the economy, low environmental awareness, weak law enforcement, and culture. As for the expansion can be observed by the flood that causing riverbanks damage.
Thinking abilities that have been explained above can be developed through meaningful learning [1], [9], [10]. Meaningful learning concepts are based on the assumption that studying is to recite the concepts and a process that connects knowledge that has been known before with a newly received knowledge. Students got knowledge from their families,
friends, and society. In meaningful learning, teachers explored a knowledge known before being expanded through the connection between concepts as they have been known before.
In the connection process between concepts, students will experience three possibilities: assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration in the cognitive scheme [11], [12]. Assimilation is adding new information into thinking schemes that have existed without experiencing concept changes. The character is expanded in existing schemes. Accommodation is a process of modification, suitability, and or changing the old scheme with a new scheme resulting from information that is not suitable with the old scheme. The equilibration process is a process of self-adjustments mechanically to get a balancing from disequilibrium to equilibrium. If there was a disequilibrium, people would have encouragement to find equilibrium. In the expository study, the assimilation process is more intensive than accommodation because it will add new knowledge as pour the water into a glass. Otherwise, on the inquiry studies practice, equilibration process utilization is more to "shakes" the existing scheme so that students will do the process of accommodation and assimilation alternately. The equilibration process is used more in learning that uses the constructivism approach.
The Principle of Piaget's Constructivism consists of organization and adaptation function [13], matches assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration in the constructive cognitive process. The organization function gave an ability to organize physical and psychological processes to be a well-organized system. Meanwhile, the adaptive function is the ability of people in their adaptation towards their environment.
The function of organization and adaptation in every individual has different effectivity that depends on age and intensity of learning. Children initially rely only on the motoric sensor, at the age of 0 – 2 years old, to get information, and it improves, in the age of 2 – 7 years old, to the ability to use symbols, languages, simple concepts, drawing, and classifying the objects they have been observed which known as a pre-operational stage. The next stage is a concrete operational stage, occurred in 7 – 10 years of age, marked by developing logical thinking through a simple scheme framework. Children older than 11 years old, a high school age, enter the concrete operational stage or an intellectual perfection stage marked by abstract reasoning skills as a mature. As said by Bloom's taxonomy, it is
estimated that they can get factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge [14].
B. Meaningful Learning and Mind-Map
In the context of meaningful learning, information sought by students can be obtained from many sources.
According to Ausubel [15], meaningful learning involves making connections among the facts, concepts, and principles. Thus, meaningful knowledge is formed when a person can develop cognitive schemes and/or is capable of modifying existing and building new cognitive structures. Therefore, meaningful learning starts with subsumption of newly acquired information into an existing cognitive structure [16].
In order to promote meaningful learning, experts usually advise creation of concept maps [17]. However, in the late 1960, Buzan advanced this approach by introducing mind-maps. Buzan’s mind-maps are based on three main pillars, denoted as radiant thinking, key words, and whole brain [18]. Mind-maps are graphically represented as radiant structures, with the main idea at the epicenter from which related key ideas (concepts) spread in all directions via branches called Basic Ordering Ideas (BOI). Each of these main branches is further expanded by adding relevant details, represented by concept sub-branches.
Technically, mind maps function as notes that help a person remember the main concepts related to the phenomenon of interest. Moreover,
mind-maps promote analytical reasoning, which relies on evaluation of the symbols, attributes, or words forming an argument in order to establish its veracity. Mind maps can also be used to record one’s thought process when attempting to interpret newly acquired information. Mind maps are ideal for this purpose, as they promote systematic analysis and maximize the use of cognitive functions.
III. M
ETHODS A. Research MethodsAction research was deemed the most suitable approach. Data was gathered in eight senior high schools in West Java Province, Indonesia, whereby one class was recruited from each school. In each class, the meaningful learning model proposed by Bhattacharya [19] was adopted, starting with (1) development of an idea map using mind-mapping tools, followed by (2) creating a flowchart of activities, (3) designing the storyboard (visual), and (4) creating a mind-map.
Learning implementation in every class was regulated to have an equal process. In the opening stage, teachers show some things to attract the students' attention and deliver the aims and indicators of successful learning. On the main activity, teachers did some learning steps, such as shown in Table 1.
Table 1.
Learning process and mind-map arrangement
Meaningful Learning Activity Stages Student Activities Developing an idea map using
mind-mapping tools
- The teacher demonstrates about creating a mind-map on the board - Teacher digs basic knowledge that students have been had in concepts that related to the topics
Creating a flowchart of activities - Class are divided into some groups according to the number of students - Groups get a paper with size 75 cm x 80 cm and write one concept according to mind-map themes that will be built on the center of the paper - Groups asked to pay attention to teacher explanation and continue with group discussion
Designing the storyboard (visual) - Every group draws a mind-map according to learning themes. The written concepts should have linkages that explain causal relationships, aims and objectives relationships, or conditional relationships.
Creating - The teacher asks some students to explain the mind-map as a result of
working together. B. Research Participants
Learning implementation is held in the middle of the semester. All of the model devices were given to geography teachers in the chosen
schools. Implementation of research conducted in eight schools that represents the school environment of urban-rural mountainous and coastal urban-rural, which are:
Table 2.
Research locations
Environment School Names Students Teachers
Environment School Names Students Teachers
Amounts Grade Sex Age
Mountainous SMAN 7 Bandung 28 11 F 49 SMAN 6 Bandung 33 11 M 33 SMAN 1 Lembang 35 11 F 51 SMAS Babussalam 19 11 F 45 Coastal SMAN 4 Cirebon 25 11 F 30 SMAN 7 Cirebon 34 11 M 35 SMAN 1 Kr. Wareng 25 11 F 29 SMAN 1 Dk. Puntang 24 11 M 31 8 items
The instrument that is used to observe the learning process is class observation instruments. Several devices used in the research process have been prepared for each school, guidebooks to implement learning. Learning aids that have been provided are manila paper size, HVS paper, writing equipment with various types of color and size, glue, scissor, and solatape. The equipment is provided to be a media in making a mind-map.
C. Data Analysis
During the research process, the researcher observed, monitored, and gave some training. The indicator of successful learning is shown by a mind-map that is based on the number of concepts that are written divided by the main ideas. Thus, the first step to doing a measurement is measuring the number of concepts that are derived from the main ideas. As an illustration, a mind-map calculation can be seen from the example in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Mind-map created by students
Based on the image, the first branch from the main ideas was valued as one. If another branch was made from the first branch, it would be given a score of two. From the second branch, a third branch is made, so it will be scored as three, and so on. All scores were summed into the total
amount as the price of student-thinking development. If we make the connection between concepts beyond, the other branch was given a score of 5. Otherwise, if there is a mistake in expressing the concept, then the scores will be reduced.
Table 3.
Illustration of concept development on mind-map
Branch 1 Branch 2 Branch 3 Branch 4 Branch 5 Connection
1 2 2 2 2 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 3
3 2 3 3 3 1 2 3 2 3 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 30 33 0 0 0 67
Mind-map scores of the first cycle will be compared with the second cycle. Furthermore, the mind-map created by students in one class will be compared with a mind-map created by students in other classes. The built-in assumption is that the improvement on the second cycle represents the ability of students to develop their cognitive concept from the learning experience in the first cycle. There have been active
constructive processes between assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration in it.
IV. F
INDINGS ANDD
ISCUSSIONSThe learning process in every class includes the main ideas that are tailored to the geography materials about the environment in Class XI High School (even semester). Here are the results of the number of concepts in the mind-map compiled by students in groups.
Table 4.
Scores of mind-map created by students
No Schools Amount of Students Amount of Main Ideas * The Total Score of Mind-Map Gain
Cycle 1 Cycle 2 1 SMAN 7 Bandung 28 6 66.33 95.17 28.84 2 SMAN 6 Bandung 33 6 145.17 129.67 (15.50) 3 SMAN 1 Lembang 35 5 158.00 184.80 26.80 4 SMAS Babussalam 19 4 275.00 674.25 399.25 5 SMAN 4 Cirebon 25 5 23.80 75.40 51.60 6 SMAN 7 Cirebon 34 6 35.67 140.50 104.83 7 SMAN 1 Kr. Wareng 25 5 29.20 48.60 19.40 8 SMAN 1 Dk. Puntang 24 6 29.00 73.33 44.33 Amount 762.17 1,421.72 659.55 Mean 95.27 177.72 82.44
Based on the table above, it can be stated that the process of constructive thinking can be observed visually through a mind-map. Based on the above findings, the researchers have predicted that the mind-map may be used as an instrument in improving students' thinking processes, and have the opportunity to be further developed as an instrument of assessing learning outcomes [20].
Regarding the perceptions of teachers toward meaningful learning and the use of mind-mapping techniques, according to meaningful learning stages, teachers are asked to determine the prior knowledge of students by a question-and-answer method. Is this an easy task for teachers? All of the participants responded that this can be done easily. Mrs. Lusi (participant 1 - not her real name) said that it was very easy to
use the meaningful learning model, because she only had to give keywords related to the material, and then ask about the concepts and illustrate the concept on the board. Mrs. Yuli (participant 2), Mrs. Tuti (participant 3) and Mr. Yudi (participant 4) also said that the process was very easy, especially if teachers bring props that attract students. To determine a student's prior knowledge does not always require tough questions; easy questions are enough that students will answer spontaneously. Mrs. Elliyt (participant 5) said that it was easy because students can answer according to what they know in the area around them.
Participant 6 had a different response. He considers that the practice of asking questions is difficult. If teachers can relate the question to the circumstances that exist in the environment, then
the task of the teacher will be easier. The same thing was also stated by participant 4, that asking questions that provoke critical thinking is relatively difficult when there are no more ideas to be questioned. At first it may be considered easy, but the next question will be more difficult because it must associate with rational concepts. To ask careless questions may be easy, but to relate them to rational concepts is very difficult.
In creating a mind-map, teachers are required to guide and direct the students. Is this an easy task for teachers? Participant answers varied. Participant 1 said it was quite difficult. In the first meetings, there was a belief among teachers that students would immediately create a mind-map while they were looking carefully at paper as media to create the mind-map, so that teachers tended to focus more on the content of the mind-map as students are busier drawing than filling the mind-map. Participants 2 and 4 stated that it was easy to be implemented. Participant 6 was having difficulty because most of the students does not understand the mind map. However, this difficulty occurs because the meaningful learning model was new as introduced, in line with more frequently, this model is used, teachers might be easier to guide the students [21].
In practice, meaningful learning models that use mind map techniques, teachers were asked to rate and comment on students' minds-map when presented in the classroom. Is this an easy task for teachers? Participant 1 said that to comment was fairly easy. Teachers have to see several branches of the main title. Then how many branches of each branch but rather difficult to rate it. Because we have to read one by one-word concepts they write. The difficulty lies in the correlation between what students described with a title that will be presenting on the mind-map. Participant 5 stated that it was somewhat difficult because sometimes students rely on each other for the first time in presenting a mind-map. In the participants' opinion, teachers' role in learning is already appropriate with the expectations as facilitators. With this model, students are actively learning through discussion. Learning has been oriented to the students.
The second question is about the factors that inhibiting the model of meaningful learning through mind-map application. The explanation is as follows. Each learning model has advantages and disadvantages. The implementation of a model can be affected by an unlimited number of factors. Researchers ask the opinion of the teachers who have conducted trial models, which can be explained as follows.
According to participant one, the obstacles in implementing a model are teachers, students, and the availability of time. In terms of the teachers, it is their lack of capability and understanding of meaningful learning. In the case of the students, they have no desire to try new things and are usually afraid of being wrong, as well as having limited time. Participant three stated the obstacle of the lack of teaching aids in schools, meaning that teachers have to provide these themselves using their own money. Participant four considers that the primary constraint of this model is the factor of time, but he also mentioned the difficulties of learning, stating that a teacher must have tricks to resolve these problems [20].
V. C
ONCLUSIONGenerally, the use of a mind-map has been implemented in order to simplify concepts and formulate a framework of knowledge. This research proved that mind-maps are not only used to decipher the number of concepts into a simplified form, but also to aid students in the comprehension of these ideas through a thinking process. This method gathers similar concepts and connects them together, until a framework of knowledge can be arranged based on logical truth. The more concepts that the students mention, the easier these connections become. Making these links provides the students with more newly acquired knowledge. In terms of meaningful learning, the inter-connection stage between concepts is a crucial step, so it should be at the center of teachers’ attention. The relationship between concepts in the subject of geography can be used as an example, as in the case of causality, purposes and objectives relation, or a conditional relation. The application of mind-maps can also track the number of concepts mentioned by students. Score values obtained through mind-maps can equally be used as evidence of achievement, in the same way as the results of objective tests or essays.
However, there are factors that need to be considered by teachers when using a mind-map in class, such as students’ awareness of why the connections between concepts are being made. Students’ activity should continue to be monitored to determine the reason for the branching of concepts; the connections should be logical and they should be able to describe why they have been made. At the end of the lesson, students should be expected to communicate the mind-map in front of the class so that any false links can be corrected early on, to avoid the misconception that it will be easy to do in the future.
