日本語の感情表現文の構造及び語彙の特徴

(1)

97

日本語の感情表現文の構造及び語彙の特徴

一主に英語と比較して

羽佐田理恵

この論文では日本語の「感情を表す文構造と語彙の特徴」を、主に英語と比較して考察する。

二言語間の感情表現構造の違いは、母国語を英語とする日本語学習者が日本語で感情表現をする際の誤りの原因と関連するものも多い。

日本語では通常話者の主観的感情表明には「うれしい」などの̀感情形容詞'を使い、「(私は)喜ぶ」などと̀感情動詞'では言わない。また他人の感惰を表現する際は自身の感情を表現するのとは異なった語彙・統語表現を使用し、自己と他人の感情表現の仕方を明確に区別する事に敏感である。この点を理解していないと日本語学習者は不自然な文を作ってしま

う。

又、日本語の傾向として自分の感情を表す際は主語を省略する事が多いが、主語を明らかにすべき英語圏の人々にとって、例えば「あの先生が恐い」という文は"主語「私」が省略されている"事をふまえていないと、

「あの先生立恐い」VS「あの先生蛙恐い」という助詞0つだけが違う2文は構造も意味も全く違う(前者は(a)主観的感情形容詞:後者は一般の人々が同じ感情を持つ(b)猛属的特質を示す感晴形容詞)ことに混乱する。

またある語彙その意味特性により(a)か(b)のどちらかだけに使われがちなものもある。

(2)

こういった言語構造・語彙の特徴は、その言語を使用する人々の思考様式に関係づけられるものがある。例えば日本語で他人の気持ちを表現する時には「何を根拠に自分自身のものではない他人の感情がわかるか」を示す様々な手段を使って文を記述しなければならないが、それは英語圏の人々と比べ日本人は「他人への心身接触に比較的距離を置こうとする傾向」

がある事と関係するとも考えられる。

更に日本語では感情表現で表される概念範囲が英語では感情表現として捉えられて現象も例に挙げている。このように言語によって異なる概念の

とらえ方が人々の思考傾向とどう関連があるのかも興味深い点である。

(3)

99

GrammaticalandLexical

CharacteristicsofJapanese

EmotionSentences'

RieHasada

Inthisarticle,significantdifferencesthatcanbeobservedbetween thestructureofemotionexpressionsinEnglishandJapanesewillbe discussed.Inthisdiscussionandcomparisonofstructuraidifferences ofemotionexpressionbetweenthesetwolanguages,wecanfindlexical andsyntacticalcharacteristicswhicharepeculiartoemotion expressionsintheJapaneselanguage.Thesecharacteristicsreflect

someaspectsofthepsychicstructureofJapanesepeopleandtheir perspectiveontheouterworld.

1.InflectionsacidDerivationsofAdjectivesandVerbs

TheJapaneselanguagehastwoadjectivalsubclasses:1‑adjectives

(̀keiyaoshi')andNa‑adjectives(̀keiyoo‑dooshi').Modificationisthe mostcommonfunctionoftheseadjectives.Whilethenon‑past

indicativeformofI‑adjectivescanbeusedinmodification,Na‑

adjectivesneedtobefollowedby"na"(theattributiveformofthe

copula"da")whentheyareusedasmodifiers:

(4)

iOO

Itoshii

I‑adj.(beloved}

Suki Na‑adj.

hito

Noun{person)

na

Cop(beloved)

hito

Noun(person)

AsMatsudaetal(1993:5}states,1‑adjectivesinflectfortense(pastand non‑past}andmood.Na‑adjectivesdonotinflectfortenseandmood bythemselves.Thepartwhichinflectsisthecopula(Backhouse1984:

172,Kindaichi1988Vol.2:133).Asforverbs,theyinflectfortense andmoodlikeI‑adjectives.Thefollowingisalistofpossible inflectionsforthetwotypesofadjectives(here"itoshii[roughly

̀lovely'r'1 ‑ad/ective;and̀̀suki[roughlỳlikelloving'」:ノVa‑ad/ecttive)

andverbs(here"aisuru"[roughlỳtodove']).z

dnflectionalcategoriesofhadjective,Na‑adjectives,andverbs I‑a(巧ectiveNa‑a(巧ectiveVerb

̀̀itoshii"̀̀sukゴ'̀̀aisuru"

Non‑pastindicativeitoshi‑isakidaais‑uru Pastindicative3itoshi‑kat‑tasukidat‑taais̲hi‑ta Infinitiveitoshi‑ku

Gerunditoshi‑ku‑tesukideais‑hi‑te

Gerund+auxiliaryais‑hi‑teirua(progressive/stative)

Tonominaliseemotionadjectives,thesuffix̀‑sa'isoftenused:for

example,itoshli(1‑adj.)一>itos垣一sa(Noun);setsunai(1‑adj.)一〉

(5)

GrammaticalandLexicalCharacteristicsofJapaneseEmotionSentences 101

setsuna‑sa(Noun).Someadjectivesmayalsohavederived.nounswith thesuffix̀‑mi'.Forexample;theadjective"tanoshii"hastwonoun forms:"tanoshi‑sa"and"tanoshi‑mi".5"Ai"and"koi"arethenoun formsderivedfromverbs"aisuru"and"koisuru"respectivelywhere

"‑suru"isomittedfromtheverbform.Thenominalisedformofverbs suchas"tereru"or"akogareru"is"tere"and"akogare"whereitcanbe observedthatthelastpartisomitted.

2.GrammaticalFeaturesofEmotionExpressionSentences

Therearesignificantdifferencesthatcanbeobservedbetweenthe structureofemotionexpressionsinEnglishandJapanese.Becauseof

thesestructuraldifferences,English‑speakinglearnersofJapaneseoften makecommonmistakesintheiruseofemotionexpressionsin

Japanese.

Forexample,Englishspeakersmayattimesutterunnatural sentencessuchas"watashiwayorokobu(lit.Ifeelglad)",without realizingthatemotionalverbs,suchas"yorokobu",arenotusuallyused

toexpressone'sownsubjectiveemotionsinJapanese.Also,theyoften utterungrammaticalsentencessuchas"karewaureshii(lit.Heis happy)".ThisisbecausetheyareunawarethatinJapanese,thespeaker cannotmakeadefinitestatementaboutanotherperson'sfeeling.

Further,non‑nativeJapanesespeakersoftendonotrecognizethe differenceinmeaningbetweensentencessuchas̀̀anosenseig旦kowai

(Iamafraidoftheteacher)"and"anosenseiwakowai(Theteacheris fearful)",wheretheonlyformaldifferenceistheparticle"ga"and

̀̀wa"

.71twou】dseemthatinthesyntacticandmorphologicalbehavior

(6)

102

ofemotionexpressions,therearecertainrulesatwork, characteristicoftheJapaneselanguage.

whichare

2・1・Em・ti・nAdlectir燗㎜dEm・ti・nVヒfbs

Verbalemotionpredicates,suchas"yorokobu(feelglad)", i4kanashimu(grieve)"

,aredifferentfromadjectivalemotionpredicates suchas"kowai(beinfearof7","ureshii(beglad)","kanashii(besad}",

inthattheformerdescribeaperson'semotionmoreobjectively.

Toillustratethis,Miuraremarks{1983:220}thattheemotionverb

"yorokobu(rejoice}"cannotbeusedtoexpressth

esubjectivefeelingof

thespeaker:

...yorokobu,asarule,describesathirdperson'sfeelinggladand expressingitbyspeech,attitude,orbehavior.Thus,ofthe

followingexamples,{1}iscorrect,but(2}isnot.

(1)Kodomowayasumininarutoyorokobu.

(Childrenaregladwhenaholidayarrives.) (2)*Watashiwayasumininarutoyorokobu.

(Iamgladwhenaholidayarrives.)

In(2),toexpresstheideaintended,yorokobuwouldhavetobe replacedbyureshii,asin

{3)Watashiwayasumininarutoureshii.

Thus,theverb"yorokobu"isusedfortheobjectivedescriptionofthe thirdperson'sfeeling,ratherthanforthesubjectivedescriptionofthe

speaker'sownfeeling.

(7)

GrammaticalandLexicalCharacteristicsofJapaneseEmotionSentencesto3 Thereare,however,instanceswhere"yorokobu"maybeusedwith

thefirstperson,Thisisthecasewhentheverbisintheprogressive

aspect(indicatedbyitsgerundiveformfollowedbytheauxiliarỳiru').

Thisisbecauseonecandescribeone'semotionalstatedispassionately iftheemotionisonewhenitlastsforacertaintimeorwhichhas

happenedinthepast.

(1)Watashiwa‑

ITOPfeelglad‑GERPROD

feesglad‑inthestateof

(Iaminthestateoffeelingglad.}

(2)Watashiwasoreokiite幽

ITOPthatOBJhearfeelglad‑PAST

(Irejoicedathearingthat.)

Still,weshouldnotethatthetwoverbalsentencesabovesound

relativelyobjectivecomparedwiththefallowingadjectivalsentences:

(3)Watashiwaureshii[adj̲1.

(4)Watashiwasoreokiiteureshikatta.[ad1.

(Iamglad.)

(Iwasgladtohearthat.)

Adjectivalsentences(3)and(4),conveythespeaker'sinternal

emotionalstatesdirectly.Conversely,verbalsentencessuchas(1jand (2)reportthespeaker'sownemotionsmoreobjectively.

Inasimilarvein,Morita(1991:218)mentionsthattheverbal

(8)

104

emotionexpression:

(5)Sofunoshio*kanashimufverbl.

(Igrieveaboutthedeathofgrandfather.)

isnotacceptablesinceitsoundstooobjectiveandcoldfordescribing

one'sfeelingtowardsthedeathofone'sgrandfather.Inorderto

expresstheimminent̀sad'emotion,Japanesewouldusetheadjective

"kanashii"asin:

(6}Sofunoshigakanashiiadjective].

(Iamdistressedaboutthedeathofgrandfather.)

Furthermore,Yamashita(1956:SS‑‑S9}pointsoutthatwhenaperson stepsonanail,he/shewouldcry:

{7a)"A!Itai!{4h!4uch!)"

withtheadjectivèitai(painful}!'.Onewouldnevercry:

(7b)*"A!Itamu!(Oh!Ithurts!)"

withtheverb̀itamu(hurt)',becauseitdoesnotconveyaninstinctive subjectivepainfulfeelingbutsoundsliketheobjectivedescriptionof painasifthefootissomebodyelse's.

Ontheotherhand,whenoneshowsthepainfulpartofhisfoottoa

(9)

GrammaticalandLexica】CharacteristicsofJapaneseEmotionSentenceslo5

doctor,onewouldusetheverb̀itamu'todescribethepainobjectively

asin:

(7c}"{ashino)kokogaitamunodesu{Thispart[ofthefoot]

hurts".

Thesimilarphenomenacanbeseenwiththefollowingsetsofwords:

̀urayamashii(adj .)vs.̀urayamu(verb);̀wazurawashii(adj.)vs.

̀wazurau(verb)'.Examinethebelowtoconfirmthepointdiscussedso far.Althoughonecouldconveyhis/herinstinctivesubjectivefeeling withtheadjectiveinthesentencelikebelowwherethesentenceis

finishedwithfinalparticlessuchas̀‑naa!',̀‑nee1',̀‑waa!'whichshow thesubject'sexclamatoryfeeling:

(8a)Aa,karenokotogaurayamashii/urameshii/wazurawshii naa/nee/waa!!

(Oh!(1)reallyfeelenvious/rerettable/annolnabouthim)

Itisadequateorsoundsstrangetoexchangetheaboveunderlined

adjectiveswiththecorrespondingverbs.Theyareincompatiblewith subjectiveexclamatoryexpressionsmarkedbỳ‑naalneelwaa!'.

(8b)Aa,karenokoto naa/nee/waa1!

o一

Somemightsaythesentencewouldbecorrectifwechangetheverbto

(10)

106

theprogressiveaspectvindicatedbyitsgerundiveformbuttheauxiliary (̀iru')asthesentencebelow(8c)].

(8c)Aa,madakarenokotoouraan‑deirulurann‑deiru/

wazurat‑teirunaa/nee/waa!1

However,aswehaveseenbeforeinthissection,thistypeofexpression withtheprogressivè‑iru'formdoesnotexpressthespontaneous

feelingofsentence(8a};pattern{Sc}ratherrepresentsthesubject's

feelingwhichhe/shehashadforawhile,thusitsoundsrelatively

objectivecomparedwiththecorrespondingadjectivesentence(8a).

2.2.ThirdPersonEmotionAdjectivalSentences

Intheprevioussectionitwasobservedthatthedistinctionbetween theuseofemotionverbs,suchas"yorokobu{rejoice)",andtheuseof

emotionadjectives,suchas"ureshii(beglad}"isimportantinJapanese.

ThesecondsignificantcharacteristicofJapaneseemotionsentences isthat:theemotionadjectivalsentencecannottakethethirdpersonasa subjectwhenthesentenceisasimpleclauseandtheadjectival

predicateisinanon‑pastindicativeform.Whendescribingathird person'semotion,weshoulduseverbalemotionpredicateswhich

representthespeaker'sobjectivedescriptionofthefactoreventin ordertoconveyanobjectivemanifestationofemotion.

Anexamplecanbeseenwhere"tanoshii(behappy)",asarule , referstothespeaker's(orinquestions,theaddressee's)happyfeeling.

Thefollowingsentences(1b)and(2b),withathirdpersonassubject,

(11)

areincorrect.Sentences(1a),withafirstpersonassubject(ina declarativesentence),and(2a),withasecondpersonassubject(inan interrogativesentence),arecorrect.

(1a}

(lb) (2a)

(2b)

VVatashiwamainichigatanoshii.(Iamhappyeveryday.)

*Karewamainichigatanoshii .*(Heishappyeveryday.) Anatawamainichigatanoshiidesuka?

(AreXauhappyeveryday?)

*Karewamainichigatanoshiidesuka?

*(Ishehappyeveryday?)

Akatsuka(1979}explainsthisphenomenonasfollows:

"Becausewecannotreadminds

,itisimpossibleforanyoneto enteranotherperson'sinnerconsciousnessanddirectly

experiencehisinternalfeelings,sensations,emotions,orbeliefs.

Ourknowledgeaboutthementalstateofanotheregomust

necessarilycomefromourinterpretationofexternalevidence."

(P.7)

Sheelaborates:

"onecharacteristicofJapanesesyntax ...isitsextreme sensitivitytoepistemologicalconsiderationsbasedonthe

ego/nonegodistinctionorthedistinctionofI/theother.

TraditionalJapanesegrammarianshavelongobservedthat

(12)

ias

Japaneseadjectivesofemotion,sensation,feeling,intensionand sofortharesensitivetothisego/nonegodistinction,"(p,8)

Miura(1983:194)alsostatesthat"inJapanese,onecannotmakea definitestatement...aboutsomeoneelse'sfeelingunlessoneisa novelistmanipulatingacharacterinanovel".Aoki(1986:226‑7) commentsthatanarratorinanovel"mayadoptapositionwhich

enableshimtoprocesssensationsasthoughhehasprivilegeddirect accesstothesensingareaswhichareinaccessibleunderordinary circumstances".Kuroda(1973:381)calledastyleproducedbysuchan

omniscientnarrator"anonreportivestyle".Weshouldnoteherethat , unlikeEnglish,eventheomniscientnarratorofanovelcannotexpress

thethirdperson'semotioninthepresenttenseasbelow:

(3)*Karewamainichigatanoshii. *(lit.Heishappyeveryday.)

Theabovesentencecouldbegrammatical,ifthetensewerechanged tothepast:

{4}Karewamainichigatanoshikatta. (Hewashappyeveryday.)

However,asentencelike(4)isparticularlyrepresentativeof,and restrictedto,awritten,narrativestyle.Thus,intheordinary

conversationalstyle,thethirdpersonsubjectcannotco‑occurwithan emotionadjective.

Thereareseveraldeviceswhichmaybeusedtomakeemotion

(13)

GrammaticalandLexicalCharacteristicsof.lapaneseEmotionSentences 109

adjectivalsentences,suchas"*Karewamainichigatanoshii(*Heis happyeveryday)"grammatical{cf.Nishio1972:29‑34;Aoki19$b:

223‑237}.

(5)Karewamainichiotanoshi‑gat‑teiru.

heTOPeverydayOBJhappy‑Verbalizer‑GerundPROG {Heshowssignsofbeinghappyeveryday.}

{6)Kayewamainichigatanoshiino/nda.

heTOPeverydaySUBhappymarkeroffactG4P

{ltisafactthatheishappyeveryday./Iknowthathe.ishappy everyday.}

(7)Karewamainichigatanoshii‑sooda.

heT4PeverydaysUBhappy‑[theysay]CaP (Theysayheishappyeveryday.)

(8a)Karewamainichigatanoshi‑sooda.

heTOPeverydaySUBhappy‑[inferential]C4P (ltlookslikeheishappyeveryday.)

(Sb)Karewamainichigatanoshii‑yooda.

heTOPeveryday5UBhappy‑[appear]COP

{Iinferfrommyownexperiencethatheishappyeveryday) (8c)Karewamainichigatanoshii‑rashii.

heTOPeverydaySUBhappy‑seem]

(IinferfromwhatIheardthatheishappyeveryday.}

Sentence(5)isgrammatical,sincetheadjective"tanoshii"takesthe verbalize/indirectevidentialmarker̀garu',which"convertsinner

(14)

110

sensationsanddesiresintoaverbwhichexpressesexternally observablechanges"{Aoki198b:225).Theverbderivedbythe

additionof̀‑garu'receivesthefurtheradditionof̀teiru'toexpressa state.Sentence{b)isalsogrammaticalwithanevidential̀no/nda' (nominatizèno'anditsinformalform̀n'+copulàda'),which

"convertsastatementfarwhichordinarilynodi

rectknowledgeis possibleintoastatementwhichisassertedasafact(Aoki:230}g.

Sentence(7)isgrammaticalwiththespecial"hearsay"nominalizer

̀soo'followedbyacopulàda'

,whichaddsthemeaningof"theysay".

Sentences{Sa),{Sb),and{Sc)areallgrammaticalwiththeinferential forms̀soo‑da',̀yoo‑da',̀rashii'respectively,whichmaybetranslated as̀looklike',̀appear',̀seem'.Ofthese,̀soo‑da'insentence(8a)is

"usedwhenthespeakerbelie vesinwhatheismakinganinference about"(Aoki:232).̀Yoo‑da'insentence(8b)isused"whenthe speakerhassomevisible,tangible,oraudibleevidencecollected throughhisownsensetomakeaninference"(Aoki:231}.̀Rashii'in sentence{8c)is"usedwhentheevidenceiscircumstantialorgathered throughsourcesotherthanone'sownsenses"(Aoki:231).

Itshouldbenotedthatallofthesentencesabovemodifiedwith

differentdevicesdonotconveythemanifestationoftheinnerstateof subjectiveemotion,as"tanoshii(behappy)"in"Watashiwatanoshii(I amhappy}"does.Todescribeathirdperson'semotions,themodified sentencesshouldshow"onwhatbasistheyarepresentingthestatement aboutotherpeople'semotions",byusingtheevidentialmarker̀‑garu',

̀no/n'

,̀‑yoo',̀‑soo',̀‑rashii',forexample.Thus,whenspeakingof emotionsinJapanese,thespeakerneedstopresentsomeformal

(15)

evidentialmarkerswhendescribingemotionalfeelingsexperiencedby otherpeople.

Incontrast,inEnglish,expressionslike"Heishappy"or"Hewants

water",arejustasgrammaticalas"Iamhappy"or"Iwantwater".

Jorden,anAmericanlinguistwhospecializedintheJapaneselanguage, concludesthat"culturallywearemuchlessreluctantthantheJapanese todescribethefeelingofothersindefinitestatements{̀Sheishappy',

̀Heissad'

,etc.)"(Jorden1987:140).IncontrastaJapanesespeaker needstomakeaformaldistinctionbetweenthedescriptionofhis/her awnemotionalfeelingsandthedescriptionofanemotionalfeeling experiencedbyanother.Thesestructuralcharacteristicsofemotion expressionsinJapanesereflecttheJapanesespeaker'spsychicstructure

andperspectiveontheworld.InJapaneseculture,whereinterpersonal involvementisrestrictedandthedisclosureofselfislimited(when comparedwithEnglishspeakingnations:cf.e.g.Barnlund1975},

peoplemayavoiddescribingthefeelingsofothersindefinite statements.

2.3.EmotionAdjectivesthatareExceptionstoRestrictionRule ItshouldbenotedhereseveralemotionadjectiveswhichCANtakea thirdpersonasthesubjectinsentencesinadefiniteconclusiveform.

Forexample,thesubjectof̀shiawase(na‑adjective;roughlỳhappy')' isnotrestrictedtothefirstperson"watashi(1)".Thisisbecausethe emotionrepresentedbỳshiawase'isusuallysomeone'scontinuous emotionalattitude.MizutaniandMizutani(1990:40)saythèureshii' feelingis"usedtodescribejoyfeltoveraspecificincident",whereasa

(16)

iI2

feelinglikèshiawase'refersto"astatewhichlastsforsometime" . Therefore,thisemotionisratherobjective(itcanbeobserved

outwardly),sòshiawase'canbeusedtodescribethefeelingofa thirdsecondperson.

Thesubjectofanotheremotionterm̀uchooten'isalsonotrestricted tospecifictypeofsubject.Thisisbecausetheattitudeoftheperson feeling̀uchooten'isobvious,anditcanbeobservedoutwardly .In Hiejima'sDictionaryNichi‑EiTaishooKanjooHyoogenJiten

{ContrastiveDictionaryofJapanese‑English.EmotionExpressions),

"Uchooten"istranslatedintotheexpressionslikèbeoncloudnine'or

̀madwithjoy' .ThefollowingareexamplesofwhereUCHOOTEN

appears.

{9) Watashiganyuugaku‑shikinotokinikarenosugataomite

irai,atamaniegaiteitayumegagenjitsuninattanoda . Watashiwajibetakaraashinouraga20‑senchiciteiru‑yoo

nakibundatta.Isshonikaettekureru‑yooninattanowa , watashitoshimmitsuninattekuretemoiitteiuishihyoojini chigainaiwatonaishin,[JCHO4TENninatteitanoda.

[Mure1998:195‑196]

MT10:ThedreamwhichIhavehadsinceIsawhimatthe

entranceceremonybecamereality.IfeltlikeIwasfloatingin theair,withmyfeet20cmabovetheground.Ifelt

UCHUOTEN,thinkinginsidethatheisshowingsignsof intimacywithme.)

(17)

GrammaticalandLexicalCharacteristicsofJapaneseEmotionSentences

(10)

(11)

113

TomugakanojonikekkonomooshikondaLokikanojowa UCHOOTENdatta.[Hi司imal995:2】

(B[J‑>E】:Shewasoncloudnine「UCHOOTEN】,whenTbm proposedtoher.)

KarewaumakuittakotodeUCHOOTENdatta.

[Hiejima1995:2]

(B[J‑>E]:HewasmadwithoyjUCHUUTENIatthe

success.)

Asseenabove,whenonefeels̀uchooten'he/shegetscarriedawayand feelstriumphantovereverything.11

Unlikèshiawase',̀uchooten'doesnotnecessarilycarrythe connotationofalong‑lastingfeeling.However,sincesomesignsor symptomwhichsuggesttheseemotionstendtoappearasattitudesor outwardbehaviors,theycanbeeasilyrecognizedbyotherpeople.

Therefore,thethirdpersonsubjectcanbeusedinthesubjectposition forthispredicatèuchooten'.

Similarly,predicateslike"suki(na‑adjective:like)"canalsotakethe thirdpersonasasubjectinthedefiniteconclusiveform,sincethisisa relativelycontinuousattitudetowardssomethingwhichcanbealso observedobjectivelybyotherpeople.

Thustheexceptiontotherestrictionrulediscussedinthissectioncan allbeeasilyobservedoutwardlysincetheyareeitherrelativelylong

lastingemotionsortheemotioncanbeeasilyguessedobjectivelyfrom

behaviororattitudes.

(18)

114

2.3.SubjectiveEmotionAdjectives&AttributiveEmotionAdjectives

Itisnecessarynexttoexplainthedifferencebetweensentenceslike

(a)̀̀Anosenseigakowai"and(b)̀̀Ano「senseswakowai",wherethe differenceisonlybetweentheparticle"ga"and"wa".

Inasentencecontaininganemotionexpression,thèexperiencerof emotion'complementappearsasaphrasewiththetopicparticle"wa"

inasimplesentenceas(1}.

(1){Watashiwa(ni‑wa)}12anosenseigakowai.

1[experiencer]TOP(DAT‑TQP)thatteacher SUBbeinfearof

{Iamafraidoftheteacher.)

Sinceitisevidentinsuchadjectivalsentencethattheexperiencerofthe emotionadjectivalsentenceisthespeaker(ortheaddresseein

question)inJapanese,thèexperiencer'complementcanusuallybe omittedasunderstoodasin(2).

(2)Anosenseig旦kowai

{{1}amafraidoftheteacher.)

Theadjective"kowai"inbathsentences(1)and(2)aboveindicatesthe fearfulfeelingofthèspeaker'.Whenthèstimulus/objectofemotion complement,"anosenseiga"ismarkedbythetopicmarker"wa"asin

(3),thenitcanbeseenthatthesameadjective"kowai"isusedto

describetheattributesofthetopicsubject{thatteacher),definedfrom

(19)

GrammaticalandLexicalCharacteristicsofJapaneseEmotionSentences anemotionalperspective.

115

{3}Anosenseiwakowai.

thatteacherTOPfearsome (Thatteacherisfearsome.)

Sentence(3)impliesthattheattributesofthetopicalizedsubject"ano sensei(thatteacher}"causes̀peopleingeneral'tofeelfear‑like feelings.Thusthesameadjective"kowai"hasin{2)asubjectiveuse, andin(3)anattributive(descriptive)use.

Therefore,thesameemotionadjectiveinthesubjectiveusecanalso beusedasanattributiveadjectiveinconstructionswherethefocusis placedonthèobject/stimulusoftheemotion'complement.Indeed,

manyemotionadjectivescanalsobeusedinanattributive{descriptive}

sense(cf.Teramura1982):

【Subロectiveuse osoroshii(beindreadofd kowai(bescared) kanashii(besad) sabishii(belonely) urayamashii(bejealousof}

[Attributivedescritiveuse

一一ｺosoroshii(dreadful)

kowai(scary}

kanashii(sad,sorrowful)

→sabishii(deserted) 一furayamashii

(beingsomething/somethingwhich onewoulddesiretobeinplace)

ItisworthnotinghereKishimoto's(1967:110}followingcomments:

(20)

116

SUPPOSEAMANistakingawalkinthecountrysideofJapan.

Heissurroundedbyquietautumnalscenery.Somesentiment comestohismind.Hefeelsitandwantstoexpressthe

sentiment.Hewouldsaỳ̀samishii(lonesome)".13(,...)Itisnot necessaryinJapanesetospecifythesubjectbyexplicitlystating analysis,one'ssentimentcanbeprojectedthereinitsimmediate

form.Analytically,thesentimentistheresultofthe

collaborationofthesubjectandtheobject.Nodoubt,bothare

takingpartinit.But,whatisactuallycomingupinhismindis thesentimentoflonesomeness,workinginthedomainofan immediateexperience.Itisin‑between.

Kishimotothenstatesthat"OneofthecharacteristicsoftheJapanese

languageistobeabletoprojectman'sexperienceinitsimmediateand

unanalyzedform".

However,asweseeznthefollowingsection,weshouldnotethat

therearesomeemotionwordswhichareusedonlysubjectively,while someemotionadjectivesareusedonlyattributely.

Someemotionadjectiveshavespecificformsfortheirattributive (descriptive)use,whichareformallydifferentfromtheformswhen theyareusedsubjectively.However,theyoftensharethesamestem

form.

(21)

[Subjectiveuse

nikui(haveafeelingofhatefor vda(feelbadof)

kawaii(love)

ureshii(feelhappy)

[Attributivedescritiveuse

iI7

)→nikurashii(hatefu1)

→ 虹旦rashii(unpleasant)

‑ikawairashii(lovely)

→orokobashii(hapPy

,pleasant)

Theemotionadjectivesconveythespeaker'ssubjectivefeeling

towardsomeone/somethingintheconstructionwherethe

̀stimulus/objectofemotion'complementismarkedbythesubject particlè̀ga".Inanotherconstructionwherethis̀stimulus/object'

complementismarkedwiththetopicparticle"wa",however,the

emotionadjectiveschangetheirmeaningsfromthatoftheirsubjective useintothatoftheirattributive(descriptive}use.Theemotion

adjectivesintheattributiveusedefinetheattributesofthefocused objectwithemotionconnotation.

3.LeacicalFeaturesofJapaneseEmotionAdjectives:Their

Mea血gandUsage

3.1.AdlectivesUscdOnlySubjectively

SomeJapaneseemotionadjectives,suchas"koishii(̀miss')"

"kuyashii(̀vexed')"

,"terekusai(̀embarrassed')",arepredicateswhich describeanindividual'semotions.Theyoccuronlyinthesubjective

use.Whiletheyareusedtorefertoindividualsubjectivefeelings,they arenotusedtorefertotheattributivedispositionofthestimulusobject

oftheemotion.Therefore,onecannotsay,forexample:

(22)

118

Marywa*terekusai/*kuyashii(hitoda}.

(cpeopleingeneralfeel>Maryisanembarrassed/vexed(person).}

Accordingly,theseadjectivescannotbetransformednordotheyhave aspecificformforthepurposeofattributivedescription.

3.2.AdjectivesUsedOnlyAttributely

Ontheotherhand,adjectivessuchas"kenage{roughiỳpathetic'+

̀admirable')"tendstobefoundonlyinitsattributiveuseandnotinthe subjectiveuse,Unlikeitsadjectivalsynonym̀ijirashii',̀kenage'has onlytheattributive(descriptive)use:"YwaKENAGEda((Peoplein

generalfeel)YisKENAGE}".KENAGEcannotbeusedsubjectively:

e.g."*(Watashiwa)karegaKENAGEda(*(1)feelKENAGEabout im).

ExamplesoftheattributiveuseofKENAGEareasfollows:

(1)Konokowanakanakakashikoitoiooka,yuutooseitoiooka, jibunnooyagayanchadattamonodesukara,honninga

monosugokuyokunatte,sakkisenseigaosshattatoorinano desu.Hontooniyuutooseide,nanimokamoisshookemmei

yarisugirukode,iwayuru,KENAGEnakodattanodesu.

【Kawail992:63]

(MT:HowcanIdescribeapersonlikethis?Heisclever,and anhonorsstudent,andsincehisparentswerehopeless,he becameaverygoodperson,astheteachersaidearlier.Hewas trulyanexcellentstudentandhewasaboywhotriedveryhard

(23)

ineverything,hewaswhatiscalledaKENAGE‑nachild.)

Asseenbelow,onealsafeelsKENAGEabouttheattitude/behaviorof

theobject.

(2)ChooloMasakowaikkentotemoakarukugenki‑soodenanio shitemonanioiwaretemobikutomoshinaionnanokonoyoo niomowareteimasu.Shikashihontooniderikeetode

kizutsukiyasuku,hitonokokorootaisetsunishisekininkanno tsuyoikodesu.{.,..)SoreBakenimawarinishimpaisasemaito gambatteirusugatagaKENAGEde...

[Nakano,Mariko.(1994)JinseinoKim‑medaruninarutameni Tokyo:ChuuOOO5huppan:203]

(MT:MyeldestdaughterMasakolooksverycheerfuland energetic,soeverybodythinksthatshedoesnotcareabout whatotherssayordo.Butsheisactuallyverysensitiveand easilyhurt,alsosheisconsiderateofotherpeople'sfeelings andveryresponsible.(....)BecauseofthisIfeelKENAGE towardsherasshemakesaneffortnottoworryothers....)

ThesubjectfeelsKENAGEtowardstheobjectinadifficultsituation, andhassomeadmiration‑likefeelingstowardstheabjectwhodoesnot giveupinthatcondition.

HidaandAsada(1996:5556)saythatthewordKENAGEhas

similarconnotationstothewordIJIRASHII.Bothwordsfeaturea positiveconnotationtowardsapersonortheattitude/behaviorofa

(24)

120

personwhomakesanefforttodosomethingpositivetoovercomebad events.HidaandAsada(p.56),however,pointoutthatKENAGEis

differentfromIJIRASHIIinthatitspecificallyreferstoapositive evaluationofmentalstrengths,suchaspatienceordiligenceinherentin theobject'seffortwhereasIJIRASHIIemphasizes̀sympathetic'

feelingstowardtheobject(cf.alsoAraki1994:1b).

ThismaybebecauseKENAGEisusedonlyattributivelytodescribe

thepropertyoftheperson,ratherthanbeingusedsubjectively .

Therefore,inthefollowingexamplesKENAGEismoreappropriate thanIJIRASHII.

(3)Anokowabyoojakunaryooshinotasuketehataraku KENAGEna/?1.TIRASHIIkodomonanoda.Erainee.

{ThatboyisaKENAGEna/?LTIRASHIIchildwhohelpshis sicklyparents.Heiswonderful,isn'the?)

{4}"Shinsekinouchiniazukerarete,lottoiroirotofujiyuunaomoi ospiteirunodaroone."

"Uun

,nobinobiyo."

"KaminosooiuKENAGESAfN

ounl/?IJIRASHISAfNoun nitaishite,bokuwaiukotobamonai."

("Youmustbeexperiencingacomfortlessfeelingsincebeing deftatyourrelative'shouse."

"No

,Iamfeelingfree."

̀̀IamleftspeechlessatsuchKE‑

?IIRASHISANoun.}

(25)

GrammaticalandLexicalCharacteristicsofJapaneseEmotionsentences 121

WhenoneusesKENAGE,oneemphasizesone'sadmirationforthe

object'sstrengthratherthanthesubject'ssympatheticfeelingtowards theobject.Therefore,thisword .tendstobeusedonlyattributely.

Anotherexamplewhichisusedonlyattributelyis̀ki‑no‑doku(lit.fees sorry;na‑adjective)'sincethiswordisneverusedfordescribingone's subjectivefeeling.

4,DifferentAttitudesandWaysofExpressingFeeding towardsCertai血Concepts:AContrastbetweenJapanese a11{豊Englis畳1●

Itisinterestingtoconsiderhowtheword"tsurai"isdifferently conceptualizedfromthepointofcontrastiveanalysisbetweenJapanese andEnglish.Significantdifferencesinwaysofdealingwithconcepts coveredbythisword̀tsurai'canbefoundbetweenJapaneseand English.

Japaneseemotionadjectivètsurai'isusedtorefertointolerable psychologicalpain.Asseeninthefollowingexamples(1)and(2),the psychologicallypainfulTSURAIfeelingcanbecausedbyphysical pain.Example(1)isfromanoriginalJapanesetext.Example(2)isthe JapanesetranslationofanoriginalEnglishtextwherephysicallỳhard' workistranslatedasworkwhichmadethesubjectfeelTsURA.1.14

{1)Demo,nantettatteTSURAInowaasahayakuokirukotodana.

TSURAInaa.(...}Okite,fukuokigaeruLoki....Hontooniare, dooshiyoomonaiyone....Nemukute,samukute....

[Abe197:641]

(26)

122

(J‑>E:There'snotwow'aysaboutit‑gettingupearlyis旦 ainintheneckTSURAI.Imeanit̲(.̲)It'sgettingup,

puttingonmyclothes..,.There'snothingworsethanthat...

Sleepyandcold....}[Abe1975:41]

(2}Kookokunidetari,fujinfuku‑tenomawattemoderno

tsutometari.Ichinichinirokkaikarahakkainoshoookonasu nowa,hontooniTSURAIshigotodeshita.Watashiwasoreo ichinenhodotsuzuketanodesu.[Gross1995:196]

(J<‑ElI'dgoaroundtoallthefashionhousesanddotheir collections.Commercial,thelowendofthemarket.Really hard[TSURAIIwork,sixoreightshowsaday.Ididthatfor aboutayear.)[Gross1995:179]

WhileTSURAIhasbothasubjectiveuseandanattributiveuse,its

subjectiveuseismorefrequentthanitsattributiveuse.°5

WhatismostnoticeableaboutTSURAIisthatwhilethiswordis apparentlyregardedasanemotionwordintheJapaneselanguage,the EnglishtranslationofTSURAIdoesnotusuallyrelyuponanemotion

word.Theword̀hard'ismastfrequentlyusedforitstranslation,and alternativesincludèbitter'or̀noteasy'.Inordertoprovethat JapaneseTSURAIisanemotionword,whileEnglishHARDisnot, examinethefollowingexamplesbothinEnglishandJapanese.

正幽]

(1a)IfeelSHARD.

(lb)IhaveaSHARDfeeling.

(27)

Javanese (2a)WatashiwaTSURAItokanjiru, ITOPTSURAIquot.feel

(lit.IfeelTSURAI.}

(2b}WatashiwaTSURAIkimochigasuru.

IT4PTSUR.AIfeelSUBdo

(lit.IhaveaTSURAIfeeling.)

123

Althoughonecansayhe/shèfeelsTSURAI'or̀hasaTSURAI

feeling'inJapanese,inEnglishonewouldnotsayonèfeelsHARD' nor̀hasaHARDfeeling'.

Sometimes,however,anemotionwordisusedforthetranslationfor TSURAI.Forinstance,inthefollowingexample,theemotionword

̀excruciating'isgivenforthetransiationofTSUR .AI:

(3)Tada,bokuwaneesanni,bokugasonohitonookusanni

kogarete,urouroshite,TSURAKATtatoiukotodakeoshine itadaitaraiinodesu.Dakara,neesanwasoreoshittemo, betsudan,darekanisonokotoouttae,otootonowizennoomoi otogesaseteyarutokanantoka,sonnakizanaosekkainado nasaruhitsuyoowazettaininainodesushi,neesanohitori dakegashitte,sooshite,kossori,aa,sooka,toomotte kudasattarasoredeiindesu.Naomatsyokeoieba,konna bokunohazukashiikokuhakuniyotte,semeteneesandake demo,bokunokoremadenoinochinokurushisao,sarani fukakuwakattekudasattara,totemobokuwaureshiku omoimasu.[Dazai1979:111]

(28)

124

(J‑>E:IonlywouldlikeyoutoknowhowΩ 遡a亘旦g

[TSURAI]itwasformetospendmytimeinfruitlessyearning forhiswife.Thatisa11.Butnowthatyouknow,thereis absolutelynonecessityforyoutoplaythebusybodyby informinganyoneofthisinthehopesof"winningrecognition"

ofthelaveyourbrotherborewhenhewasalive,oranysuch thing.Itisquitesufficientifdustyouknowitandarekind enoughtomurmurtoyourself.,"Wasthatwhathappened?"

And,tovoiceonemorehope,Ishouldbeveryhappyifthis shamefulconfessionofminemadeatleastyou,ifnooneelse, understandbetterthesufferingsIhavegonethrough.}

[Dazai1956:178‑179]

AndtheemotionEnglishword̀sorry' Japaneseinthefollowingexample:

istranslatedasTSURAIin

(4)"{Jeniisanwa}shigachikaindesu."

"Masaka ."Bokuwaitta.

Imanowawarmjoodandesuga,toishagasooiunooboku

wamatteeta.

"Hontoodesu

,Oribaasan."Karewaitta."KonnakotoO ohanashishinakerebanaranaitoiunowa,totemoTSURAIn

desuga."[Segal1994:160]

{J<‐E:"She{Jenny)'sdying."

"That'simpossible

,"Isaid.

AndIwaitedforthedoctortotellmethatitwasallagrrtm

(29)

GrammaticalandLexicalCharacteristicsofJapaneseEmotionSentences i25

joke.

̀̀Sheis

,Oliver,"hesaid.̀̀Iamvery‑tohave totellyouthis.)【Sega11977:107】

However,asseeninthenumerousexamplesbelow,non‑emotion words,suchas̀hard',areusuallyusedfortheEnglishword correspondingtotheJapaneseemotionwordTSURAI.

(5)TakusannoAborijinarugakubiyatenikusariomakarete, keikannoatootsuiteikunoomitakotogaaru.(...)Aa, mattakusonokorowa,washirakurombooniwaTSURAIkoto bakkaridattasa.[Morgan1992Vol.2:15]

{Jc‐E:Irememberseem'nativepeopleallchaineduparound theneckandhands,walkin'behindapoliceman.(...)Aah, thingswashard[TSURAIIfortheblackfellasinthosedays.)

[Morganl987:181]

{b)"TSURAIdaroone,Dadii...sonoMamagainakunatta kaza...."orivaagaunazuku.Musukoniiubekikotobamo amarinakatta.DarenitottemoTSURAInoda.

[Steel1994:113]

(J<‑E;"ltmustbelhard[TSURAI]onyou,Dad̲Imean̲

withMomgone."Olivernodded.Therewasn'tmuchhecould

saytohim.Itwashard「TSURAI1 、onallofthem.)

Steel1989:SO]

TheliteralmeaningoftheexpressioǹTSURAIomoiosure'asseenin

(30)

12fi

thefollowingexamplesis̀tohaveaTSURAIfeeling'.Inallexamples below,thisphraseisgivenfortheJapanesetranslationoforiginal Englishtexts.Here,too,non‑emotionwords,suchas̀hard',̀bad',or

̀bitter'aretranslatedintoTSURAI

.

(7)"Demo,neesanwawatashinohambunmoTSURAIomoio

spiteyashinaiyo,shocchuuyoojioiitsuketedonnakoto

shitattekiniirikkonaianoyakamashiyanourusaiobaasanto

nanjikanmoisshoniitara,antadonnakigasurudaroo,mado

karanigedasuka,yokottsurademoharitsuketeyaritaikuraiiya ninaruyo."[Alcottl995Vbl.1:9】

(J<‐E:"Youdon'thavehalfsuchahardtimeraTSURAI

幽asIdo",saidJo.̀̀Howwouldyouliketobeshutup forhourswithanervous,fussyoldlady,whokeepsyou

trotting,isneversatisfied,andworriesyoutillyou'rereally readytoflyoutofthewindoworcry?")[Alcott1967:4]

(8)"AnatawaRuusunizuibunTSURAIomoiosasetekitawa"to Sarinwaiu.

"Kiminotamenishitakotodayo

."

̀̀Iie

,watashiwasoowaomotteinai.Anatawagojibunde

shitakattakara,soonasattamadeyo.Datte,anatanotameni, watashimozuibunTSURAIomoioshitekitawa."

Updike1958:44b]

(J<‑E:̀̀Ybu'vegivenhera一皿time,"Sally

said,

"Ididforyou ."

(31)

GrammaticalandLexicalCharacteristicsofJapaneseEmotionSentences ¹²⁷

"No

,Idon'tthinkso.Youdiditbecauseyoulikedoingit.

You'vegivenmeaprettybad[TSURAIItime,too,")

[Updike1977:221]

{9}Purinsutonehairumade,omaewaYudayajindatoka,hokano ningentowachigaunodatokanjisaseraretakotowaichidomo

nakatta.Tokorogadaigakudewa,otonashikute,hidokuuchiki nasemendattanode,Yudayajintoiukotode,zuibunTSURAI omoioshita.[Hemingway1972:6]

(J<‑E:NoonehadevermadehimfeelhewasaJew,and henceanydifferentfromanybodyelse,untilhewentto

Princeton.Hewasaniceboy,afriendlyboy,andveryshy,and itmadehimbitterTSURAI.)[Hemingwayl961:11‑2]

WhyisaJapaneseemotionwordTSURAItranslatedintoanon‑

emationwordinEnglish,andwhyisanon‑emotionEnglishwordsuch as̀hard'or̀bad'translatedintotheemotionwordTSURAIin Japanese?DoesthatmeanthatEnglish‑speakingpeoplefeelmore

resistancetoexpressingtheirfeelingsofpsychologicalsufferingwith anemotionwordthanJapanesepeopledo?OrisitthatEnglish‑

speakingpeoplearenotawareofemotionallinksintheconcept?

̀Hard'inEnglishmeans̀difficulttocopewith'inacolloquialsense .It isanadmissionthatthesuffererishavingatoughtime,butdoesnot

provideanydetail,orshowweaknessbyaddingtheconnotationthat thepersonwon'tbeabletomeetthatchallenge.AtpresentIdonot haveacompleteresponseastowhythesedifferenceexist,

ComparedwithWesterncountries,peopleinJapanneednothesitate

(32)

128

toopenlyexpresstheirpainfulfeelingwiththeemotionwordTsURAI . Aswecanseeinthefollowingexample(10),whenthespeakersays

TSURAI,hemeansnotthephysical̀hardship'butmoreanemotional

senseof̀hardship'.InJapan,situationsoftenoccurliketheonebelow , whereanotherpersontriestosharetheotherperson'sTSURAI

emonon.

(10)Masuzae:....(Hahaga)dandanotoroeterunatoiunoomiteiku nowa,hijoonitaisetsudesune.

Hashimoto:TSURAIdesune.

Masuzoe:TSURAIdesu.

Hashimoto:Tairyoku‑tekiniochiteikunogawakarimasukara

ne.

[YooichiMasuzoe(internationalstatesman)&

RyuutarooHashimoto(previousPrimeMinister

"lkishiNahanokaigookataru"p

p.32‑43in Chuuooκoo眉oη1994April:34‑35】

{MT:Masuzoe:....ltisreallyhardtoseethat(mymother)is becomingweak.

Hashimoto:ItisathingwhichmakesyoufeelTSURAI ,

isn'tit?

Masuzoe:Yes,IfeelTSURAI.

Hashimoto:Especiallybecauseyoucanseethestrengthof herbodyisdeclining....)

Thisissuecallsforthefutureconsideration.

(33)

Conclusion

ThemostremarkablecharacteristicoftheJapaneselanguageof

emotionisthat,whenthesentenceisasimpleclauseandtheadjectival predicateisinadefiniteconclusiveaffirmativeform,emotional

adjectivalsentencescannottakeathirdorsecondpersonastheir subject.Thespeakerneedstoputthesentenceinthepastform(the sentencebecomesawrittenornarrativestyleinthiscase}orshow someformalevidentialmarkerswhendescribingfeelingsexperienced byotherpeople.otherwise,thesubjectofanadjectivalemotion

sentenceisalwaysthefirstpersoǹ1'intheaffirmativeformorthe secondpersoǹyou'intheinterrogativeform.Thisstructural characteristicofsentenceswithemotionadjectivesinJapaneseis

somethingwhichreflectsaworld‑viewexpressedinandencouragedby theJapaneselanguageandculture.InJapaneseculture,where

interpersonalinvolvementisrestrictedandthedisclosureofselflimited {comparedwithmain‑streamAngloculture),peopleavoiddescribing

thefeelingofothersindefinitestatements.

Exceptionsto .thisrestrictionsuchasthoseinvolvingtheemotional adjectives̀shiawase'̀uchooten'or̀suki'confirmthisrule.̀Uchooten' cantakeathirdpersonasthesubjectinadefiniteconclusiveform,

sincethesignsorsymptomsofthisemotionappearasattitudesor behaviorsthatcanbeeasilyrecognizedbyotherpeople.̀Shiawase' and̀suki'canalsotakethethirdpersonsubjectsincetheseexpress

relatively"continuous"emotionalattitudestowardssomething,sothey canbeobjectivelyobservedbyotherpeople.

Wehaveseenthatadjectivesoccurintwosyntacticframes.Thefirst

(34)

130

frameis̀thesubjectiveuse'oftheemotionadjective:"(Watashiwa)Y gaadjective((1)feeladjectiveaboutY)"wherethesubjectisalways thelstpersonandthe"stimulusobjectcomplement(Y)"ismarkedby

thesubjectparticlèga'.Thelstpersonsubjectinthisframecanbe omitted.Thesecondsyntacticframeis̀theattributiveuse'ofemotion adjectives:"Ywaadjective((Peopleingeneralfeel)Yisadjective)"

wherethestimulusobjectcomplementisalwaysmarkedbythetopic

particle"wa".Here,theemotionadjectiveisusedattributively,andit definestheattributeofthefocusedobjectwithanemotional

connotation:Yissomeone/somethingwhichmakespeopleingeneral

feelinacertainway(asdescribedbytheadjective)aboutY.

ItisnoteworthythatwhileadjectiveslikeKENAGEarelikelytobe foundonlyintheattributiveuseandnotinthesubjectiveuse,some adjectivessuchasKUYASHIIorTEREKUSAIoccuronlyinthe

subjectiveuse,sincetheseadjectivescanbeusedtorefertoindividual subjectivefeelings,andnotbeusedtorefertotheattributive

dispositionofthestimulusobjectoftheemotion{cf.Hasada2440}.

AnadjectivelikeTSURAIhasbothsubjectiveandattributiveuses, butoccursmainlyinthesubjectiveuse.Thiswordisapparently

regardedasanemotionwardinJapanese,butthetranslationofthis wordintoEnglishdoesnotusuallyrelyupononemotionwords.

JapaneseTSURAIisusuallyglossedintoanon‑emotionwordsuchas

̀hard'or̀noteasy'inEnglish

.Doesthismeanthatcomparedwith Westerncountries,inJapan,peoplemayneednothesitatetoopenly

expresstheirpainfulfeelingwiththeemotionwordTSURAI?This issuecallsforfurtherconsideration.

(35)

Asawholewecouldsee .certainsyntactic/lexicalfeaturesof Japaneseemotionexpressionsarereiatedwiththewayofthinkingof

Japanesepeople.Ihopefurtherinvestigationinthisfieldwillyield moresignificantfindingsforthestudyofrelationshipbetweenlanguage andculture.

Endnotes

1

z

3

IamgratefultoProf.ArraWierzbicka,Prof.CliffGoddord,Prof.MasaOnishifor

theircommentsonthefirstroughdraftandtoDr.EtonChurchillfarhiscareful

proofreading.

Forexample,inthecaseof"itoshi‑kat‑ta"ofI‑adjective,̀itoshi'isarootofthe

adjective,̀itoshi‑kat'isastem,and̀‑ta'isapasttensesuffix.Incaseof"aish‑i‑

ta",̀ais(h)'isthcrootoftheverb,̀ais(h)一ゴisaninflectionalstemoftheverb,and

̀‑ta'isthepasttensesuffix .

Thenounisalsofollowedbythecopula.Thedifferencebetweeǹnoun'and̀na‑

adjective'isthatthenoun,butnotthena‑adjectivecantakeaparticleafterit.For

example,whenusedasamodifier,anounisfollowedbyagenitiveparticle"no",

butthena‑adjectiveisfollowedbytheinflectedformofthecopula"na":

{1a)Karew.akonomida.

heTOPNoun(favorite)COP

(Heis{my)favorite.}

(1b)Karegasukida.

heSUBna‑adj(like)CAP

((1)likehim.}

(2a)Konominohito

NounGENperson

{{myjfavoriteperson]

(2b)Sukinahito na‑adjCOPperson

(personIIike.)

(36)

132

4

5

!07ナ00

Aish‑i‑TEIRU:The‑TEIRUformofdynamicverbscanindicateanactivitythat hasbeencompleted.When‑TEIRUisused,theimplicationisthatSOMEBODY hasfinisheddoingtheactivityandISinthatstate.(Alfonso1974:903)Ogihara

(1998:88)callsitas"aresultstatekekkazanzon,literallỳresultremain"'.

Maynard(1990:171)saysthatforactivenon‑durativeverbs,[Vto+iru]refersto thecontinuationofapresentstateresultingfromthealreadycompletedaction.

Sometimes,thefusedform"aish‑i‑teru,wherèi'ofauxiliarỳiru'isdropped, appears.

Both̀‑sa'and̀‑mi'areusedforthederivationwhichmakesanadjectiveintoa noun.Thereisadifferentmeaningattachedtoeachform.Adetaileddiscussion aboutthedifferencesinmeaningisbeyondthescopeofthisthesis.

̀akogare'of"akogareru"or̀tere'of"terer

u"isaverbroot.

cf.Previousstudiesof̀wa'and̀ga'canbeseeninShibatani(1990).

Thefollowingemotionadjectivalsentenceswith"ii(feelpleasing)"and"iyada {feedunpleasant)"serveasfurtherexampiesofaformwhichcannottakeathird persoǹexperiencer'form.

*KarewaHanakogaii/iyada .

*(Hefeelspleasing/unpleasanttoHanako .)

Weshouldnoteherethattheemotionnominaladjectives,"sukida(like)"and

"kiraida(dislike)"

,althoughtheyaresynonymouswith"ii(feelpleasing)"and

"iyada(feelpleasing)"inmeaning

,cantakethethirdpersoǹexperiencer'ina definitestatement.

KarewaHanakogasukida/kiraida.

(Helikes/dislikesHanako.)

Thisisbecause,asNishio(1972:241)suggests,theemotionrepresentedby"suki da"or"kiraida"issomeone'scontinuousemotionalattitudetowardssomething.

Therefore,theseemotionsaremoreobjectivethantheemotionsrepresentedby"ii"

or"iyada",whichisrathersubjectiveandtemporal.Becauseofthisobjective property,adjectivalpredicatessuchas"sukida/kiraida"canbeusedtodescribe thefeelingsofathirdpersoninadefinitestatement.

(37)

9

10

11

Asano{1998:101‑103)analysesthefunctionof̀noda'andstates"thecaremean‑

ingofthènodalnodesuform'isthatthespeakerhasareasontoassertsomething.

Althoughtheformitselfdoesnotclarifywhetherornottheconvictionisbasedon

hearing,seeing,feeling,orknowingsomethingelse,thisformimpliesthatthe

speakercansaywhyhelsheknowsitistrue,"

Forexample,givingthefollowingexamplesentence:

Taroowasabishiinods.

TarooTDPlonelybe

̀̀(ltisthat)Taroofeelslone量y

."

Asanosays"ifthespeakerjudgedtheinformationastrueafterhearingitfrom

Taroo,orseeingTaroo'sbehavior,π04必1θ4ε 甜isselected,indicatingthat̀Iknow

itistrue.IcansaywhyIknowitistrue"'.

MTistheabbreviationfor̀mytranslation'.JOEindicatesEnglishtranslation

fromoriginalJapanesetext.J←EreferstoJapanesetranslationfromEnglishtext・

Whenexamplesaretakenfromliterature,onlytheauthor'snameandtheyearof

publicationareprovidedbeloweachexample;fulldetailsaregiveninthèWork Cited'attheend.Whentheexamplecomesfrommagazines,TVorradiopro‑

grams,popularsongs,oradvertisements,thefulldetailsaregiveninbrackets beloweachexample.

KawashimaandAmamori(1993:21)saythattheword̀uchooten'camefrom

Buddhistthought.InBuddhism,̀uchooten'referredtothehighestpuce,whichis

locatedabovethethreeworlds;theworldofdesire,theworldofform,andthe

worldofformlessness{cf.alsoNakamura1978:64‑65}.Whenonereachesthat

height,onegetscarriedawayandfee3striumphantovereverything.Thisstateis

called"UCHOOTENninaru(tobecomeUCHOOTEN)".Takashima(1981:306)

translates̀uchooten'as"tobeinthehighestheaven".Therefore,inthefollowing

firstexample(1),thesubjectfeels̀uchooten'asifsheisawayfromtheground,

floatingintheair.

̀Uchooten'isoriginallyaChineseword

.WehavetheJapaneseexpressioǹtenni

monoborukimochi/omoi(lit.feelingasifonegoesuptothetopofthesky)'to

(38)

134

12

13

14

15

refertothesamemeaning.

AsUehara(1998:284)alsomentions,sincenothirdpersonsubjectcancometo

thesubjectpositionofemotionpredicateslike"kowai"or"kanashii",thesubject

ofsuchpredicates,whetherovertorzero,canbecorrectlyassumedtobethe

speaker.Inotherwords,uniessotherwiserequired,thespeakerhastheoptionof

freelydroppingthesubjectpronoun,"watashì1'",ofsuchpredicates.

"Samishii"isaformof"sabishii"whichisoftenusedinthecolloquialstyle

(Bunkachoo1993:45).

HidaandAsada(199b:3b8)mentionthatTsURAIisnotusedtodescribephysi‑

tallypainfulfeelingssuchas:

Tabesugiteiga*TSURAI.

(Ifeel*TSURAIinmystomachsinceIatetoomuch.)

WhileTSURAIismorefrequentlyusedsubjectively,italsohasattributiveusein

somecases̲Forexample,peoplemightsay:

EntenkanonikutairoodoowaTSURAI.

(PhysicalworkunderaburningsunisTSURAI.) BimbooseikatsuwaTSUR.AI.

(LivinginpovertyisTSURAL}

SukinahitotonowakarewaTSURAI.

(Separatingfromthepersonyouloveis二【SL凪 ▲1.)

References

Akatsuka,Noriko.(1979)."Epistemology,Japanesesyntax,andlinguistictheory."

Pn、hers'n/nnnnese」L'η8̀̀'∫'ICS6(7‑28).

Alfonso,Anthony,(1974).ノ αPα η8∫{9Larz.gc̀nge.1)α'terns.'AStruc・tc̀rα'ApPπ ♪αc乃.Tokyo=

SophiaUniversityL.L.CenterofAppliedLinguistics.

Aoki,Haruo.(1986), EvidentialsinJapanese."InEv'4θ ηf'α 〃丈y'The〃'18w'5'isCoding

ofEpistemology.WallaceChafeandJohannaNichols,ed.223‑236.Norwood,

NewJersey:AblexPublishingCorporation.

Araki,HirOyUkL(霊994).Ni.h.r〃38̀,8α ル1'8r加'̀♪Eign'η(,〃lei'L[.TOkyO:ChUUOO

(39)

GrammaticalandLexicalCharacteristicsofJapaneseEmotionSentences ¹³⁵

Kooronsha.

Asano,Yuuko.{t998).EvidentialityandIndirectnessirzJapanese.M.A.thesis,

Canberra:AustralianNationalUniversity.

Backhouse,AnthonyE.(1984}."HavealltheAdjectivesGone?"Lingua62:169‑186.

Barnlund,DeanC.(1975).Pub〃cCI'rdPrivateSeゲIMJapanand'ntheσ η'ted∫'ate.s.

Tokyo:SimulPress

Bunkachoo,ed.(i993).KvtnbaniKansuruMnndnnshuui9.Tokyo:Bunkachoo.

Hasada,Rie.(2000).AηExP'θrα'myS'udyでゾEκprθ ∬'oὴゾEη τθr'θ η ∫in.ノ αpα η8∫8,

Tnw研dsaSeman"cIn'ε η フr6'α"nn,Ph.Dthesis.Canberra:AustralianNational

University.

Hida,Yoshifumi,andAsadaHideko.(1996).Gendniκ θゴyで♪θ∫ぬ'Ỳπ,乃 θθJF"en.3rded.,

Tokyo:TookyoodooShuppan.

Hiejima,Ichiroo.(1995).Nic・hi‑E'7h'5乃ooκ αア加o遅yθ θ88η ノ"en.Tokyo=Tokyoodoo

Shuppan.

Hirose,Masayoshi,andKakukoShooji,ed・(1994)・ハ1晒で川8̀)Gα 乏̀̀,shunT.sccka'wake

/iten/耳旋Cf'vθJa」paneseこノsageGcride∴ACで,ηc'seExp'anczt'(Jl1ρ ブ」Fregt̀en'砂

GinficsedWardsα η41)hrase.S.Tokyo:Koodansha.

Iizumi,Rokuroo,ed.(1963).κ'‑d̀,一 α'‑rakc̀」'ten.Tokyo=TookyoodooShuppan.

Jorden,EleanorHarzwithMariNoda.(1987}.Japanese:TheSpokenLan.girageVol.1.

Vol.2.NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress.

Kashima,Shoozoo,ed.(1986).Eignn.̀,1Vα 丸ω π)Jvnsh'kiVol.1.TokyolTaishuukan.

Kawashima,Yutaka,andMasaeAmamorL(1993).κ̀}4̀,ITZ(JIUO'oπ α ὴ♪ κ̀,tvbnG̀,8θ η

Jiten.Tokyo:KyooikuShuppanSeminaa.

Kindaichi,Haruhiko.{1988).Nihun.gvVol.1&2.Tokyo:lwanamiShoten.

Kishimoto,Hideo.(1967)."SomeJapaneseculturaltraitsandreligions."Inη 把」α1フαη8∫8

〃'nd.・E∬err.t'Cl'∫rafJapanesePh"θ ∫̀,助yα'rdὰ'ttcre.CharlesA.Moore,ed.

Honolulu:East‑WestCenterPress.

Kudoo,Mayumil.(1995).A躍 ρ θ̀・'̀ノ,Tensc̀イ α'舵'ω7欲配3卿,Gθ η4α'κ'ぬoηgoπo/iknn

ηθ 」旺},で♪θ88η.Tokyo=HitsujiShoboo.

Kuroda,S.‑Y.{1973)."Whereepistemology,style,andgrammarmeet:acasestudyfrom

(40)

136

Japaneseノ'InAFes'∫̀幽hrift/br・M「̀,rrisHal'e.StephenR,AndersonandPaul

Kiparsky,ed.377‑391.NewYork:Holt,RinehartandWinston,Inc .

Masuda,Koo,etal.(1993).Kenkyu.sha'sNewJnpnnese‑EnglishDictionary .27th

impressioned.,Tokyo:Kenkyusha.

Matsumoto,Michihiro.(1988).η 〜θ σ η∫ρo舵 ηWの.Tokyo:KodanshaInternationalLtd.

Maynard,Senko.(1990).AnIntrodìα'̀717.foJccpnneseGrammarandα 〃η1η朋'cα"oη

Strntegtes.Tokyo:JapanTimes.

Meiji‑shoin‑kyookasho‑henshuubu,ed.(1997).JibunnoChvsczkuniTsuiteKataru21n.in

nnTaikaVo1.2.Tokyo:MeijiShoin.

Miura,Akira.(1983).Jnpan.eseWordsandTheirUses.Tokyo:CharlesE.Tuttle

Company.

Mizutani,Osamu,andNobukoM伽tanL(1990).ノV'hθ η8θ1V̀」teslO.Tokyo:TheJapan

Times.

Morila,Yoshiyuki.(1991).κ θ'̀め α θ 〃'80如,Tokyo:Sootakusha.

Nakamura,Hajime,ed.(1978).Bìkkyò,Gogθ η5α η∫α齢'.Tokyo:TookyooShoseki .

Nishio,Toraya.(1972).Keiyで)O,Slη θ'配"YnnhnoηoKijutsutek'κ6η たỳ̀̀̀.Tokyo:

ShuueiShuppan.

Ogihara,Toshiyuki.{1995}."Theambiguityofthe‑TEIRUforminJapanese."Joicrnnl

nfEastAsicirtLi≫guistic.s7(87‑120).

Sakula,Keiichi.(1967).Haj"ηoβ̀̀欣 α5α'knn.Tokyo:ChikumaShoboo.

Shibatani,MasayoshL(1990).TheLanguageO〃 αρ α η.Cambridge:Cambridge

UniversityPress.

Sh重raiSh孟,KOOji.(1974).A'η03乃"πr'8・ αた郡.TOkyO:ShakaiShiSOOSha.

Takashima・Taiji・(1981)・Fvc'η ぬ"̀,η ρ〃 αPα η6∫ θPrθv8r加.Tokyo:HokuseidoPress .

Teramura,Hideo.(1982).1Wぬ̀ノ〃8ご}〃oノ'η ゴ'で♪8乃〃1'nkkc'∫̀̀Vo1.2.Tokyo:Kuroshio

Shuppan.

Uehara,Satoshi.(1995)."PronoundropandperspectiveinJapanese."In

Jαpσ η ε∫θ/Knrearz乙"lgcfist'C.SVol.7.NorikoAkatsukactaL,ed .275‑289.

Stanford,CA:CenterfortheS田dyofLanguageandInformation.

Yamashita,Hideo.(1986).ハ1'hθ η ηθ κ θ'θ わα'oκ̀,kvr̀,.Tokyo:Koodansha.

(41)

WarkCued

Abe,Kooboo.{1970).AbeKnnhnoGikynkuZenshuu.Tokyo:5hinchoosha.

Alcoa,LouisaMay.(1995).WakakusaMonugatariVol.1,2.12thed.,Translatedby

KatsueYoshida:Tokyo:KadokawaShoten.

Dazai,Osamu.(1979).5乃 αyθo.Reviseded.,Tokyo:Shinchoosha.

Gross,Michael.(1995).Tnppac〃̀ノ48r躍 κ'PelIZQOnrzaη θ κ ∫枷 α'3加̀,加1.Translated

byYasukoYoshizawa.Tokyo:Bungei‑Shunjuu.

Hemingway,Ernest.(1972).HiwaMatnNoborcc.Reviseded.,TranslatedbyYasuo

40kubo.Tokyo:Shinchoosha.

Kawai,Hayao.(1992).∫ θηθ7hyoo'2α ∫盈 α'.Tokyo=IwanamiShoten.

Morgan,Sally.(1992}.MaiPacreisuVol.1&2.TranslatedbyMegumiKatoo.Tokyo:

TheSaimaruPress.

Mure,Yoko.(1998).〃ゆ'rL̀∫ 屠5乃'f∬'r6η 〃̀♪ ὴ♪80'arr.Tokyo:KadokawaShoten.

Nakano,Mariko.(1994)Jin.seinnκ'm‑medarun.iaarutameη'.Tokyo:Chuuooo

Shuppan.

Sega1,Erich.(1994).、Arc̀1'z.oこノto.38thed.,Trans量abedbyAkiraItakura.Tokyo:

KadokawaShoten.

Steel,Danielle.(1994).κoで〜fitk̀̀11.OSentakcc.TranslatedbyMotokoHoojoo.Tokyo=

Fusoosha.

Updike,John.(1988).Kekkr≫2‑sh'yθo.TranslatedbyIwaoIwamoto.Tokyo:Shinchoosha.

Abe,Kooboo.(1975).Th.e〃 απWhnTtcrned'η'oαSt'cた.TranslatedbyDonaldKeene.

Tokyo:UniversityofTokyoPress.

Alcott,LouisaMay.(1967).LittleW伽en.NewYork:TheHeritagePress.

Dazai,Osamu.(195b).TheSettingSun.TranslatedbyDonaldKeene.Norfolk;

Connecticut:NewDirections.

Gross,Michae1.(且995).ルfade'.London:BantamBooks。

Morgan,Sally.(1987).1吻P1αc6.WesternAustralia:FremantleArtsCentrePress,

(42)

138

Segal,Erich.(1977).LoveStory.NewYork:Avongooks.

Steel,Danielle.(1989).Daddy.London:CorgiBooks.

Updike,John.(1977).Marryル18.・AR̀珈 αηc8.Harmondsworth,Middlesex:Penguin

BooksLtd.

Hemingway,Ernest.(1976).TheOldManandtheSea.London:GranadaPublishing

Limited.

日本語の感情表現文の構造 及び語彙の特徴