FromItem−learnlngtOCategory−learnlng：
ALearnlngProcessofProceduralKnowledgeofLanguage
TbshihikoYAMAOKA
坤OgOU〃iver∫妙可乃dCJIer以〟C。血乃
AbstractItisarguedinthisarticlethatproceduralknowledgeofasecondlanguageasthegoalof
learnlngisbestlearnedthroughthelearnlngOfexemplarsoflanguageuseasinstancesof COnneCtingmeanlngWithform・Tworecenttheories，ACTIRtheoryofcognitiveskilllearnlngbyAnderson（1993）andUsage−BasedModeloflanguageacquisitionbyTblnaSello（2003），
are cited to show theimportance ofexemplarleamlngln SeCOndlanguagelearnlng・In discusslngtheroleofexemplarsinsecondlanguagelearnlng，adistinctionismadebetween item−learnlng and category−learnlng・Item−learnlng refbrs to thelearnlng Of particular expressionsitembyitemasexemplarswhichshowhowintendedmeanlngSareenCOdedonto formsorhowtheproceduresconnectingthemareexecuted・Category−learnlngisde鋲nedasthelearn1ng Of abstractrules that governa Set Of di飴rent expressions of the same
COnStruCtion．Itisstressedthatcategory−leArnlngOCCurSatalllevelsoflanguageandat Variousstagesoflearnlng・It．isalsoclaimedthatcategory−learnlngPrOVidesthesourceffom Whichawholesystemofgrammarofaninterlanguageisfbrmed．Finallyitisconcludedthat thelearnlngOfexemplarsconstitutesthemostessentialpartofsecondlanguagelearnlng・ 1．WhatUnderliesCommunicativeCompetence？ Mostofthepeopleconcernedwithsecondlanguagelearnlngandteachingwouldagree thatthegoaloflearnlngistodevelopcommunicativecompetenceinthetargetlanguage・Itis alsogenerallyaccgptedthatcommunicativecompetenceiscomposedofseveralcomponents・ Bachman（1990），for example，PrOPOSeS the following fbur components：grammatical knowledge，SOCiolingulSticknowledge，functionalknowledge，andtextualknowledge・Thus，itisarguedthatsecondlanguagelearnlngCOnSistsoflearnlngthegrammatical，SOCiolinguistic， functional，andtextualknowledgeofthelanguage．
It shouldberecognized，however，that agrammaticalcomponentofcommunicative
COmpetenCeunderliesalltheothercomponents・Thismeansthatinordertoshowevidenceof
havingtheknowledgeofeachofthesecomponents，thatknowledgemustbeactuallyreaJized ontosomekindoflinguisticform・Thisnecessarily meansthatgrammaticalknowledgeis requiredinthis processoflingulStic realization・Some exampJes may bein orderhere・ Sociolinguisticknowledgeoftheappropnatenessofanutteranceisactualizedbyemploylnga ParticularstruCtureaPPrOPriatetothesituation，e・g．，MqyIboTTOWyOurPenjbrawhile，Sir？
vs．Give me yourpenjbr a while．Thatis to say，SOCiolinguistic knowledge must be lingulSticallyrealized・Itisalsothecasewithfunctionalknowledgeandtextualknowledge・
Speakers，intentionsareencodedintheircorrespondinglingulSticforms，andcohesionand
COherencearealsorealizedasutteranceswiththeirrespectiveforms・
It can be safもly stated，therefore，that tolearn a secondIanguageis tolearn the grammaticalknowledgeofthelanguage・ltisthebasicknowledgenecessaryforrealizingthe SOCiolinguistic，functional，and textual knowledge of thelanguage or communicative
COmpetenCeOfthelanguage．
2．GrammaticalKnowledgeasPrtKeduralKnowledge
GrammatiCalknowledge necessary forrealizing communicative competence mustbe distinguishedfromthekindofconsciousandexplicitknowledgeofgrammarsecondlanguage learnerS may have．Grammatical knowledge underlying communicative competenceis “procedural”in contrastto“declarative”（Anderson1993）and“implicit’’inopposition to
“explicit”（Ellis2003）．1tis proceduralinthatitis directly responsible fortheinternal processlng during comprehension and production oflanguage．Itisimplicit becauseits functionintheprocessisunavailableforconsciousattention．
Anotherwaytolookatthefunctionofproceduralknowledgeoflanguageistoaskwhat itdoesintheprocessoflanguage use．Intheprocessofproducinglanguage，meanlnglS encodedontoform，andinthe process ofcomprehension，formisdecodedintomeanlng．
Proceduralknowledgeis，therefore，reSpOnSibleforconnectlngmeanlngwithformandform
withmeanlng：lingulSticrealizationofmeanlnglnprOductionandsemanticrestorationfrom
forminComprehension．
The mostimportant characteristic of procedural knowledge oflanguageisinits dynamism．Itis the kind of knowledgethat works activelylnleading the processes of encodinganddecoding・ItisnotstaticatalllikeadescriptlVepedagoglCalgrammarwrittenon paper・
3．WhereisProceduralKnowledgeofLanguagefbrLearnerS？
ProceduraIknowledgeoflanguageasthetargetofleamlnglSnOteaSyforlearnersto access・Thisisbecauseitonlyworksintheactualprocessoflanguageuseanditexistsassuch・
Moreover，itworksonJylnCOnneCtionwithmeanlng・Learnerscannot，therefore，aCCeSSitby recoursetosomedescnptlOnOftheprocess，nOrCantheyaccessitdevoidofmeanlng・They canonlyaccessitby−aCtuallyexperienclngthemeaning，formconnections・ThisisespeCially thecasewithspokenlanguagesinceitrequlreSOn−lineprocesslngOflanguage・ Itispolntless，therefore，tOtrytOeXPlaintheformalfeaturesofthetargetconstruCtions reJyIngOnpedagoglCaJgrammarandthentoencouragelearnerstopracticeempJoylngthemin VariousactivitiesasisusuaJlydoneinthePPPapproach・PedagoglCalgrammaronlydescribes theformalfeaturesattheendresultoftheprocessofmeaning−formconnections；itdoesnot COnStitutethekindofproceduralknowledgewhichisdirectlyempIoyedintheprocess・Itis SurelynotthecasethatlearnersdevelopproceduralknowIedgebypractlClngemPloylngthe COnSCious knowJedge of grammaT they may have by recelVJng fbm）aJinstructionItis necessaryforlearnerstodirectlyexperiencemeaning−fbrmconnectionsinordertodevelop PrOCeduralknowledgeofthetargetlanguage・
How canlearnersexperienceform一meanlngCOnneCtionsthen？Itisprobably possible
Only throughlearnlng COnCreteinstances or exemplars oflanguage use．Thisis because instancesorexemplarsembodytheprocessofconzleCt］ngmeanlngandfoJTn．Itis，therefore，
expeCted thatlearners can expenence the process of meaningTfbrm connections through
learnlng eXemplars and thus can findthe mechanisms connectlng them・Thus，eXemPlarsprovidelearnerswithopportunitiesforthelearnlngOfproceduralknowledgeofthetarget language． SomeeXamPJesmightbeappropnateheretoshowtheroJeexemplarscanpJayinthe learnlngOfmeaning−fbrmconnectionsorproceduralknowledgeofthetargetlanguage．The
pluralformofba毎isbabiesandlikewisecitiesisthepluralformofcityinwrittenEngJish．
Byexperiencingbabiesandcitiesonebyone，learnerscanlearntheconnectionbetweenthe formanditspluralmeanIngreSpeCtively・TheexperiencecanbeproductiveandreceptlVe．Itis PrOductive jf］earners actually produce them，and receptlVe When they understandthe meanlngSOftheseforms・Ineithercase，itisanactiveprocessofexpenenclngCOnneCtions betweenmeanlngandform・ ThepedagoglCalru1estlpulating“WhenthenounendswithaconsonantPlus’y，，Change ’y’to’ie’andaddan‘S’attheendtomakethepluralformofthenoun”describestheprocessOftheconnectionwithanemphasisbeingputontheform．Althoughlearnersmaylearnthis
pedagoglCalru1econsciously，1tisnotonlydifficultbutalsoimplausiblethatlearnerSemPloy itinrealizingpluralformsofthistype．Incontrast，WhenlearnerSeXperiencebabiesandcilies itembyitemasinstancesofconnectlngthemeanlngWiththeform，eVerythingstlpulatedin thepedagoglCalruleisinvoIvedintheprocessofexperienclngtheconnectiom． Anotherexampleisatthesyntacticlevel・Thehunterwaskilledbythebearisapassive SentenCeeXpreSSlngaParticularpassivemeanlngJflearnerslearnthesentenceasaninstance OfthepassivevoiceandexperienceconnectlngthemeanlngWiththesentenceforTneitherinPrOductionorcomprehensjoTl，theyactuaJJyexperienceaJJtheprocesseswhicharedescribed bythecorrespondingpedagoglCalgrammarasfollows：
1・AdditionofBE．．・EN（i．e．，the auxiliary verbBEpJus the passive participle）in he
PaSSivesentences． 2・Invcrsjonofthenounssjgnj亙ingtheagentandthethemewjthrespecttosu句ectand O句ectpositioninthesentence． 3・Althoughpronominalagentsarefairlyrareinthepassive，Whentheydooccur，thecase Ofthepronounchangesfromsu叫ecttoo叫ect（OrViceversaifthethemeisapronoun）・ 4・Insertionoftheprepositionbybeforethedemotedagentinthepassiveversion． （Ce】ce−Murcia＆Larsen−Freeman1983：223）
It should be noted that thesepedagoglCal ruJes only describe theinternal processes of COnneCtlngthepassivemeanlngWiththepassiveform・ltisnotthecase，therefore，thatthese ruJesareappliedwhenproducingandcomprehendingpassivesentences．ThisisespecialIythe CaSeinspeakingandlistenlng．Thefactisthatwhenlearnersexperiencepassivesentencesas instancesofconnectlngthemeanlngWiththeform，theexperienceautomaticaJlyentailsall theprocessesandtheycanactuallyexperiencetheminprocess・ Tosummarize：TolearnproceduralknowledgeofthetargetlanguageistoexperlenCeit throughexemplars；itisnotlearnedefficientlybypracticingapplyingpedagoglCalrules・This issimplybecauseproceduralkT10Wledgeworksintheactualprocessofconnecdngmeanlng withfoml，anditisacc＿eSSibleandthereforelearnablebyexperienclngltaSSuCh・ 4・RoleorExemplarsi皿theLeanlhgofProcdura1K血OWledgeorI．amguage
The crucialrole exemplars playin thelearnlng OfproceduraJ knowledge has been PO）ntedoutbyatleasttworecenttheoriesexplainingthedevelopmentofcognltlVeSkillsand
languageacquisitionrespeCtively：ACr−RtheorybyAnderson（1993）andUsage−Basedtheory
OflanguageacquisitionbyTomasello（2（泊3）．ACrR theory has been proposedin response to the criticism againstACT＊theory COnCernlngthestatusofdeclarativeknowledge．ACr＊theory，theformerversionofACTIR theory，ClaimsthatallproceduralknowledgestartsinitiallyasdeclarativeknowJedgeinits literalsense，thatis，Verballyreportable・Ithasbeenpointedoutthatthisexplanationofthe developmentofproceduralknowledgedoesnotapplytolanguagelearn1ng，eSpeCiallysoin firstlanguageacqulSltlOn・ItisclearlynotthecasethatyoungchildreninitiallyhaveverbalIy reportableknowledgeoftheirfirstlanguage．lnresponsetothecriticism，Anderson（1993） admits that there areinstances of declarative knowledge that cannot be verbally COmmunicated・Thus，COnCemlngtheorlgJnSOfdeclarativeknowledge，theemphasishasbeen
shifted from“declarative memory forinstruction，”whichis reportabJe，tO”declarative
memory for exampIes of how the procedures should be executed，”which may not be
repo止able．
While not denylng the development of procedural knowledge form declarative
knowledgein the traditional seJISe，ACrR theory states that”a maJOr aVenue for the
acqulSition of proceduralknowledge”is to startlearnlng from exempIars that are used
analoglCallyforsolvingnewtasks，andtocompileproductionrulesorproceduralknowledge thataresummarizedthroughtheanalogyprocess（Anderson＆Finchaml994）・Itshouldbe
emphasized that exemplarsin the theory are conceptualized asinstances of Hhow the PrOCeduresshouldbeexecuted・MItalsoshouldbestressedthatproductionrulesorproceduraI knowledgeisformedthroughabstractlnggerleralrulescommontoexemplarsofthesame Classbyanalogy． Usage−BasedtheoryoflanguageacquisitionbasicallycontendsthatlanguagestruCtureS emergefromexperienclngaCtua11anguageuseratherthanfromsomeinnatepropertiesofthe mind．Andthetheoryclaimsthat“childrenbeginwithitem−SPeCificandconstruCtion−SpeCinc
learnlng”and that“children construCttheirabstractlingulStic representations outoftheir
item−based construCtions uslng general cognltive，SOCial−COgnitive，andlearmng Skills”
（Tomasello2（氾3）．
AccordingtoUsage−Basedtheory，anitemtobelearnedisaconcreteexpressiononits OWnandatthesametimeitisanexemplarofanabstractconstruCtionorconstructionstobe
formedlater・Forexample，Jdunnois an expressionwitha slnglecoherentmeanlng and ChildrenmaylearnitasafixedexpressionexpresslngthemeanlngOntheonehand・Onthe Other，withthelearnlngOfothersimilarexpressions，Childrenmaybreakdownthisexpression intoits component parts with the result that don，tis abstracted out to be usedin other
expressionssuchasIdon’tLikeitandldon’twantit．
In Usage−Based theory，frequencywith which children hear or produce alingulStic COnStruCtionplaysanimportantrole・Frequencyisdividedintotwotypes：tOkenfrequency andtypefrequency．Tokenfrequencyisthenumberofthetimeschildrenexperiencethesame item・Forexample，ifchildrenhearorsayDoyouwannathis？fivetimes，itstokenfrequency isfive．ltissaidthattokenfrequencycontributestotheentrenchmentoftheexpressionandto itsnuencyofdelivery。Typefrequency，lnCOntraSt，isthenumberofdifferentitemsofthe SameCOnStruCtionchildrenexperience・Forexample，WhenchildrenhearorsayGimme−that， Gimme−this，Givim−that，andGivim−thiseachonetime，theyhavefourtypeSOffrequ6ncyof thegive−imperativeconstruCtion．Typefrequencycontributestotheprocessofgeneralization Orabstractionofconstructions． Boththeoriesputanequalemphasisontheroleofexemplarswhichareleameditemby itemintheprocessofIearnlng・ExemplarsformakindofsprlngboardforlearnlnglntWO SenSeS．First，tOlearnanexemplaristoexperiencehowtherelevantproceduresintheformof
PrOductionrulesareexecutedinAC「Rtheory，andhow aparticularmeanlngJSeXPreSSed WithaparticularforminUsage−Basedtheory．Tokenfrequencyofeachexemplarstrengthens the procedures and thereforethe connecdon between the meanlng and the form．Second， exemplars accumulateditem−by−item constitute the source from which constructions or
abstractrulesareformedandsummarized．TypefrequencylSreSpOnSiblefortheprocessof
abstractionandsummarization．AlthoughACTIRtheorylSCOnCernedwiththedevelopmentofcognltlVeSkillsingeneral
andUsage−Basedtheorydescribestheprocessoffirstlanguageacquisition，bothofthemcan besaidtohavestrongrelevancetosecondlanguagelearnlngaSWell・Thisisbecausebothof thetheoriesexplainthedevelopmentofthekindofknowledgewhichisresponsibleforthe actualprocessoflanguageuseorproceduralknowledgeofthetargetlanguagewhichisthe goalforsecondlanguagelearners・ Inthesectionstofollow，itwi11bearguedhowexemplarsplaylmPOrtantrulesinthe developmentofsecondlanguageknowledgeintermsofthedistinctionbetweenitem−learnlng andcategory」earnlng． 5．Item・learnlng Item−learnlnglSuSualIycontrastedwith system−leamlnglnSeCOndlanguagelearnlng・ Ellis（1999），forexample，qefinesitem」eamingasinvoIving”theaccumulationoflinguisticforms，eaChofwhichisstoredseparatelyor，atbest，withveryweaklyweightedconnections
withotheritems”andsystem−learnlngaSentailing“theconstruCtionofabstractrulesthat govern a whole setofitems and，also，Ofthe establishment ofinterrelations between one abstractruIeandanotherand，therefbre，betweenonesetofitemsandanother．”Animportant polhtin the distinction ofitem−leamlng and system−learnIngistheir
developmentalreIationship．AsEllis（1999）states，“itemleamingisdeveJopmentallypriorto SyStemlearnlng and provides the raw materialfor the acquisition of grammar and the COnStruCtionofasystem・”
While admittingthe general plCture Of secondlanguagelearnlngln termS Of the
distinctionbetweenitem−learnlngandsystem−1earnlngandtheirdevelopmentalrelatiorlShip，itmay seemnecessary toexamine bothconcepts ofitem−1earnlngand system−learnlng Still
further，becauseeachofthesecontainseparablestagesofdevelopment（Yamaoka2的1）．
Item−leamingdefinedbyEllis（1999）ischaracterizedbytwofeatures：theitem−by−item
natureoflearnlngandtheunanalyzednatureoflearneditems．Itis，therefore，Clearthatite汀トlearnlngin Ellis，sdefinition reftrstoitem−by−item−learnlngOfwhole unanalyzedchunks Whicharelearnedandusedwholistical1y・
Itshouldbenotedthattherecanbeanothertypeofitem−1earnlng・Learnerscanlearna
particularexpressionasanexemplarshowinghowanintendedmeanlnglSenCOdedontoa
particularformorhowtheproceduresconnectlngthemareactual1yexecuted・1tisonething，
forexample，tOlearntheexpressionI’mhungryaSanunanalyzedchunk；itisquIteanOtherto
Jearn the sameexpressionas an exemplarofconnectlngthe meanl＿ngwiththefom・The
formertypeOfitemrlearnlnglSrOte−leamlngOfwholeexpressionSwithoutstructuralanalysIS and thelattertypeisitem−leamlngOfexemplarswith structuralanaIysis・Forthe sakeof COnVenience，hereafterinthis article，theformertypeiscalled rote」eamlng and thelatter
item」earnlng．
Thisdistinctionbetweenrote−1earnlnganditemTlearnlnglSeSpeCiallyrelevanttosecond languagelearnlng・Most typICally secondlanguagelearners are at a stage of cognltlVe development at which they can benefit from formalinstruction・By recelVlng formal instruCtion，theycanhaveconsciousunderstandingofthelingulSticfeaturesofform・Tohave COnSCious awareness oftheformalfeaturesis to bein a betterposition to experience the
internalprocesslngOfconnectlngmeanlngwithform．Importantlythisisnottoclaimthat
SuChconsciousknowledgeisdirectlyappliedintheconnectlngprOCeSS，buttoclaimthatsuch knowledgecanbeanindirecthelpforsecondlanguageleamerstoexperiencetheinternal process of connectlng them・ltis easier forlearners to experience theinternal process COnneCtlng meanlngwith formifthey have conscious awareness of the formalfeaturesbeforehand．It may be very difncult to experience meaning−form connections without knOwledgeofform．Thisisaweakinterfaceposition・Indirectlyhelpedbyformalknowledge， SeCOndlanguagelearners experience meaning−form connections throughitem−learnlng Of
ex￠mplarsandasaconsequenceofit，theyleamproceduralknowledgeofthetargetlanguage
inthefashionofitem−basedlearn1ng．
System−leamingdennedbyEllis（1999）isalsoambiguous．Itreferstotheconstruction
Ofabstractrulesthatgovernawholesetofitems，andatthesametimeitalsoreferstothe establishment ofinterrelations between one abstract rule and another．Twolevels of abstracdon areinvoIved here．First，leamers need to abstractrulesthat govern a set ofdifferentexpressionsofthesameconstruCtion・Forexample，bylearnlngeXemplarssuchas
rmhungry，I’msad，I’mhqfPyltembyitemandaccumulatingsimilarexemplars，learners
abstract rules thatmay be formalized as“I’m＋Adj・”Second，learners need toestablish
interrelationsbetweentherules（i．e．，I’m＋Adj．）withotherabstractrulessuchas“We’re＋
Adj・’’and“I＋FullVerb，”andconsequentlytoformaninterlanguagesystemofthetime．
Both ofthese two types ofsystem」earnlng have the process ofrule abstractionin COmmOn，butitmightbeappropnatetomakeacleardistinctionbetweenthem：abstractionof
rulesconcemingaparticularconstruCtiontypeandabstracdonatahigherlevelinvolvingthe
establishmentofinterconnectionsofsuchrulesaSawholesystem．Therefore，inthisarticle，
the former typeOf system−learnlnglS named category−1earnlng and the term ofsyste汀ト 1earnlnglSreSerVedforthelattertype・
6．Categoりr・learmlhg
Category」earnlng OCCurS at aJIlevels oflanguage．As an exampIe at thelevel of
morphology，let’stakepluralformsofEnglishnounsshowninTablel． Thblel Category」earnlngOfEngIishnounpluralforms Category Exemplars I cats，mapS，Sticks 2 boys，dogs，girls 3 cases，houses，bridges DescrlPtlVerules ／S／aftervoicelessconsonantsexcept／S，I，甘／ ／Z／aftervowelsandvoicedconsonantsexcept／Z，5，Cb／ ／iz／after／S，Z，1，5，す，鴫／ English pluralformsofnounsinspeeCharedividedintothreedifferentcategoriesas ShowninTablel・BylearnlngCatS，mqPS，Sticksandsoonitembyitemasexemplarsof COnneCtlng the meanlngwith the form respectively，learnerS eXpenenCe the connectlng process common toallthese cases and consequently develop the proceduralknowledge
pertalnIngtOCategoryl，WhichisdescribedasthedescnptlVerulesshowninTablel・Thisis
theprocessofcategory−learnlngOfthepluralformapplyingtoallthenounsbelonglngtOCategoryl・ThesameistruewithCategories2and3・
LearnerSneedtoattainabstractioneachinthesethreedifferentcategoriesofpluralnoun formsin spoken English．Category−1eamlng，therefore，COnStitutes the essential and
foundationalstagefor system−leamlngtOOCCur・Itis clearthattokenfrequency ofite汀ト learnedindividualexemplars contributes to their confirmation as exemplars，andtype frequencylSeSSentialforcategory−learn1ng・ Category」earnlnglSneededatthesyntacticlevelaswelLTakeexpressionscontainlng thebecopularverbwithpersonalpronounsu旬ectsforexample．CategoryTlearnlngOfthe COnStruCtionoccursatthreestagesatleast・AtStagel，CategOry−learnlngOrtheformationof abstractrulesoccursaccordingtothedifferenttypesofthesu句ectasisshowninTable2． 1bbIe2 Category−learn1ngOfthebecopularconstruction：Stagel
Categoけ1 2
Exe汀ト 1’myoung You，retiredplars I’msad You’reold
I’mhappy You’rerich
3 4 5 6
She’sold He’stall We’rerich They’reold
She’sactive He’spoor
She’stired He’ssmart ・・・
AbstractrI’m＋A句・You’re＋ She’S＋ He’S＋A（軸．We’re＋ They’re＋
1tisalsoimportanttonoticethatcategory−learnlnglSrequiredforthesu叫ecttypesother thanlandyouaswelLByitem−basedlearmngofMary，Yuki，thewoman，thegirlandothers
and accumulatlngthem，learnercan abstract“thethird person slngularfemale，”andlearn
themasaCategOry・Thisisexactlythesamewith“thethirdperSOnSlngularmale，”Hthefirst perSOnplural，”and“thethirdperSOnplural・” AtStage2，CategOry−learnlngtakesplacewiththeabstractionoftheconceptofsentence
s叫ectandofthecopularbeasisshowninFigurel・
Figurel Category−1earnlngOfthebecopularconstruCtion：Stage2 I’m＋Adj・You’re＋Adj・She’S＋Adj・He’S＋Adj・We’re＋Adj・They「re＋Adj． S＋be＋Adj ItmightbeinterestlngtOfindthatthecategoriCalruleslearnedatStagelconstitutethe exemplarsfortheabstractionatthisstageofcategory−leamlng，and，therefore，theyassume theroleoftypefrequencyforabstractionatthisstage．At Stage 3 0f category−1earnlng Of the be copular construCtion，the concept of
COmplementisabstracted．Thatistosay，1earnersneedtofindthatsu旬ectpredicativesofthe COnStruCtioncanberealizedeitherbyanaqiectivephraseoranounphrase．（Notethatanother OptionofaprepositionalphraselikeinHe’sinhisTDOmisexcludedfromdiscussionhere．） Category−1eamingatthisstagerequirespriorcategory−learningoftheconstructiontypeSwith anounphraseatStagel（i．e．，I’m＋NIミYou’re＋NIミandsoon）andatStage2（i．e．，S＋be＋ NP）・Category−learningatStage3isshowninFigure2． Figure2 Category−learnlngOfthebecopularconstruCtion：Stage3 S＋be＋Adj． S＋be＋NP S＋be＋Complement ItisnotwithoutsaylngthattypefrequencylSeSSentialforcategory−1earnlrlg・Thatisto Say，differentexpressionsbelonglngtOthesamecategorymustbeexpenencedforcategory− learnJngtOtakeplace・
Examination of theleamlng Of pluralforms of English nouns and the be copular COnStruCtion described above may sufficetoshow how category−learnlnglS needed atall levelsoflanguageandatvariousstagesoflearningbeforesystem−leamlnglSCarriedout・
7．CoIIClusioIIS
ProceduralknowledgeofthetargetlanguageasthegoaJoflearnlngisdifferentfromthe kindofknowJedgelearnersmayhaveastheresultofreceivingformalinstructionbywayof PedagoglCalgrammar．Sinceproceduralknow】edgeexistsintheactuaJprocessoflanguage
useandworksforconnectlngmeanlngwithform，itcanorLlybeaccessedthroughdirectly
experienclng the connectlng prOCeSS・This can be attained most effectively bylearnlng exemplarsasinstancesshowinghowmeanlnglSCOnneCtedwithformorhowtheprocedures COnneCtlngthemareexecuted．Exemplarsassumetwo roles：tOCOTlfirmtheconnectionsof particularmeanlngSwithparticularfomlSandtoabstractcommonrulesgovernlngaSetOf Similar exemplars．ltem−leamlng defined here as theitem−basedlearnlng Of particular COnneCtions of meanlng and form corresponds to the former role of exemplars．Token
frequencylSimportantfor the role・Abstraction ofrulesis madewith category−learnlng defined here asthelearnlng Of generaland abstractrules that govem a set ofdifferent expressions of the same construCtion．Category，Iearnlng refbrs to the second role of exemplars・AbstractrulesformedastheresultofcategoryrlearnlngprOvidetherawmateriaJ formakingawholesystemofaninterlanguagegrammar：SyStem−leamlng・
Itmight be safe to conclude that there can be no other way toleam procedural
knowledgeofthetargetlanguagethantolearneXemplarswithrespeCttObothitem−learnlng
andcategory−learnlng・Re鮎rences
Anderson，J．R．1993．RulesqftheMitui．Hillsdale，NJ：LawrenceErlbaum．
Anderson，J・R・＆Fincham，J・M．1994・Acquisition ofProceduralSkills From Examples． ゐ〟rJは〆廠甲gr刑e〝ねPサCOb紗bd川前g，九か椚0勒α通Cog肋の，20，1322−1340．
Bachman，L・F・1990FundamentalConsiderationsin Language Tbsting・Oxford‥Oxford UniversityPress・ Celce−Murcia，M．＆Larsen−Freeman，D．1983．T71eGrammarBook：AnESL／EFLThZCher’s Course．BostonMA：Heinle＆Heinle． Ellis，R・1999．ltemversusSystem−learnlng：ExplainingFreeVariation．4ppliedLinguistics， 20，∠応0−480． Ellis，R・2（氾3・7bk−baSedLnnguageLearningafui乃aching．Oxford：OxfordUniversityPress．
Tomasello，M・2∝〉3・Constructing a LLZnguage：A tLyage−Based TheoTy dLanguage．
Cambridge，MA：HarvardUniversityPress．
Yamaoka，T・2（カ1・lte汀トleaming and System−1earningin Second Language Leaming．（In
