The strategic advantages of "maritime tourism"
in Japan : On the perspective of local development policies and marketing of university
journal or
publication title
Otemae journal of humanities
volume 7
page range A21‑A33
year 2006‑03‑31
URL http://id.nii.ac.jp/1160/00000456/
Creative Commons : 表示 ‑ 非営利 ‑ 改変禁止
Ontheperspectiveoflocaldevelopmentpoliciesandmarketingofuniversity
(わ が 国 の 観 光 創 造 に お け る 『海 洋 観 光 』 の 意 味 と戦 略 可 能 性)
YOSHIDAJunichi*TAKEHANAKeiko
要 旨
本 稿 の 目 的 は2つ あ る 。1つ は 、 近 年 、 わ が 国 の 国 家 戦 略 の1つ と もい え る 「観 光 立 国 論 」 に お け る 「海 洋 観 光 」 の 重 要 性 を 明 らか に す る こ とあ る 。 も う1つ は 、 わ が 国 の 高 等 教 育 ・研 究 機 関 に お け る 観 光 学 テ ー マ と して の 「海 洋 観 光 」 の 必 要 性 を 議 論 し、 そ
の発 展 的 可 能 性 を 考 察 す る こ とに あ る 。
わ が 国 の 「観 光 立 国 」 と い う戦 略 課 題 に対 応 して 、 観 光 分 野 で の 高 度 な 専 門 知 識 を有 す る 人 材 育 成 は 急 務 で あ り、 そ の た め の 大 学 教 育 の 充 実 は 、 北 海 等 大 学 大 学 院 に お け る
「 観 光 創 造 専 攻 」 の 設 置 を 筆 頭 に 、 観 光 学 関 連 の 学 部 や 学 科 の 設 立 と い う形 で 、 顕 著 に 見 られ る よ うに な っ て きて い る。 しか し な が ら、 大 学 院 レベ ル は別 と して 、 新 しい 学 部 や 学 科 で は 、 カ リキ ュ ラ ム 上 も、 わ が 国 の 地 理 的 、 文 化 的 、 あ る い は 経 済 的 背 景 か ら し
て も極 め て 重 要 な 「 海 」 と い う要 素 が 観 光 との 関 連 性 に お い て 取 り扱 わ れ る形 跡 は な い 。 近 年 、 一・ 般 的 に な りつ つ あ る 大 学 マ ー ケ テ ィ ン グ の 視 点 か ら も、 議 論 す る 必 要 が あ る と 考 え られ る。 ま た 、 わ が 国 は 海 運 、 海 上 交 通 に お い て も、 そ の 歴 史 的 発 展 過 程 か ら明 ら か な よ う に、 技 術 的 水 準 で も世 界 の トッ プ に位 置 して い る 。 こ の よ う な 恵 ま れ た 海 洋 資 源 の 活 用 は 、 観 光 経 済 学 の 視 点 か ら も、 こ れ を 抜 き に して の 「観 光 立 国 論 」 は 存 在 し な
いo
キ ー ワ ー ド 海 洋 観 光 、maritimetourism、 高 等 教 育 、highereducation、
大 学 マ ー ケ テ ィ ン グ 、marketingofuniversity、 観 光 政 策 、tourismpolicy
*)ProfessorofHokkaidoUniversity,GraduateSchoolofTourismStudies(CenterforAdvanced
TourismStudies),fromApril2007.
mother,lweep foryouaslwatchthesea eachtimeIwatchthesea
Issa
introduction
Theaimofthispaperholdstwodimensions.Oneistheclarificationofimportance of"maritimetourism"asoneofthenationalstrategiesinJapan.Theotheristodis‑
cuss"maritimetourism"asamajorthemeoftourisminthehighereducationand institutionsinJapanandtosurveyitspotentiality.
Correspondingtothestrategyofgovernmenttoadvocatetourismasamajor industryofJapan,thenurtureofthehumanresourceswithskillsandknowledge abouttourismisatstake.Theinstitutionalizationofhighereducationforthatpur‑
posehasbeenimplementedinashorttimeintheGraduateSchoo!ofInternational Media,CommunicationandTourismStudies(CenterforAdvancedTourismStudies, henceforthCATS)inHokkaidoUniversity,andrealizedinthenumbersofunder‑
graduateinstitutionsalloverJapan.
CATSholdsasuperbpositionamongthoseinstitutionsasitaimstointegrateand form"neo‑tourism"whichincludesmaritimetourismatthegraduatelevel.Thecur‑
riculaofothernewlyinstalledinstitutions,however,shownointentiontocopewith maritimeasanindispensableelementintourism.Thethemeofmaritimehasso
muchfertilebackgroundingeography,cultureandeconomythatitisnecessaryto discussthethemefromthepointofviewofmarketingofuniversity,whichhas becomeagenerallyrecognizeddevice,asitremainsadismalweakpointofthe strategicidealizationoftourism.
Suchkeywordsas"Sun,SeaandSand"or"Sun,SandandSex"havebeeninthe literatureontourismforyears,whichshowsthattheimportanceofmaritimehas longbeengloballyrecognizedasaresourceoftourism.Furthermore,Japanitselfis
amagnificentmaritimecountry,whoseexclusiveeconomiczoneincludesabout4,470
thousandsquarekilometers.Theskillsofnavigationortransportationonwaterhave
beenkeptatasuperblevelintheworldasthehistoricaldevelopmentofthosefields
clearlyshows.Thenationalstrategytoadvocatetourismasamajorindustryin
Japancannotbeachievedwithoututilizingthesefertileresourcesevenfromthe tourismeconomypointofview.
1.About"maritimetourism"
Inthissectionwewilldefine"maritimetourism"andshowitsculturalback‑
ground.ThediscussionthatJapanisamaritimecountrywillalsobepresented.
1‐1.Thedefinitionandculturalbackgroundof"maritimetourism"
Thedestinationsoftourismcanbedividedintothreecategoriesingeneral:moun‑
tains,water,andcities.Thenumberoftravelersintheworldisabout400millionsin 2005,andaround30%ofthemarepresumably"maritimetourists".Inthestatistics ofthetourismofJapan(thetourismwhitepaper2006),around20%ofthedestina‑
tionsofinboundJapanesetouristsarewater;around25%ofthedestinationsofout‑
boundJapanesetouristsaretypical"seaandbeach"destinationssuchasHawaii, GuamandSouthEastAsia.
Thesestatisticsclearlyshowtheimportanceof"maritimetourism".Beforethe definitionof"maritimetourism",wewouldconsiderthereasonsoftourismmove‑
mentsto"mountains""water",and"cities",notfromthetourismperspectiveof today,butfromtheviewpointofthetheoryofcultureorecology.Thisprocedure willproveusefulinthediscussionofrelationsbetween"culturalexchanges"and tourisminthefollowingchapter.
Wecancategorizethecultural"meaning"asfollows;"mountains"symbolize
paternity,"water"symbolizesmaternity,and"citiesorurbanculture"symbolize
"
menandwomen".Historica!ly,plainsandmountainsarethespaceforhuntingand nomadiclife,orspaceofproductivelifeofharvestsbyagricultures.Theremightbe
somediscussiononthedichotomyofsymbolizingproductionbypaternityandsym‑
bolizinghousekeepingbymaternity.Wewouldadoptitasculturalsymbolsdeduced fromtheprocessofhumanhistorywithoutfurtherdiscussion,sincethisisnotthe
themeofthispaper.
Thesymbolizationofmaternityby"water"relatestotheknowledgeofnatural
historythatdescribesthebirthofallthelivesincludinghumanbeingsevolvedinthe
water.Itisgenerallyknownthatahumanbodyiscomposedofelementsequalto
seawater,andhumanlifegrowsinthe"water"ofthematernalwombtillthetimeof
birth.
Whydopeopletraveltoseasandoceans?Thereasonmaybethattheywishto
gobackbytravelingtotheinstinctive"spaceofserenity".Ifweaskthepreference
oftravelers,theiranswersmaybe"seasandoceans","mountains" ,orurbantourism forculturalstimuli;forthesakeoftherelaxationofthemindandbody,orvacation,
theymaychoosemountainsorseas.Thereasoning,however,isquitesensuous,that
is,notconsciousbutunconsciousandinstinctivedesire .Astherearenumbersoflit‑
eraryworksonthethemeofmaternityandsea,thedesireforseasby‑humanbeings
incorporatesmagnificentmagicwhichsurpassesthefearofnaturaldisasters ̲like stormsandbigwaves.
Wehavedefinedthedesireformountainsinrelationtopaternity .Thisleadsusto theendangeredecologicalsystemsofthelivesontheearth,whicharecausedbythe
surplusamountofhumanactionaimingateconomicalproductionsincetheindustrial revolution.Thatmakespeopletourmountainsforthe"relaxingnaturalenviron‑
ment".Recently,therearerevoltsagainst"massproduction&massconsumption"
intourismormasstourismsuchasuglytourismcausedbylongstay.Peopleare seekingfortheoriginalrelationsbetweennatureandthemselves.
Urbantourismistouringforthesensualstimuliforamorerefinedmatureculture . Inthatsense,itisquitenotablethatthemostpopulardestinationsaroundtheworld
havebeeninEuropesincethebeginningoftheworldtourismstatistics.Urban
tourismcomprisesopera,concerts,museums,andeverysortofculturalinstitutions andentertainment,towhich"maritimetourism"closelyrelates.Cruisingortours onhugecruiserswasonce"thesocietyonthesea",andthebestdestinationforcou‑
pies.Vesselsthemselvesarefloatingcitieswithallthecharmofsociety.
Now,letusturntothedefinitionof"maritimetourism"."Maritimetourism"
includesislandsontheoceanandcoastalregions(beachesandlagoons)asitsdesti‑
nationsanditcomprisesfreetimeactivitiessuchasvacations,recreation ,sports, activitiesforhealth(wellness)andculturalexchangesinthenaturalenvironmentof
waterborndestinationsandonandoffthewater.Hencethenotionofmaritime
tourisminourdefinitionincorporatesnotonlybeachtourismstayingatresorthotels ontheshoresbutmarinesportslikeyachting,cruising,scubadiving,fishing,cultural
exchanges.Thenotionalsoincludesexperienceswiththeinhabitantsontheislands , whichhaveoriginalnaturalenvironmentandculture,andcruisingonthehugecruis‑
ers,whosemovementitselfformsatypeoftourism.
1‐2.Japanasamaritimecountry
Japanislocatedintheocean,surroundedbywaterandcomposedofmorethan 6800islands.Thisgeographicalfeaturehascharacterizedthecivilization,cultureand historyofJapanasa"maritimecountry".Thefeatureofamaritimecountryhas fourfactors.
1) 2) 3)
4)
Tradeandexchangeshavebeenexertedmainlythroughthewater.
Japanhassharedtheidentityasanislandcountryonthewater.
Waterhasfunctionednotonlyasthepathofexchanges,butasborders againsttheouterworld.
TradeandexchangesthroughthewatersofJapanhavetwofacets:local exchangesandoutreachingexchanges.
Wewilldiscussalongthisorder.
First,tradeandexchangeshavebeenexertedmainlythroughthewaterinJapan.
Beforethedateofmodernsystemsbasedonvehiclesandairplanes,themagnitudeof thedependenceonvesselsandshipsonthewaterconcerningthesystemsoftrans‑
portation,tradeandexchangesisbeyondourimagination.TheprimitiveIifeonthe waterisdepictedbyIshlmori(1985)andIntoh(2005,2006)whoseresearchreveals thattheresilientlifeinMicronesiaisstillledonthewater.Residentsontheislands inthatarea,especiallymen,literallyliveonthewater,thatis,theirproductiveand spiritualcultureisfirmlyconnectedwiththewatersurroundingthem.
Second,Japanhassharedtheidentityasanislandcountryonthewater.
Kawakatsu{1997,179‐183)analyzesJapanesehistoryfromtheculturalandciviliza‑
tionaspectsimpelledbyseasandtheocean.Hepointsoutthatinthelate7thcentu‑
rytherewasareformationofthe"Wa"dynastyto"Nippon"throneinJapan.
Sincethen,thepopulationinJapanhassharedtheidentityasanation.Themytholo‑
gyofJapansymbolicallydescribestheoriginofJapan;aGodandaGoddesscreated inthemiddleoftheoceanwithsomeislandsasanation.
Third,waterhasfunctionednotonlyasthepathofexchanges,butasborders
againsttheouterworld.Theoceanandseahavebeentheplacewherevibranttrade
andexchangeswereexerted,atthesametime,havefunctionedasborders.As
Kawakatsu(1997)observed,interactionwithforeigncountriesthroughthe
exchangesonwaterhaveprovidedJapanwithculturalstimuli,whichtypically
occurredduringactivetimesoftheexchanges.WhenJapanesesocietyturnedto
inwardinclination,asintheHeianera(duringthegth‐12thcenturies)andtheEdo
era(duringthe7th‐19tHcenturies),waterfunctionedasbordersandtheproduction ofitsoriginalculturesurpassed‑thatofforeign.Thus,theexchangesonwaterhave
beencloselyrelatedwiththedevelopmentofJapaneseculture.
Fourth,tradeandexchangesthroughJapan'swatershavetwofacets:local exchangesandoutreachingexchanges.ThewatersinsideofJapanhaveplayednot onlytheroleofpathsoftransportation,tradeandexchanges,butalsotheareason whichsomepopulationresided.LikeMicronesiamentionedabove,socalled
"S
uigunn"ornativearmedtribeshadpresidedaroundthewesternareasofJapan's waters.Thetribeswereformedinancient"Wa"period(fromthe5thto7thcentury) andlastedtillHideyoshiToyotomiconfirmedapolicytosettlethemonthelandin thelate16thcentury.IntheEdoera,themajorroleofwateraroundJapanwasbor‑
dersagainstforeigncountriesbecauseofthepolicyoftheTokugawadynasty.The roleofthewaterasthepathsoftransportationandtradewaslimitedtothedomestic
practiceslike"Kitamaeships"whichlinkedthenorthandwesternareasofJapan,or coastalfishingatthattime.RenownedwhalefishingofTaichiinKiiprovincewas originatedduringtheEdoera.
Japanhasreachedouttoothercountriesthroughthewater.Tradeandexchanges wereexertedbythegovernmentalorgansaswellasprivatesectors.Officialtrade withChinarunbygovernmentdatesbacktothreemajorperiods:the7thtogthcen‑
turywiththeTangDynasty,the10thto13thcenturywiththeSongDynasty,the15tH to16thcenturywiththeMingDynasty.IntheEdoera,the17thto19thcentury,trade waslimitedwithHollandandChinathroughNagasakiport.Thereweresmugglers orpiratescalled"Wakou"onthewaterbetweenChinaandJapanfromthe13thto
16thcentury.Thename"Wakou"literallymeansJapanesepirates,butincluded Chineseindisguise.Duringthel6thtol7thcentury,thesocalled"Nanbantrade", tradewithwesterncountriessuchasSpainandPortugalflourishedontheports locatedinwesternJapan.ThemostfamedcityatthattimewasSakai,wherethe worldrenowned"wayoftea"originated.TheMeijirestorationinthe19thcentury openedJapantotheworld,whichcontinuesuntiltoday.
2.Tourismandhighereducation
Inthissection,wewilldiscussthemeaningofthetourismsectorinhighereduca‑
tion,andwewillshowhowthedisciplineoftourismisinstitutionalized.
2‐1.Tourisminhighereducation
Tourisminhighereducationhasthreefacets,namely,interdisciplinary,globaland
politicalaspects.Becauseoftheseaspects,tourismhasbeeninstitutionalizedinhigh‑
ereducationandrenownedfeaturesandresourceshavecongregatedaroundthe institutions.
Asforitsinterdisciplinaryaspect,tourismasadisciplinecomprisesgeography,eco‑
nomics,sociologyandanthropology.Thesefieldsarefusedandintegratedtoembody cultural,regionalandinternationalresearchanddevelopment.CATSaddressesits aimsasfollows;acquisitionofabilitiesofculturaldesign,regionalmanagement,and
globalcommunication.Culturaldesignconfirmsthediscoveryofregionalidentity andtheincubationofculturalresourcesandintellectualassetsandcreationofcul‑
ture.Regionalmanagementconfirmsthepropositionoftourismpolicy,linkageofpri‑
vate,industrial,governmentalandacademicsectors,andtherevitalizationoflocal regions.Globalcommunicationconfirmsnurturinghospitality,interculturalunder‑
standingandpromotionofinternationalcooperation.
Second,globalcommunicationpresupposeslanguageskillsofgloballevel,especially thatofEnglish.Japanesesocietyhasstruggledtoacquiretheinstrumenttoarmthe
populationwiththeskills.Ithasnot,however,reachedthegoal.Onthecontrary, publicopinionisinthemazeoftheprosandconsof"AcquisitionofproperJapanese shouldbefirst,Englishshouldcomenext".Astheresult,thefreshmenoftheinsti‑
tuteofhighereducationhavenotbeentrainedenoughtocopewithglobalcommuni‑
cation.Thisproblemrequiresimmediateattention.Aprogramwhichisdesignedto comprisebothlanguageskillsandEnglishwillbelaunchedinApril2007in WakayamaUniversityandotheruniversities.Languageskillsrefertologicallycom‑
posedcommunicationskillswhichdatesbacktoancientGreece,Aristotle.Western civilizationhasthelongtraditionofthetrainingofthoseskillsanddevelopedlow contextculturealongwiththeirexplicitlanguagefeatures.Japanhasnotraditionof thatsortbecauseofitshighcontextculture.Japaneselanguageinthecurriculaof
Japaneseeducationalsystemhasnoprogramoftrainingoflanguageskillsinthepre‑
cisesense.WepresumelanguageskillsandEnglishcouldbetaughtsimultaneously atahighereducationlevel.Withoutlanguageskills,trainingofEnglishcannothave itsprofoundmeaning.
Third,Japanesepolicyalsoprovidesatailwindtotourism.InFebruary2002,
PrimeMinisterKOIZUmlannouncedinhispolicyspeechthatJapanwouldcommitto
increasinginboundtourismandrevitalizinglocalregions .Sincethen,thepromotionof tourismhasbeenapillarofJapan'spolicies.In2003 ,theprimeministerestablished andpresidedovertheTourismPromotionCouncil,whichpublishedareportonthe
basicstrategyfortourismpromotion.Basedonthereport,thegovernmentgathered allcabinetministersattheConferenceofCabinetMinistersforTourismPromotion, whichdevisedtheTourismPromotionActionPlan.ThePlan,whichcomprises243 policymeasuresoftherelatedministriesandagencies,isnowbeingpushedforward undertheleadershipoftheministerinchargeofthepromotionoftourism.
InMay2004,theTourismPromotionStrategyPanelwasestablishedunderthe ConferenceofCabinetMinisters.InNovember2004,thePanelpresenteditsrecom‑
mendationswithrespecttomorespecificstepstobetakenbytheprivatesectorand localregions.Eventually,theserecommendationshavebeenlegalized.
2‐2.TourismasadisciplineinJapan
Tourismdepartmentsaredesignedfortheeducation ,studyandresearchof
tourism.TheformerMinistryofTransportadvocatedthenecessityoftheinstitutes ofhighereducationinthereportsubmittedbythetourismpolicyconferencein1995
Basedonthisreport,RikkyoUniversityinestablishedatourismdepartmentin1998 .
Asthetourismpromotionpolicyhasbeenlegalizedasmentionedintheprevioussec‑
tion,theinstitutionalizationoftourisminhighereducationhasbecomethenorm.
Thenationalandlocalgovernmentaluniversitiesalsohaveestablishedtourism departments;Naraprefecturaluniversity,Yamaguchiuniversity,Universityof
Ryukyus,TakasakiCityUniversityofEconomics,WakayamaUniversity .Inaddition,
WakayamaUniversityandUniversityofRyukyusplantoinstallschoolsbasedonthe departments.MostnotableistheincipienceofagraduateschoolinHokkaido University,i.e.CATS.TourismdepartmentsinJapanarelistedbelow.
TourismdivisioninhighereducationinJapan
Institution Prefecture Division Focalpoints
nationalgraduate school
Hokkaido
University Hokkaido
GraduateSchoolofInternational Media,Communication,andTourism Studies,DivisionofTourismCreation
culturaldesign,regional managementandglobal communication.
O●nationalandlocal
governmentalschools
TakasakiCity Universityof Economics
Gumma CollegeofEconomics&Regional Policy
tourismpolicy,tourism management,international tourismandregional development NaraPrefectural
University Nara Tourismmanagementdepartment
tourismdevelopment course.internationaltourism
,,,
