ANote:Practice
of Educational
Information
Processing*1
Takashi
CHIHARA
and Hideki
NISHIMATSU*2
Summary
Some innovations of school education by computer-instrumentaion are advanced year
by year. First, the relationship between school education and computer is described brief-ly. After.available types of CAI, and the educational significance of computer・instrumen-tations, are explained, examples of computer utilization in each school-subject are intro・
duced. Some theoretical situations of classroom administration and school management by
computer are explained. Two teachers'hand-made software for data・processing of academ・
is performance and for S-P analysis are explained with concrete procedures . Finally some problems for the future of informationalized society are discussed.
1
Computer
and
Education
1.Relationships between computer and education
1)computer as a school-subject's content
Acomputer itself is learning material, such as"Jouhou kiso"(base of information)in "Gijutsu -ka"(engineering)in a junior high school
. 2)computer as a instrument
Acomputer is used to enrich teaching skills and for classroom administration. a)as an instrument of teaching activity
Computers are actively used in the educational communication between the teacher
and students and used to enrich a teacher's ablity such as presentation and collection of infor-mation and learning analysis.
b)as an instrument of education management
Computers are used to enrich a teacher's ablity of information storage, retrieval and for processing designs of his/her teaching process.
c)as an instrument of research for education
Computers are used to analyze statistically the educational process, and to improve
teaching methods.
零1Thispaper mainly consist of the second author's lecture-notes at the Faculty of Education
, Shiga Uni・ versity, and was checked and translated by the first author.
宰2Math . teacher at Hiyoshi Junior High School. Shiga University.
The three points described above are not necessarily divided distinctively.
2.Teacher's abilities to use a computer for education
These ablities are to understand the educational information on teaching methods and to
deal with it pertinently.
In other words, they are abilities of observation of a child's learning behavior, analysis of
performance data, evaluation of each child's academic performance, and
evaluation/selec-tion/organization of subject matrials. They are abilities of processing such as analysis,
evalua-tion, production, organization, and presentation of educational information, and abilities of
what and how he/she deals with them by computer(Sato,1989).
3.Educational information
l)educational information
Educational information is defined as useful information for achivement of educational
goals.
a)information to be used for getting knowledge or solving a problem
・data on books in the school library:loaning and returning of books, library administra・ tion
・data on materials for solving a task
・data on audio・visual materials for academic lesson
・software for easy computer use
b)information to be used for improvement of teaching(teaching information)
・data on formation and practice of educational curriculum ●data on goals, contents, and teaching plans
●data on analysis of teaching records ・data on academic records and evaluation
●data on records of school life:health care data ・data on subject materials and educational instruments ●data on educational research in school
c)documents for school management
・data of the school register on students ・data of teaching staff
・data on establishment and instruments
4.Computer
diffusion
in the schools
1)computer
foundation
ratio and average
numbers
in March,1995,1996
foundation ratio average number
Elementary schools Junior high schools High schools Special schools
84.7%
99.7
100.0
98.3
90.7%
99.8
100.0
98.7
6.9%
23.9
61.9
8.9
8.5%
25.3
66.6
10.0
2)methods
of computer
foundations
in March,1995,1996
bought
rent/lease
others
Elementary schools Junior high schools High schools Special schools
67.6%
77.6
73.1
78.3
57.6%
73.9
70.8
77.9
29.7%
21.6
25.8
15.4
39.4%
25.1
28.0
16.1
2.7% 0.8 1ユ 6.33.0%
1.0
1.2
6.0
3)where
computers
are in the school
on March,1995,1996
computer-room
`
Rika-room
teachers-office
others
Elmentary schools 33.3% Junior high schools 90.9 High schools 85.O Special schools 54.1
41.9%
91.7
87.5
57.5
13。2% 12.4 54.1 27,714.3%
14.3
54.9
28.8
64.4%
64.6
77.7
43.6
64.2%
67.2
81.2
47.3
18.1%
16.2
45.5
41.0
19.4%
17.3
46.2
39.6
4)establishment
ratio of LAN
system
on March,1994,1996
Elementary;9.4%,13.4%/Junior
high;56.0%,56.5%/'High;56。3%,60.4%/Special;
2.6%,8。8%
5)average
ratio of teachers
who
can operate
computers
on March,1995,1996
0perate・teachers
ratio
computer-teachable/operate・teachers
Elementary schools Junior high schools High schools Special schools 32.2% 47。1 54.5 30.3
39.2%
50.9
58.7
33.7
38.5%
44.7
41.3
35.8
42.6%
44.6
40.5
35.5
6)foundation ratios of computer software on March,1994,1996
private-made cooperative made software on market
Elementary schools Junior high schools High schools Special schools
9.3%
3.7
11.5
13.5
6.6%
3.5
7.7
10.1
6.9%
2.1.
1.7
5.0
5.8%
2.3
1.2
3.0
79.0%
91.0
83.8
68.1
82.1%
91.2
88.9
76.9
II
Direction
of informationalization
in education
1.Informationalization in the school management
1)11areas of school management(Nishinoso,1994)
a)establishment and determinent of goals and management plan in the school
b)organization and practice of school management c)human relationships
d)research activity of teaching staff
e)supervision and advice of principal, viceprincipal, and head teacher f)office work in the school
g)material administration in the school
h)social relationships in the school
i)organization of educational environment in local society
j)evaluation of the school
All items discribed above are not computerized.
2)4steps of informationalization(Visscher,1991)
step 1:Programs are developed by amatuers. Many programs such as these are developed
here and there.
step 2:Application software for concentrated office administration is developed. Data
used by this program is not useable with other programs.
step 3:School finance, teachers'disposition, school time tables, etc. are systematized. Access- Access- Access- ing necessary data is not difficult.
step 4:Acomputer system is stable and convenient for everyday use, and takes care of all
school management completely.
Japanese informationalizations in school are positioned from step 2 to 3.
2.Informationalization
in the classroom
management
1)Activity
in classroom
management(Kojima,1990)
a)Administration
of the educational
curriculum
in a classroom
Setting
up the educational
goal in a class/Planning
the classroom
management/Organiz-ing the class-system/Managmanagement/Organiz-ing
the special activities
in a class/etc./
b)Administration
of the classroom
Setting
up the classroom
environment/Evaluating
and improving
the classroom
eviron-ment/
c)Administration
of groups
in the classroom
Understanding
pupils/
Teachers'leadership/
Human
relationships
in the class/
Life・
guidances/
Educational
consultings/
d)Other
administration
in the classroom
Relations
to the PTA
and the local government/Relations
with another
class, grade
or
school/
There are many activities in a classroom.
3.Informationalization in learning・guidance
1)Reasons why learning-guidance is facilitated in informationalization
a)Information-education is established as one of the school subjects for computer-literacy
b)The computer is downsized, and processes visual and auditory materials
c)Procedures of computerization are exercised in a few schools
2)Use of information technology in learning・guidance
a)Presenting the information to explain subject materials
Type of simulation/Type of database/Type of turtorial/
b)Executing individual learning by presenting subject materials directly
Type of drill and practice/Type of turtorial/Type of problem-solving/ c)Using a computer as a tool for understanding
d)Using a computer as a content for the information education
e)Educationally communicating intra・and interschool
g)Administrating materials on learning, learning data, etc.
4.Informationalization in career・guidance
1)Individual guidance:to guide or advise a pupil's social ability and attitude,
To foster his/her nature or disposition of social self-realization, and to bring up his/her abil-ity of self-education.
a)System to aid understanding of his/her-self appropriately
b)System to aid determining his/her way in life
c)System for knowing his/her learning and health
2)Practical use of information science for career guidance
a)System to aid teachers in career guidance to use academic performance data
b)System of retrieval for high shools and job-searching
c)System of access for the inclused information by a student's need
3)HEART
system
in the Center
of Daigaku・nyushi(University
entrance
examination)
HEART
is Higher
Education
ARTiculation
Support
System.
a)Selecting
a university
b)Guidance
for university
admission
c)Prompt
report in HEART
皿 Computer
use to aid a child's
learning
1.Improvement in teaching methods
It is necessary to eravolate computer use as a teaching machine. a)Computer as a tool of teaching
b)Computer as a tool for subjective learning by pupil
c)Computer as a tool for individual learning
2.Available
Software
for teaching
Classification
of Software(next
page.)is
showed
by Monbusho(1990),
3.Ideas of CAI
1)CAI is Computer Assisted Instruction.
In the later 1950s, CAI was developed and used to teach people aviation control in the US
Air Force. Then CAI was developed and researched in companies for fresh-man orientation
and in universities for school use. Thus the system was eravolated to use computer for individ-ual learning.
2)Principle of CAI
Learning-software is set a memory device. A learner puts necessary information in the
computer through an input device. The computer processes it according to a procedure in
the learning-software and presents a response for the learner on an output device. This
Software
Software for basic operations Software for educational operation Basic software Operating System FEP for Japanese Word-processing software Basic application software Japanese word processor Database software Drawing software etc. Teaching/learning software Drill type Explanation type Problem-solving type Simulation typeInformation retrieval type etc.
Teaching/administrating software Making subject matter Collecting materials Administrating performance Evaluation
etc.
School administration software Making school time・tables Career guidance
Physical health Library administration Educational statistics etc.
ecutes Learning through communication between the computer and the learner.
ess is controlled by the learning・software in the computer.
This proc・
4.Classification of CAIs
The higher the level of CAI, the more associative and inductive the learning theories
become. The lower type of CAI, the more cognitive and detective in the learning theories.
(lmae,1992)
1)Drill・practice type
Progress of followings, a presentation of problems by the computer, an input of response by the learner, and a presentation of KR・, is repeated. It is equivalent to an exercise in school tea・
ching. Its structure is simple, so making software is relatively easy and much market
soft-ware for learning are of this type. This type is very avairable in case it is necessary to exer・ cise repeatedly for memory of basic items and for calculation.
2)Tutorial type
This type is called teach・in type or individual instruction type. Typical proceedings are
fol-lowings. Sentences or pictures for explanations are present on CRT. This phase corresponds
to the introduction or explanation in a textbook. The interpretation is usually divided in to
steps. An explanation in each step is executed by using characters, figures,photo pictures,
and/or animations, This step is called a"frame". After the explanation, problems for the exer-cise are usually presented to fix and confirm the learning.
3)Data base type
This type is for the student to learn contents stored by computer accessing to computer.
This is also called the Information retrieval type. Information retrieved is constructed not
only by characters but also by visual images. This informaton is structured in a network
system.
4)Game/simulation type
Simulations are used when an examination in a real situation is difficult because of cost,
time, and danger. A game is a fiction and different from a simulation. Because it tends to
have simpler rules than a simulation and is created by game-designers, it is difficult to differen-tiate them.
5)Problem-solving type
The computer is uniquely used as a tool for a student to solve a problem presented by a tea-cher. In most cases, basic software is used such as a word・processer, music・player, calculator, graphic tool, etc。 This type is called a Computer Assisted Learning for facilitation of unique
computer-usage by students, whereas a tutorial type is a more inductive CAI.
5.Practice of CAIs:General methods/procedures of CAI schoolings(lmae,1992)
1)Drill-practice type
It flows as followings,1Explanation of practice,2Drill practice on
CAI,3Comfirma-tion by a written test. The first step is to lecture on the contents of practice drills in each class・
room. Second and third steps are executed in a computer-room. The second step takes
about 35 minutes with operating software and the third step is executed for about 15 min・
utes. .
2)Tutorial type
This type is basically as individual learning. It is effective for each student to use
comput-ers individually in order to review school subjects, to study entrance examination, and to
take a qualification.
3)Data-base type
This type is for each student to use individually when necessary. In schooling, pupils
learn the method of its usage. It is used for investigation just like a library.
4)Game/Simulation type
This type is the same as a drill・practice type. A simulation creates a scientific
experi-ment on the TV screen. A teacher demonstrates through VTR some typical events prepared
by CAI of this type.
5)Problem-solving type
a)Students learn functions of learning-software such as calculating, drawing on the
screen, or playing music.
c)They actively solve the tasks while using the software's functions.
6.Educational significance of CAI learning(Mizukoshi&Kobayashi,1994)
1)Individual learning in human vs. computer situation
This is an individual learning system based a two・way channel or dialog communication between human and computer.
This is a learning system by the student's pace, without another student interferance, by
communicating with a computer.
2)Realizing
fruitful learning
This
learning
system
is executed
by reconfirming
his/her
learning
progress.
This
system
works
to achieve
a higher
level of academic
achievement.
3)Interest for academic learning
CAI software has some unique functions such as animation, simulation, making figures,
etc. It is effective for understanding knowledge and available to enhance interest or concern for academic learning. It is useful to foster children's emotion and volition in a learning situa-tion.
4)Cultivating information・processing ability
Manipulating a computer is useful to build not only using・ability with a computer but
also information・processing ability such as judgement, selection, and rearrangement of
infor-mation. It makes children understand the value or significance of information.
7.Computer utilities in teaching
1)Utilization in introduction
An important function of introduction is the motivation for academic learning.
a)Assisted activity for satisfication of the student's condition
CAI materials as drill-practice type are used to review a lesson. But the utilization for
review is only as a supplement. it is important to use in a short time the method for activa-tion of learning volition.
b)Presentation for activation of challange volition to learning-task
Presentation of an animation, execution of game・type or simulation・type CAI,
muliti-presentation by visual image and letters of social or natural events, etc. are effctive for learn-ing。
2)Utilization in teaching
a)Learning situation by a child's investigations
The child uses a computer and investigates materials to report in class.
b)Learning by experiment or practice
Children learn subjects in a CAI system. c)Utilization in finishing
Some important functions of finishing a class are for children. to satisfy for anticipation to the class, to reconfirm his/her academic achievement in the class, to activate his/her voli・ tion for the next task, and to enjoy engaging in the tasks. Drill-practice type CAI is useful
and general for'self-evaluation of his/her learning level.
8.Computer utilizations in each curricular subject
l)Japanese
Learning activity in retrieval mode from information sources such as a Japanese
diction-ary, an encyclopedia, etc. Learning activity in using a Japanese word・processer.
2)Social science
Learning activity in retrieval mode from information source as a who's who, an atlas,
statistical materials, etc. Learning activity in simulation mode such as a future・estimation, a
hypothesis-testing, etc. Learning activity in problem-solving mode such as analyzing and figur・
ing of statistical data.
3)Algebra and math.
Learning activity in information・processing such as making up and calculating
a cross-table. Learning activity in graphic-function mode. Learning activity in simulation-function mode.
4)Natural science
Learning activity in information-processing. Learning activity in graphic function mode.
Learning activity in simulation mode such as motions of planet,motions of fall-down, earth・
quake, food-chain system, etc. Learning activity in information retrieval mode such as retriev-ing an annual report of natural science, a pictorial book of wild grass, a pictorial book of
ani-mals, illustrated book of stones, etc. Learning activity in computer-communication mode
such as environmental education.
5)Life science
Learning activity in simulation mode such as in-door environment, dress-making, etc.
Learning activity in information retrieval mode such as life information, administrating of
foods, nutritional analizing, a bill of fare, etc. Learning activity in graphic function mode.
6)Health
and physical
education
Learning
activity
in simulation
mode
such as a shot-putting,
running
broad(high)jump,
etc.
7)Art
Learning activity in graphic function mode such as drawing and painting, etc.
8)Music
Learning activity in MIDI mode such as musical composition and arrangement, etc.
9)English
Learning activity in computer-communication mode such as communication with foreign
9.Assessment
of software
for learning(Nakano&Hara,1994)
Asample of assessment items of software-program for learning
Assessment items raw-score weight estimation
Usability for different thinking and activity of learners Enhance student's volition for learning
Adequacy of presentation of curricular-matters Readiness for comprehension level Adequacy as an audio-visual presentation Clearness of learning object
Reconfirm and analysis of learning level Adequacy for progression of schooling
Suitability for different learning modes
Inclusion of necessary information and functions Arrangement of examples and comments
Sub-material as printed matter or notebook Usability of function for active learning Usability of computer manipulation Clearness of operation manual Expansion of system
etc.
raw-score=0=no 1=insufficient 2=more sufficient 3=very sufficient
weight: 0=not neccesary 1=not worry 2=neccesary 3=very neccesary
estimation:raw-score×weight score
10.Basic
design
for a computer-room(Tsukahara,1993)
1)Floor
board,
basic size
160×90cm
:one operator
with one computer
without
a printer.
160×(140-160)cm:one
operator
with one computer
and a printer.
160×140cm
:two
operator
with one computer
without
a printer.
160×(180-220)cm:two
operator
with two computers
and a printer.
2)Illumination
The ideal situation is a dark screen, with light on the desk.
It is not desirable to have any reflected images of illumination or window light on the
screen of display. It is desirable to have the computer room illuminated indirectly from the ceil・ ing.
3)Air condition
Machines dislike high temperature, high humidity, and low temperature. The air condition-ing is also bad for children.
4)Electric power supply
One set of computer needs 300-400 W. If the room has 20 sets, they need 6-8kW.
5)Arrangement
a)Arrangement for simultaneous lessons
All student machines are arranged in the same direction. The teacher's desk is put in
front of them or in back of them.
Good point:Instruction for all is easy, because students look in the same direction, The tea・ cher can look at the displays of all students, when he/she stands at the last row of student
desks, Machine-maintenace is easy, because it is easy to access the back of the machine . Bad point:It is difficult for the teacher to look at the student's displays from a standard lo-cation of the teacher. Instruction to individuals is not easy, because the distance from each com・ puter desk is narrow.
b)Parallel arrangement
Computer desks are arranged so that students face each other, and are turned rectangle
from the teacher's desk.
Good point:It is easy for the teacher to walk to each student. Instruction for all is relative。 ly easy, because students only turn their faces to the teacher's desk .
Bad point:It is not easy to look at some displays, because they may reflect window light etc.
c)Group(llands)arrangement
There are a few large tables in the room. Students operate key・board on the surround・ ings of each table.
Good point:Students can operate the computer while discussing it with one another.
Bad point:Acomputer room for this type must be broarder.
d)Periphery arrangement
All computers are set on surrounding walls. Each student turns their back to the
room-center,
Good point:Teacher can look around at all of the student's displays, by standing in the
center of the room. Because students have a lesson when instruction is necessary , it is easy
for the teacher to explain and students learn concentratively.
Bad point:Acomputer room for this type must be braoder also.
IV
Computer
utilization
to aid educational
administration
1. Educational data・processing
Educational data are academic achievement, health, and physical data.
1)Academic achievement
This process is executed in most schools by computers. A computer can process in relative-ly short time the achievement distributions and tendencies of a class or a grade.
2)Processing physical motion measurement and health diagnosis data
This work over loads the yougo(Japanese;it means health and sanitation)一teacher and
the teacher of physical education. 3)Sports test
Sports tests deal with very much data, then need an appropriate program for processing
and administration of the data. Relatively many programms are developed.
*林Example of educational data・processing林 象hand-made program by a teacher
(1)processing of master-file ①making a master-file ②correcting the master・file ③presenting data on the display
⑤saving the master・file on a diskett ⑥processing of in/out・transfered student ⑦processing of in/out-transfered teacher
⑧mainaining members in a class
⑨maintaining members in a club-circle
⑩processing of career・guidance data
(2)processing test-data
①input/output of data
Presenting, printing, sorting, writing, correcting, printing on a graphic or a table ②reviewing data of last-term
③copying data-files (3} options
①adminstrating a floppy-disk
②printing of club・data or high school information ③setting a printer
④printing academic achievement data
⑤making a file of processed data
2.Administration of school education
1)Forming classes
Teachers make individual・cards of students and form classes by arranging the cards at a
very busy time, the end of the fiscal year, in most schools,
Acomputer helps decrease the work.
2)Making a list of names in different type
Many teachers must make many lists of names at the beginning and the end of the fiscal
year by stamping or hand・writing names from their classes. A necessary list of names for
three years is made by maintaining the name-file by inputting names of students when they
enter.
3.Career guidance for high schools
Guidance desk work for high schools makes teachers in middle school busier than
making a list of names or processing academic achievement data. They must access
informa-tion of high schools and individual information of the student to judge the most appropriate way for him/her. At this time a computer is very useful in accessing information.
4.Analysis of test performance
Teachers present students'test performance on a"student-problem table"to consider
their evaluation and progress.
ゆ牌S-P(Student・Problem)table(Sato ,1975,1989)榊 hand・made program by a teacher
(1)S-Ptable
Performance on an achievement test or drill is rearranged by some order to visually present students'learning or questions'quality for instructional guidance or consideration of the test. A table
with"1", if the answer is correct, and"0", if it is incorrect on each question and each student, is rearran・ ged as the following. a)high score order of student's total scores. b)high score order of the question's score, c)S-curve and P-curve.
(2)nature of S-P table analysis
①it is appropriate for the learning process analysis of performance data.
S-Ptable analysis is a nonparametric analysis and suitable for a formative analysis. ②it is comprehensible without knowledge of statistical terms.
The theory and procedure is simple. It gives available information for a lesson analysis and learning-diagnosis. It does not need any technique or knowledge about statistics to analyse.
(3)S-curve
The S-curve is a curved line which is plotted at a point that is counted from left number of correct answer on each student. This is a line of accumulative distribution of each student's total score, and pres・ ents the accomplishment of each student.
(4) P-curve
The P-curve is a curved line which is plotted at a point that is counted from up-end number of cor-rect answer on each question. This is a line of accumalative distribution of correct students'number on each question, and presents the difficulty of each question,
(5) basic feature of S-P table
①many is are in left-upper area of the table and Os are in right-bottom.
②area of S-curve's right-side is equal to area of P-curve's right・side. PROBLEMS
③two areas surrounding the S-curve and the P-curve are equal. 塁
(・)estim。ti。 。 。f S.CU,v, 霧
①figure(a)shows an easy drill-task.
.(の (b) ②figure(b)shows a proficient drill-task but not so sufficiently.
③figure(c)shows a standard achivement test.
④figure(d)shows an unlearned drill-task.
⑤figure(e)shows a difficult drill-task such as a pretest before a (,) (d) (,)
lesson.
(7)estimation of P-curve
①on figure'(f), the P-curve and the S-curve coincide, This is a case in which a simple task is given. ②on figure(g), the P-curve and the S-curve are separated. lt indicates that students must do some- thing before solving questions.
③on figure(h), the P-curve is nearly horrizontal・lt suggests
m・ny questi。 ・・a・e equal i・diffi・ulty・ ・f・ ・a・app・ ・ently・H・w一 ' ,
・ver it i・di・ates m・ny diff・rnt phases,。 、 a questi。n i, ea,y f。r p p pl
astudent but difficult for another. (f). (g) (h) (8)differnt pattern in S-P tables
①achivement test type.
②drill type. s S S 7ノ 戸 '
③lesson type.
、
,'
④programmed
learning type.
p
s s
,! P 璽 ノ づ P㌶ ⑤pretest type . ① ② ③ ④ ⑤(9)closeness between the S-curve and the P・curve
①the two curves are close on tests of math or English generally, and are separate on tests of social sci- ence or natural science(lower grades).
②the two curves are more separate on every-day・tests, term・tests. standard・tests.
③the two curves tend to separate in the following cases;contents or methods of learning・guidance
コ
are not appropriate;student's understanding is not stable;contents or methods of test-questions are not adequate.
④the two curves tend to be close on difficult questions. lt is a problem・
(10)coefficient of difference D寧 . Coefficient of difference is defined as a following:
D'=[S(N,n,p)]/{E亡SR(N,n,p)]}
S(N,n,p)=real area surrounded S-and P・curve on the S-P Table
E[SR(N,n,p)]=expected value of area surrounded random S-and P-curve
An approximate value of D`is calculated followingly.
D`=Ksp/[4NnP(1-P)xDB(M)]
Ksp:number of"1"and"0"in area surrounded S-and P-curve
N:number of students, n:number of problems, P:mean of correct ratios
DB(M}lconstant number defined by N and n
UD judgement norm of D掌and treatment
①D'values of a delivery test such as a drill, a small test, etc. and of an essay test are about O・4 normally. If D事of a test is more than O.5, results of the test must be considered remarkably. If D零 of multiple choice test is more than O.6, the test must be noticable.
②D`of a standard academic achievement test or a real academic ability test is about O.5 normally. If the value is more than O.6, the test must be noticable。
③lf D'value is too small, it is noticable sometimes. lt results from a dichotic classification of under・ standings and misunderstandings.
④lf the students number is less than 20, and the number of problems is less than 10, D'value should not be reliable。
コ
⑤D'is available only under the condition of limitations of 50±25%in average of correct ratios. (12)coefficient of attention
Coefficient of attention(CA)for response pattern of a variable is a value how distant a response pat-tern of a variable from the complete response pattern, which is not exchangable"1"and"0"bounded
by border line of the variable. It is calculated as follows. ・
distance from complete response pattern to actual patternCA ≡
CA=
1一
maximum distance from complete response pattern covariance of actual pattern and criterion variable
covariance of complete pattern and criterion variable
If complete response pattern, CA=0, if random response pattern, CA≒1. 03)actual calculation method of coefficient of attention
CAPi=(TPj O-TPj1)/(TPjS-TSPj x MS)
TPj O=summation of total score corresponded with"0"on the upper problem Pj on the P-curve
TPjl=summation of total score corresponded with"r'on the lower problem Pj on the
P- curve .
TPjS=summation of total score of students under problem Pj on the P-curve
TSPi=summation of correct responses of problem Pj
MS=mean score
②coefficient of attention for a student
CASi=(NSi O-NSH)/(TSiC-TSSi x MC)
NSi O=number of correct responses corresponded with"0"on the left side of the S- curve
NSH=summation of number of correct responses corresponded with"1"on the right
side of the S-curve
TSiC=summation of number of correct responses on the left side of the S-curve TSSi=total score of student's Si
MC=mean number of correct responses
(10judge-standard of CAP and CAS, and their treatment
correct-response ratio of items
score
of
student
0.85
better
0.15
best
reconsider
reconsider
no-good
better I no-good O.50rO.6 CA of problem
Evaluation of problem
best
normal
careless missreattention
readiness
a.formative testIf correct-response ratio is less than 85% and CA is more than O.5, it is necessary to give it more attention. If CA is more than O.75 and cor-rect-response ratio is under as same, it must be given more attention.
b. standard test
If CA is more than O.6, it is necessary to give it more attention.
in§ufficient Iunstable learning O.50rO.6
CA of student Diagnosis of student
5.Analysis of classroom instruction
Analysis of classroom instruction by Flanders(1970).
Interactional utterances of a teacher and students in classroom instruction are
categor-ized in 10 categories。 There are 7 categories for teacher's,2categories for students' , and l
for a silent or confusing situation. These classifications are executed every 3 sconds through
video・tape observation of an instruction. Each category is counted in a 10×10 matrix
, where the column is the previous category and the row is the present category . Thus the
class-room instruction is evaluated by a modality of the matrix table .
The teacher's utterance categories are as followings.1:acception of affection,2:encour・
aging, 3:acception of idea, 4=inquiring, 5:protesting
, 6=directing, and 7:criticizing.
ry is a silent or confus孟ng situation.
6. Schedule
for school
activities
Measurement
and
recording
in events
such
as Marathon,
short
course
running,
and
Ekiden.
7.Processing of questio皿aires
Many investigations are excuted in a school to study teaching skills, to evaluate a school event, to collect information for daily guidance of students, etc. Computer processing of the col-lected data proffers effective information.
8.Ad皿inistration of documents
Many docu.ments are made, utilized, and stored in a school. uments is necessary for a school to be activated sufficiently.
Effective administration of doc一
9.1)ata base for educational information
It is very useful for instructional activities in school to access a data base of educational in・
formation through a net-work system.
We access the educational information data base of the research center of curriculum・
development in Gifu University, which stores plan-documents of instruction, records of teach・
ing activity, learning tasks, exercises, evaluation materials, software for learning, etc.
The National Institute of Education also has a center of educational information and
offers'some data bases of education which are collected from teachers, researchers,
ad-ministraters, etc. all over Japan.
10.Ad皿inistration of the schools time-table
Formation of the schools time-table for each classroom is very complex and elaborate
work with careful consideration of each teacher's time・table for school of each classroom and
some special(such as music, art, experiment, etc.)classroom's usages.for formal schooling
and extracurricular activities. A computer is used not to make an automatic ultimate
time-table but to make some alternative time-tables as possible for discussion.
11.library administration
Rearrangement, inspection, and retrieval of books are executed by using a data-base
soft-ware. Some software realizes much statistical processing from lending and returning
data-files and individual-lender files.
12.other computer usages
Acomputer is used for composition of subject materials, administration of school
V
Fostering
of the computer
literacy
in school
education
1.Computer literacy:its ideas and historical views
1)Computer literacy
Computer literacy is a fundamental ability of selecting and using intensively some informa・
tion and information-media. It consists of the following four components:1abilities of
judge-ment, selection, rearrangement, processing, creation, and communication on
information.2ab-ilities of understanding informationalized societies'. characteristics and of understanding of・
fects of informationalization on societies and human beings.3comprehension of
responsibil-ity for information and of cognition importance.4comprehension of basic information sci・
ence and nautre of information media, especially computer, and aquisition of basic operation for them.
2)Historical outline of fosterng computer literacy
Acommittee on the contents of education, in the Educational Council, reported that foster-ing an ability for self-education such as learning an volition for learning must be made much
further in school, in 1983. The Educational Council submitted the first report in which the
main theme was on the basic plan of computer innovation in education, in 1985. The council
submitted the secondary report in which the main theme was on three principles of correspond・
ance to informationalized society and on fostering of computer literacy, in 1986. The main
theme in the third report of the Council was"intelligent school", that is construction of
a net-work system in educational information through."new media"technique . In 1988, the last
report of the Educational Council was released. It proposed the new direction of Japanese
ed-ucation from kinder-garden to university, graduate school, was informationalization and
inter-nationalization in the contents and institution of education. After the report, many policies
of education were designed and enforced. For example, in 1993, a new educational course
named"integration course"was proposed as one of courses in high school education .
2.Relationships between subject-education and computer literacy
l)Four abilities of computer literacy and education on the computer
a)abilities of judgement, selection, rearrangement, processing, creation, and communica・
tion of information,
Japanese:to cultivate abilities for the following activities, ie. accurate comprehention of
speech and/or sentence contents, appropriate summarization in necessary cases, collection of
suitable information, and their utilization for the sake of making up him/her own ideas. Social science:to rear abilities and attitudes of properly selecting and activating many ma-terials.
Mathematics:to understand numbers, figures, and'functions and to foster abilities
of infor-mation judgement, its rearrangement, and its processing through collection or rearrangement
of materials。
Natural science:to think much of observation and/or experiment, to understand how to
deal with and how to use observed data, to use a computer for information retrieval,
Drawing
art:to
activate
creation
and communication
of new
information
by colorization
and formation.
Engineering and home-economics:to rear abilities of information selection and process・
ing by using software, and to practically use a computer for solving daily problems.
Home-economics for high school:to understand relationships between information and
daily life, and to activate abilities of selection and utilization of everyday-life information. Foreign language:to further foster the ability of communication.'
Special activity:to rear abilities of information selection, judgement, and processing
thr-ough
utilization
of school・library,
and
through
comprehension
and
application
of
career-guidance
information.
b)abilities of understanding informationalized societies'characteristics and of
understand-ing effects of informationalization on societies and human beings.
Social science:to understand effects of information transfer and its socialization's
prog-ress on actual society.
Health
and
physial
education:to
understand
effects
of computer
utilization
on the
human
body.
Engineering
and home・economics:to
understand
effects and roles of information
media
on daily life and industrial
world.
Home-economics
for high school:to
comprehend
effects and roles of computers
on daily
life。
c>comprehension of responsibility for information and of cognition importance. Social science:to understand importance of information,
Morality:to learn respect of own and others human rights.
Special activity:to learn adequate application of information.
d)comprehension of basic information science and nautre of information media, especially
computer, and aquisition of basic operation for them.
Math. for junior high school:to express calculation procedures on a flow-chart, and to
un-derstand counting methods of binary digits and/or a×10".
Math. for high school:to learn``calculation and computer"in"Math. A", to learn"calcula-tion-method and computer"in"Math. B", and to learn to use a computer from view point of ap-plied mathematics in"Math. C".
Natural Science for junior high school:to understand developmental process of
comput-er as information media, in the lst Field.
Natural Science for high school:to comprehend communication, processing, and creation
of information as information media in"Physics I A".
Engineering
and Home-economics:to
understand
the role and function
of computers
thr-ough
manipulation
of the computer,
to rear basic
ability
of appropriate
information-utilization,
and to make
a simple
program
for a computer.
2)Basic view point to use a computer as a teaching tool.
a)for what purpose do you use a computer? To rear power of self・education
Will or volition for intensive learning/Active inquiry for problem solving/ Ability to establish one's own purpose and to select and use necessary information/
Ability to learn what and how he/she can learn/ To rear one's computer literacy
Judgement, selection, rearrangement, and processing of information/Creation and
commu-nication of new information/
Comprehension of effects of information on society and human life/
Comprehension of importance of information/Responsibility for information handling/
Comprehension of basic information science and information media/
To foster new scholorship
Active application of computers/
To rear ability of intensive corespondance for informationalization in society
Establishment of one's own problem/Selection of necessary information/
Application of information and its media for one's purpose/
Production of useful information/Expression of it by information media/
b)how do you use a computer
Elementary school:not to apply software to teaching, but to select and use appropriate software in the teaching process.
Junior high school:to learn about computers, subject's name"informton base", its meant
for basic knowledge of information and of computers。 Teachers use computers in their
class-rooms.
VI
Utilities
and
ownerships
of information
1.Intelligent ownerships and copyright system
Intelligent ownerships:copyright, patent right, utility model right, design copyright, trade・ mark right.
Awork with copyright:It is an expression of author's original thought or affection, and
falls under one of four categories;literature, academy, art, and music.
Computer program:Original computer program or data base system is protected by the
copyright law since 1986,1987, in Japan.
2.Notice of copyrighted materials'use in school
Limitation provision on copyright:Copy for personal use/Copy血afacility such as
a li-brary/Copy in citation/Copy in an educational establishment as a school/Copy by a
li-brary/
Teachers are generally acknowledged to copy a copyrighted matter for the purpose of
using it in their teaching activities. In general a board of education is not admitted to copy it for a purpose of distributon to schools under their control.
Actual cases of permissible copy:Copy for a lecture/Appreciation of CD in a Music
class and in a school-broardcast/Utilization of video・software for education in a school/Utili・ zation of a copy of art work in a school/
3. Protection of privacy
Personal informations should be dealt with in a computer system as follows.
and to limit access to private information.
To put restrictions on extent of utilization of stored personal information.
To assure one to know existence and content of his/her information, and to correct his/
her data.
To administrate exactness and up・to-date personal information, and to make security
from rewriting and destruction of data.
To define a responsibility of data-administrater for the protection of privacy.
V皿 Some
problems
of the informationalzation
1.Arrangement of hardwares
In 1996,90.7%of elementary schools had computers, the average number of computers
was 8.5. Possesion ratio of junior high schools was 99.8, the average number of computers was 25.3.
Most junior high schools have a computer room, but only 41.9%of elementary schools
have a computer room.
2.Arrangement of softwares
Most educational software is for math. and natural science.
subjects must be developed as soon as possble.
Software
in all school.
3.Teachers'training for computer
Teachers who can manipulate a computer are 39.2%in elementary schools,50.9%in
junior high schools. Teachers should participate in computer training seminars by a board
of education, and it is necessary for inexperienced teachers to be trained formally and
in-formally
4.Design of teaching methods
It is necessary to define teaching goals on each educational domain, and to integrate
infor-mation education and the purposes of each domain. Contents of domain goals in
scholor-ships are as followings:Knowledge, comprehension, and thinking in the cognition domain/
View-point, investigation, manipulation, experiment, and calculation in skill
domain/Inter-est, intention, attitude, valuation of affection and volition domain.
5.Utilization
of media-mix
and/or
multimedia
Media-mix
is to enforce
functions
of media
by means
combining
some
media.
Recently,
some teachers tried to combine some printed materials as a textbook and pictorial・book,
some static pictures as OHP-sheets and photographs, and some animation materials as
video-tape.
Multi-media is a system integrating many media on a computer system. Some teachers
may be trained as multi-media users. not only to operate a computer but also to effectively use some media in the teaching process.
