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(1)TheLastoftheMohicans: TheNovelattheMovies. CharlesClark. Introduction. Sinceitsinitialpublicationin1826,JamesFenimoreCooper'sTheLastoftheMohicans.・A. Narrativeof1757hasprobablygeneratedmoreinterestfromHollywoodfilmmakersthanany. otherAmericannovel.Fromitsfirstadaptationin1909asaD.W.Griffithonereelsilentfilm. toitslatestversionin1992byMichaelMann,morethanadozeninterpretationsofthenovel. haveappearedinvariousforms:silentfilms,serials,animations,televisionseriesand. Hollywoodepics.TheLastoftheMohicansseems,despiteitself,tohavehadthenarrative. energytobecomeacertainkindofmythicclassic.Literarycriticsaremostlyagreedthatthe. bookisbadlywritten."ThisdismissalbeganalmostassoonasCooperdied,whenMarkTwain. deliveredafamousandhilariouscritiqueofhiswritingski11.2'Indeed,ofallCooper'smythic. novels,TheLastoftheMohicansisprobablytheleastcriticallyregarded.Yet,somethingabout. thestoryhascontinuedtofascinateandattracttheattentionoffilmmakersinthetwentieth. century.. UntiltheFenimoreCooperfamilyagreedtocooperateintheproductionofaresponsibly. editedseriesofCooper'sfictionandnon-fictioninthemid-1960s,TheLastoftheMohicanswas. availableforreadersonlyinnumerousdistortedtexts.3'TheabsenceofreliableCoopertexts. hascontributedtohistaintedreputationasawriter.However,thefactremainsthatthenovel. hasbeenpraisedmoreoftenforwhatitdidnotrepresent,ratherthanforwhatitdid.When. TheLastoftheMohicansappearedin1826,somecriticsreceiveditasanAmericanmasterpiece.. Historically,thenovelhasbeenadmiredeitherfortheinclusionofharrowingincidentsinthe. fictionorforthecreationofatrulyAmericanstory."'. Suchcontemporaryreviewsofthenoveladdressedissuesthathaveaffectedtheliterary. interpretationofTheLastoftheMohicansinthealmosttwocenturiessinceitspublication.. 1.

(2) 近畿大学語学教育部紀要3巻1号(2003・11). GivenHollywood"sinclinationtomanipulatestoriesformaximumentertainmenteffect,some. scholarshavearguedthatthefilmadaptationsofCooper'sbooksingeneralhaveconcentrated. onhisplots,alwaystothenovels'detriment,andtheresulthascreatedhavocwithCooper's. textsanddistortedethnicimages.s'Itisreasonabletoaskspecificallywhatimpactthese. issueshavehadonthetwentiethcenturyfilmmaker'sresponsetothetextofTheLastofthe. ル10乃 ∫coη5.Thisarticlereviewsthemostimportantfilmsbasedonthenoveltoascertainhow. accuratelyfilmmakershaveinterpretedCooper'splotandtheme.Fromthisevaluation,it. explorestheimplicationstotheportrayalofethnicimagesandstereotypesonthescreen.. TheOriginalStory AtruersenseofHollywood'sresponsetoTheLastoftheMohicanscanbegainedifthefilm adaptationsareexaminedinrelationtowhattheauthoractuallywrote.Itisuseful,therefore, tobeginwithalookatCooper'soriginalplotinthiscontexts'Asummaryofthestoryline follows: AfterasceneoutliningthecontextoftheFrenchandIndianWarof1757,thestoryopens atanEnglishcamptothenorthofFortWilliamHenryontheshoresofLakeGeorge,New Fork.ThedisplacedHuronwarriorMaguahasofferedtoguidefourpeople‐iVlajorDuncan Heyward,PsalmistDavidGamut,andAliceandCoraMunro‐throughthewildernessforest tothefort,whichisbesiegedbytheFrench.MajorHeywardhasbeenchargedwithgetting AliceandCorasafelytotheirfather,ColonelMunro,whoisleadingtheEnglishdefenseofthe fort.Threeotherkeycharactersarethenintroduced:NathanielBumppo,alsoknownas Hawkeye,alonewhitewoodsman;hisfriendChingachgook,theagingChiefoftheMohicans; andChingachgook'ssonUncas,thelastoftheirtribe.Theyarediscussingthestateofthe worldwhentheyhearthetravelersapproach.Whenthetwogroupsmeet,itbecomesclear thatMaguahadbeenleadingthemintoaHurontrap.Maguafleestojoinhiswaitingallies, andHawkeyeagreestotrytosavethetravelersandgetthemtothefort. HawkeyeleadsthepartytothesafetyofthecavesatGlen'sFalls,buttheyarefoundand attackedbytheHuronsearlythenextmorning.Severalskirmishestakeplace.Runningoutof munitions,thethreewoodsmenescapedownrivertoreplenishtheirweaponsandseekhelp, buttheothersarecapturedandtakenawaybyasplintergroupofHuronwarriorsledby. 一2一.

(3) TheLis'ρ. Magua.Afteralongjourney,MaguarevealshismotivationforcapturingtheMunrosisters‐. hehadbeenwhippedfordrunkennessbyColonelMunro.Maguacoldlydemandsmarriage. withCoraashisrevenge,whoserefusalbringsanattackuponthecaptives.However,the. suddenarrivalofHawkeye,ChingachgookandUncassavesthetravelers.AlltheHuronsare. killedexceptMagua,whoescapesagain.. LeadingthepartythroughnarrowescapesfromIndiansandthenbesiegingFrenchmen,. HawkeyebringsthemtoamountainsidevantagepointoverlookingFortWilliamHenry.. DuringthetripaquietinterestdevelopsbetweentheyoungUncasandCora,whileHeyward. showsdeferenceforAlice.Withdifficultyfindingtheirwaythroughtheheavymorningmists. andtheomnipresentFrench,theseven,hotlypursued,finallyreachthefort,whereColonel. MunrorecognizesthevoiceofhisdaughterAliceandopensthegateforthem.Heywardthen. leadsarepulseofthepursuingFrenchsoldiers.. Aninterludeinthefortfollows,inwhichHeywarddeclareshisloveforAlice.Heyward. alsolearnsthatCora'sdarkenedcharacterliesnotonlyinabroodingnaturebutalsointhe. factthatsheispartNegro.MunrohadthoughtHeywardlovedCora,andaccuseshimof. prejudice.. Withthepassageofdays,aparleyisheldwiththeFrenchGeneralMontcalm.Since. GeneralWebbhasrefusedhelp,Munroagreestosurrenderthefort,butisgenerouslytold. thattheEnglishcanleavewiththeircolors.However,Maguahasotherplans.Duringthe. plannedwithdrawaloftheEnglishforces,theHuronsbeginabloodymassacre.Hundredsare. killedbeforetheFrencharmyisbroughtintostoptheviolence.Meanwhile,Maguaonceagain. capturesthetwosistersandGamut,andthenescapes.. Threedayslater,Hawkeye,Chingachgook,Uncas,MunroandHeywardgonorthofthe. lakeandpursueMaguaintoCanada.Hawkeyedevisesaseriesoftricksanddisguisesto. rescueAliceataHuronencampment.Cora,meanwhile,isbeingheldcaptiveataneighboring. Delawarevillage.MaguafollowsHawkeyeandhispartytotheDelawarevillageanddemands. hisprisonersatacounciltakingplacebeforethepatriarchTamenund.Atfirst,Tamenundis. persuadedbyMagua,thenhalf-swayedbyCora,andfinallyswungbytherevelationofwho. Uncasis.UncasrevealshimselfasthelastoftherightfulchiefsoftheMohicans.Magnais. allowedtogofreeandtakehisonlyrightfulprisoner,Cora,thoughHawkeyeandtheothers. 一3一. プ伽. ル10痂coη ∫:TheNovelattheMovies.

(4) 近畿大学語学教育部紀要3巻1号(2003・11). vowtofollowandregainherfreedom.Atdusk,Hawkeye,Uncas(whoclearlylovesCora) andChingachgookleadacompanytorescueher.IntheensuingbattletheHuronsare defeated.Nonetheless,iVlaguaandtwoHuronwarriorsescapewithCorathroughnearby cavesandupamountainside.FinallycorneredbyHawkeye,Heyward,GamutandUncas,the Huronsgivedefiance.InthefightingCoraisstabbedbyoneoftheHuronswhointurndiesat Uncas'hand.MaguaimmediatelykillsUncas.AsMaguaflees,Hawkeyeshootsandkillshim. ThenextdayisoneofmourningfortheDelawares.CoraandUncasareburiedsideby side,andallthewhitecharactersexceptHawkeyeleave.WhenChingachgookstatesthatheis nowalone,Hawkeyegraspshishandandstatesthatsuchisnotthecase.Atthesametime, TamenundsadlycommentsupontheworseninghistoricplightofallNative.Americans,and particularlymournsthetragicdemiseofthewiseandnobleraceofMohicans.. FilmVersionsoftheNovel Withtheexceptionofthe1920silentversionandaユ972TVserialofTheLastofthe Mohicans,noneoftheotheradaptationscomeclosetoaccuratelyrecountingthestory.Even withthesetwo,considerablelicenseistakenwiththeplot. Inthefirstfilminterpretationofユ909entitledLeatherStockingbyD.W.Grif髄th,Hawkeye standsoutastheheroofthetalewithUncasportrayedinasubordinateroleand Chingachgookomitted."TheplothasColonelMunroandhistwoniecestakingashortcutto FortGeorgeaccompaniedbyascoutandledbythetraitorousMagua.Whentheyrestata mountainstream,Maguaandthescoutleadthehorsesintheshadeofthewood.Thescout returnstotellHawkeyeandUncasthathewasattackedandthatthehorseswerekilled. HawkeyeandUncasvolunteertoleadthepartytothefort.Theyarealmostsurroundedby Huronsbutescapetothestockadewhereabattleisinitiated.Whenalmostallhopeseemslost todefeatthebloodthirstyIndians,Hawkeyedisguiseshimselfasabearandswimstheriver rapidsattherearofthefort,knowingthattheIndianswouldnotwasteammunitionon animalswhentheenemyispresent.Hefallsexhaustedatthesoldiers'quarters.Thesoldiers arrivejustintimeatthestockadetosavethesurvivorsbeingburnedatthestakebythe Hurons.Uncasaccompaniesthepartyontheirwayandthefilmendswithhimstandingalone onahill‐thelastoftheMohicans.. 一4一.

(5) TheLastoftheMohicans:TheNovelattheiVlovies. IntheMauriceTourneurandClarenceBrownfilmversionofユ920,thedirectorsfocused. ontherelationshipbetweenCoraandUncas,withHawkeyegivenalmostsecondarystatus.It. isgenerallytruetothenovel,althoughitincludesaverylongsectionontheFortWilliam. HenrymassacreandintroducesanevilBritishofficerwholustsforCoraandbetraysthefort. totheFrench.Theseareminordistortionsinthetextincomparisontootherversions.R'. ThefilmopenswithChingachgookandUncasviewingthevalleybelow.ItcutstoFort. EdwardandaninteriorscenewithCoraplayingtheharpforherbeau,CaptainRandolph. (whowascreatedforthefilmandlaterbetraysthefort),MajorHeyward,andAlice.Uncas. arriveswithnewsofenemymovementsandthenMaguawithamessagefromColonelMunro.. Later,Hawkeye,Chingachgook,andUncasarriveandoutsmartMaguaandtheHuronstoget. thetwosisterstoFortHenry.FollowingCaptainRandolph'streasonandhisdeath,thefort. surrenders.AfterthemassacreMaguapursuesandcapturesCoraandAlice.Maguatakes. CoraintothewildernessattheconclusionoftheclimatictrialattheDelewarecampwith. Tamenund.AsCorafightsoffsleeponthetopofthecliff,Maguastruggleswithherand. repeatedlystabsatCora'sarmsasshedanglesfromtheedgeofthecliffandultimatelyfallsto. herdeath.Uncastriestosaveherbutafteragallantstruggleiskilledanddiesreachingfor. herhand.HawkeyeshootsIVIaguaatthetopofthefallsandhewashesoverawaterfall.The. filmendswithChingachgookinsilhouettestandingbyUncas'grave.Theviolentscenesof. mothersmurderedandinfantstomahawkedweretakenfromD.W.Griffith'smassacre.. In1924,GeorgeSeitzdirectedacompositemovieofTheLecztherstockingTales.Inadditionto. thestandardHawkeyeandChingachgookcharacters,thefilmfeaturesJudithandHettyHutter. (bothcharactersfromTheDeerslayer,nottheTheLnstoftheル10勿coη5),anddepictssuch. historicalfiguresasGeneralBraddockandGeorgeWashington.91. 1nthe1930s,thereweretwofilmversionsofTheLastoftheMohicansproduced.Thefirstis. atwelve-chapterserialdirectedbyReavesEasonandFordBeebein1932thatincludesalmost. asmanytextualdistortionsofthenovelasithascliffhangerendings.10'Thestorylinehas. Cora,Alice,theirsingingteacher,andMajorHeywardjourneythroughenemyterritory.. Hawkeye,theMohicans,orvariousmembersofthepartyareseeminglycaptured,killed,. blownup,orburnedattheendofeachchapter.Thedaughtersarecapturedatleastadozen. timesbyMaguaortheFrenchagentDulacandthenrescued.Uncas,hisfather,andHawkeye. 一5一.

(6) 近畿大学語学教育部紀要3巻. seethatjusticeisdonethroughouttheseries.Thetwelfthchapterconcludeswithastrange. textualalteration:DulackillsChingachgook,Uncaslivestoperformtheritualsbefittingthe. endofhistribe,andHawkeyetellstheyoungMohicanthatheisthelastofhisrace.The. actorsspoketheirlineswithself-consciousdeliberation(astheydidinmanyoftheearly. talkingmovies),andthemassacreoftheMohicantribeinthefirstpartisanimportantscene. notincludedinotherversions.. Thesecondmoviefromtheユ930sisprobablythemostfamousofallthefilmversions,. mainlybecauseitsscriptwasusedasthesourceforthe1992MichaelMannepicproduction.. The1936adaptationofTheLastoftheMohicansisbasedonascreenplaybyPhilipDunneand. directedbyGeorgeSeitz,whoremadehisユ924silentfilmforUnitedArtists.11)Theplotline. hasmanyofthenoversincidentsinthefilm.HawkeyeholdsbacktheHuronsastheparty. reachesthesafetyofFortWilliamHenry,whichissubsequentlyoverwhelmed.TheHurons. massacrethedefendersofthefort.Unlikethenovel,however,Hawkeyeislatercaptured,. tortured,andtobeburnedatthestakewhenHeywardarriveswithEnglishtroopstosave. himatthelastminute.Hawkeyefallsinlovewithadark-hairedbutclearlywhiteAlice,and. Uncasfallsinlovewithablondefair-skinnedCorainthisversion.Inspiteofhis. misrepresentationofCooper'snovel,whichhasUncas,theNativeAmerican,andCora,the. dark-hairedhalfcastewoman,herselftheproductofmiscegenation,asthecenterinan. interracialromance,Seitz'splottwistwasnotsurprisingin1936,givenHollywood'srevulsion. ofmiscegenation.'Z'ItwouldhavebeenantipathetictoCoopertoo,notonlyforviolatingthe. plot,butalsobecauseheattemptedinhisLeatherStockingstoriestodeemphasizethelove. interestoftheEuropeanGothicnovel.Attheendofthefilm,MaguaknocksUncasoffacliff. andCorajumpsafterhim;ChingachgookkillsMaguainaferociousfight;andthehero. HawkeyegoesoffwithAlice.. TheLnstoftheRedmen,producedbyColumbiaPicturesin1947,distortedCooper'stextby. takingaWesternapproachtothestory.InadditiontomakingHawkeyeanIrishscoutand. CoraMunroaredheadratherthanabrunette,thefilmalsointroducesanewcharacterinto. thetext,DavyMunro,theMunrosisters'youngerbrother.Inaddition,Chingachgookisnot. includedasacharacterinthestory.ItalsoincludesstandardscenesoftheclassicWestern,the. circlingofthewagontraintodefendagainstattackingIndiansandtherescueofthefortby. 一6一. ユ号(2003・11).

(7) TheLastoftheMohicans:TheNovelattheMovies. thearrivalofcavalry.13. TheplothasHeywardtravelingwithMunro'stwodaughtersand12-year-oldsontoLake. George.MaguainformsGeneralWebbthattheFrenchareattackingfromthesouth,anditis. thisscenethatprovidestherationaleforthedaughter'sheadingforFortWilliamHenry,. whichisneithergiveninanyotherfilmversionnorinthebook.Hawkeyeleadsthegroup. afterMaguatakesthepartyinthewrongdirection.Theyabandontheirhorsesandbaggage. andarechaseddowntherivertoanislandwheretheyhideinacave.HawkeyeandUncastry. togoforhelp,andthegroupiscaptured.HawkeyeandUncaslaterrescuethem,andthey. hideinanabandonedcabin.Asthepartyapproachesthefort,thedefeatedcolumnisleaving. andisattackedbytheHurons.ColonelMunroisshot.UncaskillsMaguabutismortally. woundedasheridesawayforhelp.Aliceisstabbedasthecavalryarrivesandsavesthe. survivors.ThefilmendswithHawkeyestandingbyUncas'grave.Inthisadaptation,although. Hawkeyeisthehero,therearenoromanticinterestsbetweenanyofthecharacters.. Withtheadventoftelevision,anambitiouseffortwaslaunchedtoreproducethenovelfor. thesmallscreenin1957.SamNewfieldandSidneySalkowdirecteda39-episodeversioncalled. Hαw舵y8endTheLastoftheルlohicans.InordertosustainsuchalongTVserial,theproducers. divergedfromthetexttoemphasizetheexplorationandgrowthoftheAmericanfrontierin. the1750sasseenthroughtheadventuresofcavalryscoutsNatCutter(Hawkeye)and. Chingachgook.14)Thetwoscoutsareemployedtohelpthemilitaryandpioneerstobattlethe. HuronuprisingsforthepurposeofopeninguptheWestforwhitesettlement.Hawkeyeis. clearlythehero.Chingachgookishiscompanion,whiletheUncasandMaguacharactersare. eliminatedfromthescript.Hawkeyehasabrother,TommyCutter,whooccasionallyjoinsthe. twoscouts.Alltold,thestorywasalteredtofittheWesternmold,whichwasoneofthemost. popularTVgenresoftheユ950s.. In1972,thePublicBroadcastingSystem'sMasterpieceTheaterintheUnitedStatesand. BBCTelevisionjointlyproducedaneight-partTVserialentitledTheLastoftheMohicans.. AlthoughHawkeyeistheundisputedherooftheseries,andIVIaguaiskilledbyChingachgook. ratherthanbyHawkeye,theplotisgenerallytruetothetext.'"ThestorylinehasHeyward. atFortEdwardrequestingaidforColonelMunro'sbeleagueredgarrison.Magualeadsthe. Munrosisters,Heyward,andanothersoldierintoanambush,butHawkeyeintervenestolead. 一7一.

(8) 近畿大学語学教育部紀要3巻1号(2003・ll). thesurvivorstoanislandcave.Afterafight,theHuronscapturethesistersandHeyward. Meanwhile,Hawkeyehasgoneforhelp.HelaterreturnswiththeMohicanshelpedbyGamut torescuethegroupandbarelygetsthemtothefort.HawkeyeandtheMohicansarelater captured,tortured,andsavedbyiVlontcalm.ThefinalsceneatawaterfallhasUncasjumping down(andmissing)1Vlaguawhokillshim.AnotherHuronwarriorstabsCoraand1'+/lagua killshiminretaliation.ChingachgookthenfightsMaguatorevengethedeathofhisson. iVlaguaisthrowndownthewaterfall.AsCoraandUncasareburied,Hawkeyeproclaimshis friendshiptoChingachgookandtheydeparttogether. ThenextincarnationofTheLastoftheMohicansappearsinaJamesConwaytelevision movieproductionforNBC-TVin1977.TheplotlinehasHawkeye,Chingachgook,andUncas helpingMajorHeywardescortCoraandAlicetotheirfather.MaguaandhisHuronwarriors capturethembutaresavedbyHawkeyeandtheMohicans.Therearelongfightscenesanda chaseonalakethatendsattheDelawarevillage.TamenunddecidestogiveCoratoMagua whotakeshertoahighpromontory.Therescuersarrive.ChingachgookkillsMaguainhandto-handcombatafterMaguashootsUncas,sacrificinghimselftosaveCora.Thereareneither scenesofthesurrenderatthefortnorofthemassacre.Coraispermittedtolive,butDavid Gamutiskilled.ThedeathofUncasisseenmoreinhumanitariantermsthanasaromantic sacrifice.16' TheLastoftheMohicanswastransformedintoablockbusterhistoricalfilmepicbyMichael Mannin1992.ThestorylinehasCoraandAliceescortedbyHeywardtothefortundersiege bytheFrench.AnambushleavesthetriounprotectedandHawkeye,hisadoptedfather ChingachgookandbrotherUncasoffertoleadthemtothefort.HawkeyeandHeywardlove Cora,andUncashasasubtleloveinterestinAlice.Afterthefallofthefortandthemassacre, achaseandcaptureensue.AttheDelawareencampment,Heywardoffershislifeforthe sisters(preemptingHawkeye'soffer),andiVlagualeaveswithAlice.Hawkeyeshoots Heywardasheisbeingburnedtodeath.Thereisanactionpackedfinaleonaridgewhere AlicecommitssuicideratherthanbewithMagua;Uncastriestoavengeherdeath,butis killedbyMagua;andChingachgookrevengeshissonbykillingMagua."'. 一g一.

(9) TheLastoftheMohicans:TheNovelattheMovies Cooper'sThemeandHollywood'sResponse Insteadofgettingclosertothespiritofthenovel,itseemsthatthelatestandmost ambitiousincarnationofTheLastoftheMohicanshasmovedfartherativay.WhenMichaelMann madehisfilm,theHawkeyeandCoraloveaffairwaselevatedtocenterstage.Indecidingto pairHawkeyewithCoraandUncaswithAlice,MannrevisedCooper'soriginalstory,which showedHawkeyeasamanwithoutaromanticattachment,andUncasattractedtoCora,a dark-hairedmulatto,ratherthantotheblondeAlice.SuchacouplingreflectedCooper'sown attitudestowardmiscegenation.OfallthemanyrevisionsofCooper'snovelthatappearinthe 1992film,thedirector'sdecisiontotransformTheLastoftheMohicansmainlyintoalovestory andtodisregardthefundamentalnatureoftheNativeAmericanthemeisthemostpeculiar andmostdamagingplotrevisionofall.ThefilmborrowsscenesfromotherLeatherStocking novels(thecanoechasefromThePathfinder);createsnewscenes(Hawkeye'sshootingof HeywardtopreventhissufferingattheburningstakeandMagua'skillingofColonelMunro); andmismatcheslovers(HeywardandCoraratherthanHeywardandAlice,UncasandAlice ratherthanUncasandCora).However,themanipulationofthestory'splotinordertomake historymoredramaticandrealisticforcontemporaryaudiencesisquestionablefilmmaking. TodrawattentiontotheloveaffairbetweenAmericanliterature'smostindividualistic,antiauthoritarian,andanti-BritishmythicheroandCoraMunroistomisrepresenttheessential themeofCooper'snovel.AccordingtoBeard,TheLastoftheMohicansisnotaboutsuch peripheralactionastwolovers(especiallywhiteones),butaboutthe"unremitting,frequently violent,alwaysexasperatingcontestbetweentheNativeAmericansandtheintruders,white immigrantsandsettlersofeverydescription"'S'anditsconsequences:thedestructionofthe lastremnantsofaraceofNativeAmericans. Thetwentiethcenturyhaswitnessedagrowingmovementtowardthecelebrationand recognitionoftherightsandheritageofallAmericans.Yet,itisincrediblethatnoneofthe filmmakerswhohavetransferredTheLastoftheMohicanstothescreenhaveconsideredthe NativeAmericantheme.LiterarycriticsoftheearlynineteenthcenturyrecognizedCooper's strengthsandweaknessesasawriterandsocialcommentator.. .Onthecontrary,criticssuchas. ananonymouswriterintheNewYorkMirrorinforms:"InthisnoveltheAmericanaborigines areintroducedwithbettereffectthaninanyworkoffictionthathaseverbeenwritten.The. 一g一.

(10) 近畿大学語学教育部紀要3巻1号(2003・11). gentleUncasandhisvaliantsire,thefiend-likeMagua,andthevenerablepatriarchofthe. Delawares,areperfectmasterpiecesoftheirkind....Theyareimmenselysuperiortoallthat. Chateaubriand,oranyothers,havemadetodelineatethecharacteroftheAmericansavage."19). WhythenhasAmericainthetwentiethcenturyandHollywoodfilmmakerswanderedso. farfromCooper'soriginalthemeinTheLastoftheMolzicans?Theproblemcouldlieinignoring. thesourceandhistoryofCooper'sstory.工tcouldalsobetracedtoembracingthenotionof. Cooper'sbadreputationasanovelistthathereceivedfromMarkTwaininhissatireof "FenimoreCooper'sLiterar yOffenses."Theproblemmayliesomewhereinbetween.Readers. havenotrecognizedthatTwain'sessaywasnotaboutseriousliterarycriticism,butrather. oneofthegreatestexpressionsofsatireinthehistoryofAmericanhumor.Tosomeextent. thishashinderedreadersandfilmmakersfromfocusingonCooper'scontributionsto. Americanliteratureortowhathasbeenlearnedaboutthehistoricalbackgroundand. structureofthestork.. Cooperfirstformulatedtheideaforhisnovelin1824.AsBeardrelatesthestory,TheLast. oftheMohicnnswasconceivedafteratripCoopertooktoGlen'sFallsandLakeGeorge.While. there,Cooperwasimmediatelyimpressedbythesceneryatthefallsandproclaimedthathe. hadto"placeoneofhisoldIndianshere--TheLastoftheMohicanswouldbetheresult."20'. Beardnotesthat"ThewordIndianorIndiansinthisaccountisprobablysignificant;forThe. L8鷹. 加競oc窺. η8Tileshadnotyetbeenconceivedasaseries,andtheintroductionofHawkeye. mayhavebeenanafterthought."211fthisinterpretationofCooper'swordsiscorrect,thenThe. LastoftheMohicansasatalefocusingentirelyonthecharacterofHawkeyeasitscentralhero. isasmuchaliterarymythasaretheHollywoodfilmsthatnotonlyplacehimatthecoreof. theiradventurestory,butalsoassignhimasthemaleleadinalovestory.. Hawkeye'sroleisdefinitelyimportanttothesignificanceoftheactioninthenovel,butit. isnotnecessarilyasthemosttypicalnotionofanAmericanwhiteherothatthiscentrality. operates.AftertheFortWilliamHenrymassacre,Hawkeyerealizesthatthedecisionsmade. byhisfellowwhitemen(Munro,HeywardandMontcalm)haveresultedinanabsolute. disaster.AshediscusseswithChingachgookandUncasthecourseofactiontheyshouldtake. torescuetheMunrosisters,"hearosetohisfeet,andshakingoffhisapathy,hesuddenly. assumedthemannerofanIndian,andadoptedalltheartsofnativeeloquence.Elevatingan. 一10一.

(11) TheLastoftheMohicans:TheNovelattheMovies. arm,hepointedoutthetrackofthesun,repeatingthegestureforeverydaythatwas. necessarytoaccomplishtheirobject."'2'Thissceneispivotal,notonlybecauseHawkeye. comesoutofhisapatheticmood,butalsobecauseheexperiencesaprofoundchangeand. recognizesthatthemannerofanIndianisonehemustutilizetosuccessfullyrecoverthe. sisters.ItisinthesecondhalfofthenovelthatCooperstrengthenshisdecisiontochoosethe. NativeAmericans(andtheirways)astheheroandthesubjectofhisstory.. Cooper'sinterestinNativeAmericanscanbefoundthroughoutTheLastoftheMohicans.. HewascertainlycognizantofthesignificanceofstatementsbyChiefJusticeJohnMarshallin. 1823andPresidentJamesMonroein1824thatwouldbethebasisoftheofficialFederalIndian. RemovalPolicyimplementedin1830.IVIarshall'sdecisionremovedthe"rightofdiscovery"as. thelegalbasisfortitlestoIndianlandconveyedintreatiesandagreements,whileP . lonroe. arguedthatunlessthetribesbecamecivilizedtheycouldneverbeincorporatedintothe. Americansystem23'CooperwasalsowellawareofthepopularityofIndiancaptivity. narrativesfromthecolonialperiodofAmericanhistoryandhistoricalaccountsofthe. massacreofFortWilliamHenry,allofwhichinfluencedthecreationofTheLastoftheMohicans.. AccordingtoBeard,Cooperinventedhisnovelasaninfrastructureto"maketheoutrage. dramaticallyintelligibleandhumanlymeaningful."Z4'. SeventeenyearsafterthepublicationofTheLastoftheMohicans,Coopernotedthebook's. originality.Fromletterswrittenatthetime,CooperimpliedthatTheLastρ. プ伽. ルlohicanswas. notanovelintendedtocontinuethestoryoftheLeatherStockingsaga,ormerelyatalethat. woulddealwithhislifetimeinterestinIndianculture.Hebelievedinsteadthat"thebusiness. ofawriteroffictionistoapproach,asnearashispowerswillallow,topoetry."25'Cooper. intendedthistoimplythathewouldreducetheemphasisonrealismandpresenthimselfasa. writerofromance・stressingthetragicaspectprevalentinepicstructure・Theゐ. Mohicansisinaccordwiththisdefinition,butthestorybecomeslessofaromance. demonstratingHawkeye'swoodsmanship,andmoreofatragedyabouttheextinctionofa. NativeAmericantribeandtherecognitionofman'smortality.Z6'. CooperdidnotwriteTheLastoftheMohicanstodefametheNativeAmericanraceorto. celebratethemanifestdestinyofwhitecivilization.Heinvestigatedhumannaturewithout. regardtowhetherheexposedtheevilsofoneraceoranother.Maguaisprobablythemost. 一11. 鯉0プthe.

(12) 近畿大学語学教育部紀要3巻1号(2003・11). repugnantvillaininCooper'sfiction,butMontcalm'sinabilityorunwillingnesstoforeseeand. avertthemassacreatFortWilliamHenrydoesnotspeakwellforEuropeansasmodelsof. humanbehavior.Moreover,thosecharactersthatpromotetheirowneducationand. sophisticationastheprincipalvirtuesofthecivilizedworld(i.e.,Montcalm,ColonelMunro,. HeywardandtheMunrosisters)havelittlecompassionorunderstandingofhumannature.. EvenHawkeyeandhisMohicanfriendscommittheirownmisdeedsinthestoryanddonot. escapeashareoftheblameforthetragediesthathappentobothraces.Cooperwasfarmore. interestedinexamininglargermoralissuesinTheLastoftheMohicans,somethingthat. Hollywoodhasfailedtoacknowledgeinitsfilmversionsofthebook.. Toexploretheseideas,CooperdidnotwriteaGothicromance;insteadhedevelopeda. plotthatborrowedfromseveralpopularformsoftheperiod,genresthatwerecertainto. examinemoralissuesintheUnitedStatesof1826andtodrawemotionalresponsesfromhis. readers.ThemostnoticeabletypeappearinginTheLastoftheMohicansisthePuritancaptivity. narrative.Cooperusesmanyofitsconventionsandcreatesseveralvariationsinorderto. translatethecaptivitygenreintohisownsecularadventurestory.Byincreasingthenumber. ofcaptivities,healsoincreasesthenumberofthetraditionalattack-capture-escapesequences. inthenovelandmakesthecenterpieceofthestory,theFortWilliamHenrymassacre,more. savageanddehumanizing.Cooperalsointroducesasecondheroine,doublingtheloveinterest. thatborrowsfromtheBritishGothicromance.HeinventsthepsalmistDavidGamutintothe. narrativetosatirizetheCalvinistthemeofthevictoryofthedevoutoverthesavage. wildernessandthepaganswhoresidethere.. AlthoughCooperborrowsandmodifiesforhisownusetraditionalliteraryformsand. meansofexpression,TheLastoftheMohicansisanythingbutatraditionalnovel.Mostofthe. conventionsandrecurrentthematicelementsusedbyCooperinthestoryhelphimaddressin. oneformoranothertheconflictbetweenNativeAmericansandEuropeansettlers.The. incorporationoftwocaptivitynarrativesprovidesstructureforthenovel:thefirstoccursin. Chaptersユ. ー17anddescribesthejourneytoFortWilliamHenryandtheeventsthatleadupto. themassacre;andthesecondinChapters18-33followsHawkeyeandtheMohicansasthey. trackMaguaandthecaptiveMunrosisters.Atthesametime,however,thecaptivitiesalso. provideasignificantcontextforthetragicconclusion.Afterthemassacrescene,Cooper. 一12一.

(13) TheLastoftheMohicnns:TheNovelattheMovies. describesimmediatelyinthenextchapterthechangeintheseason:"Thewholelandscape,. which,seenbyafavouringlight,andinagenialtemperature,hadbeenfoundsolovely,. appearednowlikesomepicturedallegoryoflife,inwhichobjectswerearrayedintheir. harshestbuttruestcolours,andwithoutthereliefofanyshadowing."Z"Cooperpaintsthe. barrenlandscapeinallegoricalterms,"itwasasceneofwildnessanddesolation;andit. appearedasifallwhohadprofanelyenteredit,hadbeenstricken,atablow,bytherelentless. armofdeath."28}Theworldofthenovelhassuddenlychanged,butsotoohasthecharacterof. theparticipants.MunroandHeyward,theheroesoftheEuropeanworldofthenovel'sfirst. half,seemalmostimpotent,whileUncastakestheleadafterthemassacreanddiscoverssigns. thatrevealMaguaandthefleeingparty.Maguaistransfiguredfromthevictimofthe. Europeansettlementofthecoloniestoitsdestroyer,the"PrinceofDarkness,broodingonhis. ownfanciedwrongs,andplottingevil."29'UncasandMaguabecomethecentralcharactersin. thesecondhalfofthenovel.AsthelastoftheMohicans,Uncasassertshismythicstatureina. battleonamountaintopwithMaguatodeterminethewinnerinastrugglebetweengoodand. evil,andtodecidethedestinyofarace.Uncas'eventualdeathnotonlyrepresentstheendof. theMohicans,butinabroadercontext,theendofanerainhistory.. Cooper'schoicetofocusontheextinctionofaraceandonthedramaticbattlebetween. whitesandNativeAmericans,ratherthanontheromanticexploitsofafrontiersmaninThe. 加. ∬oftheルlohicans,isrevealedthroughoutthenovel.AlthoughHawkeyeisimportanttothe. story,heneveractsastheromanticleadorastheheroofthetale,whichispreciselytherole. filmdirectorshavegivenhiminalloftheiradaptationsofCooper'sbook.Inthefirsthalfofthe. novel,theauthorassignsHawkeyeasaguidetoleadHeywardandtheMunrosisterstoFort. WilliamHenry.Inthesecondhalf,Cooperuseshimagainasaguide,butonthisoccasionto. prepareUncastosearchforhisdestinyinthelandoftheDelawaretribe.Heexpressesmany. ofCooper'sconcernsinrelationtotheEuropeansettlementofAmericaeverywhereinthe. novel,livesuptohisroleasasharpshooterwhentheeventsrequire,andistheguidethrough. muchoftheplotinthestoryratherthanthedirectoroftheaction.Similarly,theotherwhite. malecharactersinthenovelfunctionasleadersonlyintheirownculpability.Heywardnever. understandsthatthetacticsofEuropeanwarfarewillnotsucceedinthewilderness;Colonel. MunroandGeneralMontcalmareseeminglyoblivioustotherealitiesof"honor,"whether. 一13一.

(14) 近畿大学語学教育部紀要3巻1号(2003・11). EuropeanorIndian,andhowmisconceptionsresultindestruction;Gamut'sfaithinthe. goodnessofmenisbothfacetiousandironic.Filmmakershaveconsistentlydepictedthese. EuropeansastheyreallyareinallofthefilmadaptationsofTheLastoftheMohicans,butthey. havecontinuedtomisinterpretHavvkeyeandtheNativeAmericansinthestory.. Thetwo-womeninthenovelappearonfilmastheoppositeofwhatCooperintendedthem. torepresent.TheauthorhasCoraMunro,thedark-hairedsistertotheblondeAlicefallinlove. withUncas.ByusingCora,theproductoftheunionoftworaces,astheloveinterestofUncas. (andinanevenmoreabnormalmoment,ofMagua),Cooperintensifiesthetragicoutcomeof. theirfatalattractionandreinforcestheimportanceofUncas'commitmenttowardshis. hereditaryresponsibilitiesandcustoms.30;WhiletheHollywoodofthepre一. ユ960scouldnotor. yvouldnothavedepictedsuchaninterracialrelationship,thefilmmakersfromthatperiodto. thepresentcertainlycouldhavewrittensuchacouplingintothestory.TomatchHawkeye. witheitherwomanortopairUncaswithAlice,asfilmdirectorscontinuetoinsistondoing,is. tomisrepresentthefundamentalnatureofCooper'sthemeinTheLastoftheMohicans.Hedid. notapproveofinterracialrelationships,butinsteadhadamorepracticalattitude.Heexplained, "Asthe reislittlereluctancetominglethewhiteandredb!ood...Ithinkanamalgamationofthe. tworaceswouldintimeoccur.ThosefamiliesofAmericawhoarethoughttohaueanyofthe. Indianblood,areratherproudoftheirdescent;anditisamatterofboastamongmanyofthe. mostconsiderablepersonsofVirginia,thattheyaredescendedfromtherenowned. Pocahontas."31ForCooper,neitherinterracialmarriage(theproposedmatchofUncasand. Cora)normiscegenation(ColonelMunroandhismixedbloodmistress)vsrasaracial. judgment,butinsteadaplotdevice.. Asaplotdevice,theimplicationofinterracialmarriageormiscegenationbringsup. importantissuesinthestoryonvariouslevels.InCooper'sview,Coraherselfistarnished.But. CoraistheonewhoanticipatesaloverelationshipwithUncas,anditisCorawhoistheobject. ofboththelustandprotectionofMagua.Moreover,whileCooperportraysCoraasalessthan. perfectwoman,sheisalsotheonlycharacterinthestorythatrepresentsChristian. forgiveness.AsMilderhaswritten,she"pardonsMaguaforhisobsceneproposaltoherand. hismalignantferocitywithaChrist-like`heknowsnotwhathedoes,'andinthetrial. scene...sheiscastintheroleoftheeloquentadvocateformercy,Shakespeare'sPortia."32,. 一ユ4一.

(15) TheLastoftheMohicans:TheNovelattheMovies Milderconcludesthat"Cora'shistoryestablishesherasasymbolfortheinjusticedonethe Negro,"and"sheismadetoembodyboththeproblemitselfandthepotentialsolutiontothe problem....AstheproductandvictimofracialinjusticeCorarepresentsthesufferingsofthe NegrointheNewWorld;asthemosteloquentandadmirableChristianinthebooksheoffers aprincipleofreconciliationfoundedupontheequalityofsoulsbeforeGod."33'Everyoneloves her:Magua,Uncas,Alice,ColonelMunro,andHeyward.Itissurprisinginanothersensethat filmmakershavenotunderstoodthesignificanceofCooper'streatmentofCoraandestablished herroleintheiradaptationsassomethingmorethantheloveinterestofHawkeye,whointhe noveladmiresheralso,butdefinitelyisnotinlovewithher.. NativeAmericanImagesandStereotypes. IndisregardingCooper'sIndianthemeandrevisingtheplotinThe加5'ρ. ブ伽. filmdirectorsfromGriffithtoMannhavepromoteddistortedimagesandstereotypesofNative. Americans.TheyhaveconsistentlyusedtheimagesoftheBloodthirstySavage(Magnaand. theHurons)andtheNobleRedMan(ChingachgookandUncas)toshowthesuperiorityof. theirhero(Hawkeye)andEuropeanculture,ortocommentonpolitical,socialandmoral. issuesoftheirera.TheseimagesforcetheNativeAmericancharactersintoapositionwhere. theyareintheendtoobadortoogoodtobebelievablefictionalcharacters,andonlyserveas. ameansforcontrasttothewhiteheroandthevaluesofwhiteculture.訓). BehindthisdepictionofNativeAmericancharactersisalsoamovementofracial. attitudes.AtoneendofthespectrumistheunconsciousorovertracismoftheBloodthirsty. Savageimage;attheotherextremeisliberalsympathyorpityforthemistreated,and. doomed,NobleRedMan35'TheimageoftheBloodthirstySavage,togetherwiththeracismit. manifestsandpromotes,hasbeenpartofTheLastoftheMohicansandotherfilmsaboutNative. Americanssincetheearliestdaysofthecinema.Withseeminglyendlessminorvariations,. MaguaandtheHurontribehavebeenconsistentlyportrayedaswild,unpredictablesavages,. motivatedbyvengeanceanddeterminedtorapeandmurderwithoutrestraint.Thecontrary. imageoftheNobleRedMan,andtherelatedguiltandpityforthedisappearingNative. American,hasalsobeenpartofthevariousfilmtreatmentsofTheLastoftheMohicansfromthe. beginning.ChingachgookandUncasarewithoutexceptionportrayedasspirituallypure,. 一15一. ル10痂coη5,.

(16) 近畿大学語学教育部紀要3巻1号(2003・11). humaneandgoodenoughtobefriendlytowhiteswhateverthesacrifice.Somewherebetween. theseoppositesisempathy,asenseofunderstandingandrespectfortheuniquenessofNative. Americancultures,anattitudeexhibitedmainlyinthemorerecentfilmadaptations.. SinceHawkeyeisgivencenterstageinmostfilmversionsofTheLastoftheMohicans,the. goodnessoftheNobleRedManandthebadnessoftheBloodthirstySavagearetypically. measuredbythewaythesecharactertypesrespondtothesuperiorstatureofHawkeye,. seldombytheirinherentnatureasNativeAmericansorasmembersofdifferenttribes.The. nobleChingachgookandUncascharactersaregoodbecausetheyarecompanionstothewhite. heroandrecognizethattheymustadapttowhitecultureorperish.Ontheothersideofthis. equation,MaguaandtheHuronsarebadbecausetheyareenemiesofHawkeye,theBritish. andthecolonialsettlers,andactasimpedimentstowestwardexpansionandeconomic. development.. SomefilmmakershavepointedoutthattheirgoodIndianandbadIndiandichotomyisan. accuraterepresentationofwhatCooperhadinmindwhenhewroteTheLastoftheMohicans.. Thatistosay,CooperinhisownwaycreatedastoryinwhichChingachgookandUncasare. indeedsimplifiedgoodNativeAmericansinconflictwithMaguaandtheHuronsasbadones.36. However,amorecarefullookatthenovelrevealsagreatercomplexityinitsattitudetoward. NativeAmericansaswellasHawkeyethantheusualoversimplifiedimagesportrayedby. Hollywood.InCooper'snovel,Hawkeyeisthecenterofallvirtues:simplicity,honesty,. strength,manhoodandessential"Americancharacter."Hawkeyefrequentlycommentsthat. hehas"notaint"ofIndianblood.However,thisisnotasimpleassertionofwhitesuperiority.. IntheDelawarecouncilscene,thesageChiefTamenundisallowednarrativeauthorityto. denouncewithscornthewhitemans'assumptionthattheycontroltheworld.Hawkeye. himselfspeaksoftheseparate"gifts"ofthedifferentraces.Granted,thedeathsofUncasand. Corapreventtherealityofinterracialsex.However,withtheextinctionoftheMohicans,. Hawkeyeeffectivelyinheritstheirtraits.. TheHurons,withoutadoubt,areportrayedasirredeemablyviciousanduntrustworthy,. especiallywhentheyareunderthespellofMagua'srhetoric.Inthenovel,histremendousskill. atpersuasionaddsanunpredictablefactorintothestory:theHuronshavetraditions,customs,. beliefsandrulesofjustice,butMaguaisabletosubverttheseintoaforceforhisownends.37. 一16一.

(17) TheLnstoftheMohicans:TheNovelattheMovies TheHurons'malleabilityisnotsimplytheresultofanintrinsicchildishness,asmanyTartan storiessuggestaboutAfricans. Magnaincorporatestheprimarycharacteristicsofsavageevil,yetheisnotmerelyevil. Withinhiswayoflife,toreinstatehimselfwithhispeopleandtoregainachancetoleadan existencethattohimisnobleandrightisaworthyambition.Moreover,hisrealattitude towardCoraisrevealedinhisfinalinabilitytokillherandhisimmediateattackontheHuron warriorwhodoesstabhertodeath.SinceMagua,whosymbolizestheevilIndian,isnotall bad,healsorepresentsthestrongestcautionagainstatooeasyassumptionthatCoopersimply divideshisNativeAmericansintothegoodandthebad.Asanantagonisticcharacterseen mostlyfromacrossthelineofconflict,Maguaiscertainlyoneofthebest-developed personalitiesinthenovel.. TheLastoftheMohicans:1936and1992. AlookatthetwomostrenownedfilmversionsofTheLastoftheMohicans,1936and1992,. isinstructiveinexploringHollywood'ssimplifiedanddistortedresponseinportrayingNative '. Americans,andhowfarfilmmakershavecomeindealingwithIndianstereotypes.. TheLastoftheMohicansofユ936divergesfromCooper'snovelbyalteringthenatureofthe. companionshipbetweenHawkeyeandChingachgook.Attheendofthenovel,asChingachgook. mournsthedeathofUncas,Hawkeyesays,"Sagamore,youarenotalone."38'Thentheauthor. describestheirexpressionoffeelingforeachother:"Chingachgookgraspedthehandthat,in. thewarmthoffeeling,thescouthadstretchedacrossthewarmearth,andinthatattitudeof. friendshipthesetwosturdyandintrepidwoodsmenbowedtheirheadstogether,while. scaldingtearsfelltotheirfeet,wateringthegraveofUncaslikedropsoffallingrain."3y'This. showsthenthatHawkeyeandChingachgookaffirmthedepthoftheirfriendshipaslonely. heroes.Thefilm,however,greatlyweakensthisrelationshipsothatHawkeyecanbecomethe. centralheroandfallinlovewiththeheroine.InthetypicalHollywoodstyle,theromanceof. HawkeyeandAliceMunrobecomesdominantintheplot,andthenobleMohicansare. relegatedtosidekicks.. Ascompanionsofthehero,ChingachgookandUncasareNobleRedMen;however,the. film'sstructureanddialoguediminishtheirstature,especiallyincomparisontothenovel.The. 17一.

(18) 近畿大学語学教育部紀要3巻1号(2003・n). placementofHawkeyeandthetwoMohicansintheframeportraysChingachgookandUncas. assubordinatetothehero.Intheirfirstappearance,theyarewalkingtogetherbehind. Hawkeye.ThisarrangementcontinuesinnumerousothershotswherethetwoMohicansare. oneithersideofthehero,whoismoreintheforefront.Onlyattheendofthefilm,afterthe. deathofUncasandHawkeye'scommitmenttohisbelovedAlice,doHawkeyeandChingachgook. walktogether.Inaddition,Chingachgook'sdialogueisusuallyclippedandgruff.Forinstance,. whenUncasoffersfoodtohisbelovedCora,hisfathersays,"Mohicanchiefnowaiton. squaw."XOILater,whenHawkeyeasksabouttheconditionofthewoundedUncas(whohad. justbeenvisitedbyCora),Chingachgookanswers,"Bad,gotsquawfever."Uncasspeaks. slightlymorepoeticallywhenhereferstoCoraas"theonewiththemooninherhair,"41)but. typicallyhisdialogue,aswellasChingachgook's,isfarlesseloquentthanthatoftheir. counterpartsinthenovel.. Thedialogueoftheevilantagonist,Magua,issimilarlydiminishedtotheusualroughand. brokenNativeAmericanmovietalk.Unlikehissavagecounterpartinthenovel,whoincites. thehostileHuronstoviolencewithpowerfulorations,Maguahaslinesinthefilmlike"You. takeemtrail,mefollow."`'Z'However,Magua'sevilactions,typicaloftheBloodthirstySavage,. speakloudlyforhim.Motivatedbyvengeance,hecapturestheMunrosistersanddemands. Coraashis"squaw"becauseherfatherhadonceorderedhimtobewhipped,andhe. persuadestheHuronstoattacktheBritishfort,whichhadalreadysurrendered.Neartheend. ofthestory,healsokillsUncas,whomhehastrappedonacliffwithCora.AfterUncasdies,. Magua,seeninathreateningclose-up,approachesCoraandsheleapstoherdeath.Then. MaguaandChingachgookhaveafiercehand-to-handbattlebeforethenobleMohicantakeshis. revengebydrowninghisevilopponent.. JustastheBloodthirstySavageMaguaispunishedattheend,soalsoisthesavagetribe,. theHurons,thatdependsonambushes,themassacreofasurrenderedfort,andtortureofthe. hero.ThesealliesoftheFrenchandadversariesoftheMohicansaredepictedintheclassic. imageoftheBloodthirstySavage.LedbytheevilMaguaandhavingthetypical"Mohawk". haircutsofthevillainousIndiancharactersoftheperiod,theyambushthepartyofHeyward,. AliceandCora,onlytobechasedoffbyHawkeyeandhisMohicanfriends.WhentheHurons -resumetheirpursuitincanoes ,HawkeyeleadstheHuronsawayfromtheothersandevades. 一18一.

(19) TheLastoftheMohicans:TheNovelattheMovies. theIndiansbypaddlinghiscanoeintoabackwaterwhiletheycontinuetocanoefeverishly. downtheriver,seeminglyoblivioustothefactthatthehero'scanoeisnolongerinfrontof. them.AsisfrequentlythecasewithBloodthirstySavages,theyarenotonlyferocious,butalso. stupid.'31Later,theyattackandmassacreFortHenryinoneofthe"bloodiest,scalpingest. morselsofcinematicimageryeverproduced_"441TheHurons'finalactofviolenceistheir. torturingandburningatthestakeofHawkeye,whoisrescuedatthelastmomentbythe. BritisharmyandAmericancolonists,whothendecisivelydefeattheIndians.. Thefranticpaceoftheユ992adaptationofthestorygiveslittleopportunityforthe. developmentofevenitsmajorNativeAmericancharacters.Atthebeginning,Hawkeyeasthe. hero,ChingachgookandUncas,runwildlythroughtheforesttohuntdownanelk.When. Hawkeyekillstheanimal,theyconvergeonitandChingachgooksaysinhisnativelanguage. (withsubtitles),"Wearesorrytokillyou,brother.Wedohonortoyourcourage,speedand. strength."45)ThisstatelnentprovidestheaudiencewithasenseoftheMohicantribalbeliefs,. andtheuseofthenativelanguagesallthroughthefilmstressesthatpartofthecultureina. positivefashionsimilartootherfilmsofthe1990ssuchasDunceswithWolves侃4G6roη. AmeYicccnLegend.Bycontrast,intheユ936TheLastDftheMohicans,theprimaryNative. Americancharacters,playedbywhiteactors,speakintheclipped"MovieIndian"versionof. English,andtherearenosequencesthatprovideinsightintothebeliefsandcustomsofthe. varioustribes.Inthe1992film,thetwoMohicansandMagua,playedbyNativeAmerican. actors,notonlyspeakintheirnativelanguages,butalsoinEnglishandFrench.Despitethis. significantchange,andotherrevisionsinpaceandhistoricalsetting,however,thesecharacters. inthe1992versionareultimatelyjustmoreconvincingvariationsoftheNobleRedManand. BloodthirstySavageimages46,. Chingachgookisthemostdevelopedcharacterinthe1992adaptationinthathehassome. dialogueandisoftenseeninclose-upviews.HeisanoblefatherfiguretoHawkeyeandUncas. andaskillfulwarrior.Althoughhischaracterisshownwithgreaterhistoricalaccuracyanda. vividscreenpresence,itisbasicallyasflatastheoneinthe1936adaptation.Attheendofthe. film,whenhestandstogetherwithHawkeyeandCoraandgiveshisspeechaboutbeingthe. lastoftheMohicans,theaudiencehaslittlereasontocareabouthiswords.. ThecharacterofUncasisevenshallower,giventhathehasverylittledialogueandlittle. 一19一. ∫ 〃20:An.

(20) 噛、,臥. 近畿大学語学教育部紀要3巻1号(2003・ll). importanceintheplot.Inthenovelandthe1936filmversion,UncasfallsinlovewithCora. Munroandtheirrelationshipisasignificantsubplot.Whethertomaintainthefocusonthe. romanceofHawkeyeortoavoidaddressingtheissueofmiscegenation,theaudienceisbarely. givenahintabouthisloverelationshipwithAliceinthenewversion.Uncasbecomesjustan. attractivedecorationonthelandscape,oftenseeninlingeringclose-upshots.Like. Chingachgook,hecommandsapowerfulscreenpresence,butlittleiseverrevealedabouthis. past,theuniquecultureofhistribe,orhisimportanceastheChiefoftheMohicans.When Maguakillshimattheend,theaudiencehaslittlereasonforgrieforsenseofwhathasbeen. lostinhispassing.. Magua,ontheotherhand,ismoredevelopedandsympatheticthanhisevilcounterpartin. the1936version.ThefirstappearanceofMaguaisalongshotintheshadowsatthebackofa. room,followedbyaclose-upashespeaksinhisnativelanguageandtheninEnglish.Even. thoughhelookslikeafiercewarrior,healsoprovestobeanintelligentandskilled. manipulatorofhisenemies.Depictedasacharactereloquentinhisnativelanguageaswellas. inthoseofhisEnglishenemiesandFrenchallies,heissubstantiallymoreeloquentthanthe. Maguacharacterintheユ936adaptation。The1992versionalsodevelopsmoresympathyfor. hischaracterbygivinghimastrongermotiveforhisvengeanceonColonelMunro,whose. allies,theMohawk,destroyedMagua'svillage,murderedhischildrenandmadehimaslave.. Althoughthismotivationmakeshiscravingforretributionmorebelievable,hisoverreaching. revengeitselfisthatofaBloodthirstySavage:hecutsoutColonelMunro'sheart,forcesAlice. tojumpoffacliff,andbrutallykillsUncas.WhenChingachgooktakesrevengeonMagua,the. audiencerealizesthatanotherBloodthirstySavagehasreceivedhisjustreward?". AnotheraspectofthesefilmadaptationsisthattheyrecastTheLastoftheMohicanstothe. political,socialandmoralclimateofthetimesinwhichtheyweremade.LikemanyIndian. filmsoftheperiod,the1936versionendswiththeheroes,theEnglisharmyandAmerican. colonists,marchingofftoconquertheFrenchinCanadaonlyaftertheyhavebeenvictorious. overtheirsavageHuronallies.WiththeJapanesealreadyatwarwithChinaandrisinganti-. Asianprejudiceathome,all工ndians(includingtheMohicans)aresimplyreducedto. subhumanchatterandsubservience,whiletheFrencharecarefullyexcusedanyroleinthe. FortWilliamHenrymassacre.WhiteunityandfutureallianceswithFranceandBritaininthe. 一20一. 甑.

(21) TheLastoftheMohicans:TheNovelattheMovies. faceofyelloworredhordesclearlyhadpriority.". The1936filmwasalsoverymucha"NewDeal"adaptation,concentratingall. philosophizinginHawkeye.FollowingthefirstescapefromMagua,hetalkstoAlice(whohad. begunwithadeepmistrustofhim):"Amancouldspendhislifewalkingthiscountry,and. neverwalkthesametrailtwice.EverytimeIblazeanewtrailIimaginewhatitfeelsliketo. bethefirst."X49)Fromsuchlines,audiencescouldeasilyre-imaginetheirownhistoryofseeking. anewlifeandsuccessinAmerica.Bytheendofthefilm,Alicecertainlycan,soanewunion. ofoldandnewisreachedthroughherdevelopingromancewiththeAmericanhero,and. throughHawkeyebecomingascoutfortheEnglish.. Inthe1992version,theEnglisharereducedtounreliable,arrogantimperialists,whomthe. Americancolonistsmustconfrontinordertoprotecttheirhomes.Inthenovel,Maguais. motivatedbyvengeanceforhavingbeenpunishedlikeananimalbyColonelMunro,butinthe. latestadaptationhismotivationgoesbeyondthistoincludeadesiretobecomea"white. capitalist,"givinguptheHuronwaysfortrade,wealthandluxury.Thischangeinviewpointis. connectedwithageneraltendencytomakeHawkeyethemostIndiancharacterofa11.50'While. inthenovelHawkeyefrequentlyremarksonUncas'greatertrackingskills,intheユ992filmall. theskillsareHawkeye's.Inthenovelgreatattentionisgiventodifferentiatingtheunique "virtues"ofeachpeople ,butinMann'sfilmitisoftendifficulttotellthemapart,asinascene. nearthebeginning,whenHawkeyeandthetwoMohicansreturnfromahunttomeetthe. colonialinhabitantsoftheirvillage‐amixtureofwhitesandNativeAmericansfilmedsothey. areindistinguishable.ThescreenpresenceofHawkeyereinforcesthismyth:hiswildhair,few. wordsandphysicalpoiseresonatewiththeclassic"goodIndianChief"image.SinceHawkeye. isessentiallyinterracial,allpoliticalissuesaboutraceareresolvedinandthroughhim.Thus,. multiculturalismfindsamythtosupportit'". The1992filmintheendreflectssomeofthehollowpromisesofthe1990sofcelebrating. culturalpluralismbutdepoliticizingracialpolitics.sZ'ThefinalviewofHawkeyewithCoraby. hissideandChingachgooksurveyingthegreenmountainsofAmerica,appeartocelebratea. mergingoftheraces,anewhopeandacleansingreminiscentoftheemptypromisesofthe. politicalelectioncampaignsoftheperiod.Itisanoversimplifiedandultimatelymeaningless. promiseofsimplerenewal,inwhichallissuesofpower,oppressionandinjusticeareobscured. 一21.

(22) 近畿大学語学教育部紀要. 3巻1号(2003・11). byrhetoricofvaguehopeandkindness.. Conclusion. Filmmakershaverarelymissedanopportunitytotellastoryaboutinterracial. relationships,independentmenandwomen,NativeAmericans,andthehistoricaltruthbehind. therealviolencethatgaverisetoAmericanculture.WithJamesFenimoreCooper'sTheLast. oftheMohicans,however,theyhavelostsuchachancenotonlyonce,butalsoineveryattempt. thathasbeenmadetoadaptthenovelforthescreen.ItisbestinregardtoCoopertotrustin. thetextofthestoryratherthanthemisunderstoodreputationofitsauthor,andsotooshould. Hollywood.AlthoughTheLastoftheMohicansseemslikeagoodchoiceforthemoviescreen,it. isastory,however,withamoreprofoundsignificancethanfilmmakershavegivenitinanyof. theirsuperficialinterpretations.Noneofthefilmversionsaccuratelyrepresenttheintentions. ofCooper'snovel.Unfortunately,Hollywooddirectorshaveconductedtheirowncrusade. againsthistoricalandtextualveracityandperpetratedtheirownsetofliteraryoffenses.In. everyadaptationofTheLastoftheルlohicccnsfromユ909tol992,filmmakershaverewritten. Cooper'splot,miscastandmislabeledhischaracters,modernizedhisdialogue,misunderstood. histheme,andmisrepresentedhistory.. BynotaddressingCooper'sIndianthemeinTheLastoftheル10痂cα. η5,Hollywooddirectors. haveconsistentlydiminishedtheimagesofNativeAmericansintheirfilms.Fromtheearliest. silentversionstotheepicrevisionistadaptationof1992,filmmakershaveusedtheimagesof. theBloodthirstySavageandtheNobleRedIVIanasflatoversimplifiedfictionstoemphasize. thesuperiorityofthewhiteheroandEuro-Americancultureingeneral,ortocommenton. contemporarysocialandpoliticalissues.Asaresult,filmversionsofTheLnstoftheル10肋. haveleftaudiencesforalmostacenturywithlittleinsightorunderstandingoftheuniqueness. ofNativeAmericanheritageortheimmensityofthedestructionanddisplacementoftheir. culturesbywhiteexpansion.Inspiteoftheseproblems,filmadaptationsofthenovelcontinue. tobemadebecauseHollywoodseesthebookcontainingtheelementsofanAmericanfilm. classic,ifforallthetivrongreasons.. 一22一. 伽5.

(23) TheLastoftheMohicans:TheNovelattheMovies Notes 1). Barker,M.1993."FirstandlastMohicans."SightandSound:p.26.. 2). Twain,M.1895."FenimoreCooper'sliteraryoffenses."NorthAmericanReview:pp.1-2.. 3). Walker,J.1995."DeconstructinganAmericanmyth:HollywoodandthelastoftheMohicans," ノtimesFenimoreCooper.・. 五1∫5co朋. 砂oη4痂5σ',H.C.MacDougall(Ed.):p.77.. 4). Seenumber3:p.78.. 5). Bataille,G.andSilet,C.(Eds.).1980.ThepretendIntlictns.・. 伽08656ゾ. p.15;Hilger,M.1995.Fromsctソagetonobleman.・Imagesofハ. 姻v6んnericansinelm:p.64;Rollins,P.. C.andO'Connor,J.E.(Eds.)1998.Hollywood'sIndian.・TheportrayaloftheNativeAmericanin elm:pp.$-9;Stedman,R.W.1982.ShadowsoftheIndian:p.50.. 6). Cooper,J,E1826/1992.Thelastoプtheル70hicnns.・Anarrativeρ. 7). Griffith,D.W.1909.Leatherstocking.. 8). Tourneur,M.andBrown,C.L.1920.ThelastoftheMohicans.. 9). Seitz,G.B.1924.The160劾. σ5'oc窺. 10). Eason,R.andBeebe,F.1932.ThelastoftheMohicans.. プ175Z. η8tales.. 11). Seitz,G.B.1936.ThelastoftheMohicans.. 12). Seenumber1:p.28. 13). Sherman,G.1947.Thelestofthererlmen.. 14). Neufield,S.andSalkow,S.1957.、Nnwkeyectndthelust{ヅ'加. 15). Maloney,D.1972.ThelastoftheMohicnns.. 16). Conway,J.L.1977.ThelastoftheMohicans.. 17). Mann,M.1992.ThelastoftheMohicans.. ルlohicans.. ユ8) Beard,J.F.1983."Historicalintroduction,"ThelastoftheMohicans.・Anarrativeof1757byJ.F. Cooper,J.A.SappenfieldandE.N.Feltskog(Eds.):p.xxx.. 19). "Cooper'sNo vels,No.2,"NewYorkMirror,August11,1827:p.39.. 20). Seenumber18:p.xx.. 21). Seenumberユ8:P.xxi.. 22). Seenumber6:p.199.. 23). Seenumber3:p.80.. 24). Seenumber18:p.xxxi.. 25). Seenumber18:p.xxxii. 26). Seenumber3:p.$1.. 27). Seenumber6:p.181.. 28). Seenumber6:p.182.. 29). Seenumber6:p.284.. 30). Seenumber3:p.82.. 31). Seenumber18:p.xxv.. 32). Milder,R.1980."ThelastoftheMohicansandthenewworldfall,"んnericanLiterature:pp.426427.. 33). ハ励'vεA〃aericans加themovies:. Seenumber32:pp.427-428.. 一23一.

(24) 働,「. 近畿大学語学教育部紀要 34). Stedman,R.W。1982.5加40w5ρ. 35). Sandoux,J.J.1980.Roc∫5〃iinWesternfilmsフBYO〃2D.W.Griffith'oJohnFord:P.4.. プ伽1力. 36). Hilger,M.1995.Fromsavagetonobleman.・Imagesofハlcttiveん. 37). Seenumber1:p.27.. 38). Seenumber6:p.413.. 39). Seenumber6:p.414.. 40). Seenumber11.. 41). Seenumber11.. 42). Seenumber11.. 43). Seenumber36:p.66.. 44). Seenumber36:pp.66-67.. 45). Seenumber17.. 46). Seenumber36:p.230.. 47). Seenumber17.. 48). Seenumber1:p.29.. 49). Seenumber11.. 50). Seenumberl:p.29.. 51). Seenumber1:p.29.. 52). Seenumber1:p.29.. 伽. 3巻1号(2003・11). η:pp.248-250.. ηθr∫coη5功. ガ1砿pp.65-66.. References. Barker,M.(ユ993)。"FirstandlastMohicans."SightnntlSoacnrl。3/8,26-29. Bataille,G.andSilet,C.(Eds.).(1980).刀ze、pretendInclinns.・ImagesofNative、4那. θr∫ooη5inthemovies.. Ames:IowaStateUniversityPress. Beard,J.F.(1983)."Historicalintroduction."InJ.A.SappenfieldandE.N.Feltskog(Eds.),Thelast oftheMohicans:AnccrYCrtiveof1乃7byJ.F.Cooper(PP.xv-xxxii).Albany:StateUniversityof NewYorkPress. Clark,C.L.(1995)."TheNativeAmerican:Acasestudyoffilmstereotypes."KinkiUniversめ1 LanguageInstitaateJournal,4/1,15-45. Cooper,J.F.(1826/1992).Thelestoftheルlohicccns.・Anccrrcztiveof1乃ZLondon:Penguin. "C ooper'sNovels,No.2."q827).ノVewYorkル1ZYYOY,Augustll,39. Hilger,M.(ユ995).Fro〃a5αvo86tonobleman.・Imagesofハ. 励 ∫v6A〃aericansinfilm。Lanham:Scarecrow. Press. Milder,R.(1980)."ThelastoftheMohicansandthenewworldfall."んnericccnLiteranare,52,407429. Rollins,P.C.andO'Connor,J.E.(EdsJ.(1998).Hollywood"sIndian.・TheIJOYtYayaZoftheNative Americaninelm.Lexington:UniversityofKentuckyPress. Sandoux,J.J.(1980).Rncism,inWesternfilmsfromD.W.GriffithtoJohnFord.NewYork:Revisionist Press.. 一24一. ㌧`,.ras.

(25) TheLastoftheMohicans:TheNovelattheMovies Stedman,R.W.(1982).ShadowsoftheIndian.Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress. Twain,M.(1895)."FenimoreCooper'sliteraryoffenses."N∂rthんnericanReview,161,ユ. ーユ2.. Walker,J.(1995)."DeconstructinganAmericanmyth:HollywoodandthelastoftheMohicans."In H.C.MacDougall(Ed.),JamesFenimoreCooper.・H∫5co媚. り70η4痂5α. the1995CooperSeminar(No.10).Oneonta:StateUniversityofNewYorkPress.. FeatureFilms. Conway,J.L.(1977).ThelastoftheMohicans.ShickSunnClassicsandNBCTelevision. Costner,K.(ユ990).Danceswithwolves.Orion. Eason,R.andBeebe,F.(1932).ThelastoftheMohicans.Mascot. Griffith,D.W.(1909).Leatherstocking.Biograph. Hill,W.(1993).Gero励ZD.・AnAmericanlegend.ColumbiaPictures. Maloney,D.(1972).ThelastoftheMohicans.WNETMasterpieceTheaterandBBCTelevision. 1Vlann,M.(1992).ThelastoftheMohicans.TwentiethCenturyFox. Neufield,S.andSalkow,S.(1957).HawkeyeandthelastoftheMohicans.UnitedStatesandCanada SyndicatedTelevisionSeries. Seitz,G.B.(1936).ThelestoftheMohicans.UnitedArtists. Seitz,G.B.(1924).Thelecctherstockingtales.Pathe. Sherman,G.(1947).Thelestoftheredmen.ColumbiaPictures. Tourneur,IUI.andBrown,C.L.(120).ThelastoftheMohicans.AssociatedProducers.. 一25一. π(pp.77-84).Papersfrom.

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