体育・スポーツ史におけるローカル・アイデンティ ティー国際比較研究

著者 大久保 英哲 著者別表示 Okubo Hideaki

雑誌名 平成15(2003)年度科学研究費補助金 基盤研究(C)  研究成果報告書

巻 2001‑2003

ページ 12p. and pp.‑445‑480

発行年 2004‑03‑01

URL http://doi.org/10.24517/00034778

Creative Commons : 表示 ‑ 非営利 ‑ 改変禁止 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by‑nc‑nd/3.0/deed.ja

DerEinflullderfranz6sischenLeibeserziehungbeiderErrichtungdesLeibeserziehungssystemsim JapanderModerne

OKUBOHideaki

l.Franz6sischeMilitir‑DelegationinJapan

DasTokugawa‑Sh6gunat(1600‑1868),dasnacheineriiber250jahreandauernden g e g e n i i b e r

Abschlie伽ngspolitikgegeniiberdemAuslandeinerseits AuslandAuslandeinerseitsbefYirchtete, ^dal)die KolonialisierungsbestrebungenRulllands,Englands,Amerikasusw・inAsienauchaufjapaniibergreifen wiirdenundandererseitsumsichvorderzunehmendenBedrohung伽Innerenvorallemdurchdie siidlichenDaimyatezuschiitzen,warbestrebt,diemilitiirischeSchlagkraftdesLandesnachinnenund aullenzustiirken.

AusdiesemGrundriefdieZentralregierungimJahrel867einefranz6sischeMilitiir‑Beratergruppeins Land.Dieseneunzehnk6pfigeDelegationwurdevonCharlesSUlpicejulesChanoinegeleitet.

WarumdasTokugawa‑Sh6gunatgeradefi･anz6sischeMilitiirberaterauswiihke,hingeinerseitsmitdem

○pium‑Krieg(1840‑42)zusammenundandererseitsdamit,dalldiesiidlichenDaimyate,Satsumaund Ch6shu,bereitsBeziehungenzuenglischenMilitarsunteIhielten.

AuchnachderAbschahngdesTokugawa‑Sh6gunats,aufgrundderl868statt6ndenden Meiji‑Restauration,dievieleVeranderungenmitsichbrachte,wurdedievondenTokugawabegonnene NeugestaltungderArmeevonderMeiji‑Regierungweitergefiihrt.

2.Diefranz6sischeMilitiirausbildungunddiemangelndeK6rperkraftjapanischerSoldaten Alsdiefi､anz6sischenMilitarberatermitihrerAusbildungstatigkeitbegannen,stelltensiezunachst einmalfest,dalBvielenderjapanischenSoldatenunteranderemdiedafiireIfbrderlicheK6rperkraftfehlte.

DaraufhinwendetensiesichmitfblgenderEmpfehlungandenSh6gun:"DiejapanischeAnneeben6tigt

Soldatenzuerh6hen.ZudiesemZweckhattendieFranzosenauchLiteraturmitnachJapangebracht."

3 . I n h a l t e d e r i n j a p a n d u r c h g e f I i h r t e n L e i b e s e r z i e h u n g i n n e I h a l b d e r f r a n z i i s i s c h e n M i l i t i i r a u s b n d u n g

HiersollenzunachstdiebeideninjapanbislangbekanntenAufZeichnungenzudieserArtder

L e i b e s e r z i e h u n g k u r z v o r g e s t e l l t w e r d e n ． D a b e i h a n d e l t e s s i c h z u m e i n e n u m d i e ″ O b u n g e n d e r

K6rperkunstfiirdenneuenSoldaten"(新兵体術教練助加ei乃加おzﾉ〃うﾉ鋤vonTanabeRy6suke

e i n d r i t t e s , e r s t v o r k u r z e m e n t d e c k t e s T r a k t a t a n , n 伽 h c h d i e " S c h r i f t z u m H o l z p f e r d " ( 木 馬 の 書

"bk"6a"o功のvonHayashiSh6jOI6(1867).

3 . 1 T a n a b e R y 6 s u k e ″ U b u n g e n d e r K 6 r p e r k u n s t f i i r d e n n e u e n S o l d a t e n " ( 新 兵 体 術 教 練 助 " z p e /

乃加応ひ/Mﾉ℃ﾉｶvonl868

D i e s e s B u c h b a s i e r t a u f e i g e n e n E I f a h r u n g e n m i t d e r f r a n Z 6 s i s c h e n L e i b e s e r z i e h u n g ・ I m V o r w o r t s c h r e i b t d e r A u t o r : " I n j a p a n w i r d g e g e n w a r t i g h o l l i n d i s c h e s , e n g l i s c h e s u n d f i ､ a n z 6 s i s c h e s M i l i t i r w e s e n s t u d i e r t , a b e r z u k e m e r d e r j e w e i l i g e n M e t h o d e n g i b t e s L i t e r a t u r . "

V o n s e i n e m I n h a l t h e r u m f a l 3 t d i e s e s B u c h v o r a l l e m g y m n a s t i s c h e U b u n g e n m i t u n d o h n e G e r i i t .

3 . 2 T a t e y a m a H a j i m e ' M 伽 d l i c h e E r z i i h l u n g e n z u d e n f i ､ a n z 6 s i s c h e n [ M i l i t a r ] ‑ U b u n g e r l " ( フ ラ ン ス 伝 習

D i e s e A u 吃 e i c h n u n g e n b a s i e r e n a u f d e n E r z a h l u n g e n j a p a n i s c h e r S o l d a t e n m n o r d j a p a n i s c h e n H i r o s a k i ‑ D a i m y a t ( h e u t i g e A o m o r i ‑ P r a f e k t u r ) . S i e z e u g e n m s b e s o n d e r e a u c h v o n d e n p s y c h i s c h e n u n d p h y s i s c h e n S c h w i e I i g k e i t e n j a p a n i s c h e r S o l d a t e n , d i e e r s t m a l s m i t d e r a r t i g e n t

j b u n g e n i n B e r i i h r u n g

kamen.

D i e s e A u f Z e i c h n u n g e n u m f a s s e n e b e n f a l l s h a u p t s a c h l i c h g y l n n a s t i s c h e O b u n g e n m i t u n d o h n e G e r a t .

3.3HayashiSh6jnr6"SchnftzulnHolzpferd"(木馬の書Aんk"ba"o功のuml867

D i e s e s B u c h f a n d i c h v o r k u r z e m i n a l t e n U n t e r l a g e n d e s K a g a ‑ D a i m y a t s ( h e u t i g e I s h i k a w a ‑ P 圃 免 k t u r ) . I m V o r w o r t i s t e r w i h n t , d a l j f i i r d i e s e s B u c h e i n T e i l e i n e r f i ､ a n z 6 s i s c h e n L e i b e s e r z i e h u n g s s c h r i f t d e s M i l i t i i r s i i b e r s e t z t w u r d e , d i e v o n d e r z u v o r e r w a h n t e n M i l i t 3 r ‑ D e l e g a t i o n n a c h J a p a n m i t g e b r a c h t w u r d e . H a y a s h i S h 6 j h r 6 w a r P r o f e s s o r f i i r F r a n z 6 s i s c h a n e i n e m " F o r s c h u n g s i n s t i t u t f i i r A u s l i i n d i s c h e s " d e s S h 6 g u n a t s u n d a u c h a l s D o l m e t s c h e r d e r z u v o r e r w a h n t e n D e l e g a t i o n t a t i g .

I n h a l t l i c h g e s e h e n b e h a n d e l t d i e s e S c h r i f t l 7 U b u n g e n z u m U b e r s p r i n g e n d e s H o l z p f e r d e s .

4.Die"SchriftzumHolzPferd"undihreQuellen

4 . 1 1 n J a p a n a u f Y i n d b a r e f i , a n z 6 s i s c h e L e i b e s e r z i e h u n g s s c h n f t e n

I n j a p a n i s c h e n B i b h o t h e k e n s i n d g e g e n w a r t i g d r e i S c h r i f t e n z u r f i T a n z 6 s i s c h e n L e i b e s e r z i e h u n g d e s l 9 . J a h r h u n d e l t s a u f f i n d b a r . D i e s e s s i n d : N a p o l 6 O n L a i s n . G ) " 刀 " a s " " e p ' a " z ﾉ a a u s d e m j a h r e l 8 5 0 ; N a p o l e o n D a l l e y . 此 た " c e m J m o " v e l 刀 e " 広 v o n l 8 5 7 u n d C V e r g n e s . A " " " e / 曲 の " 刀 " a s " z ﾉ e . 1 8 7 2 . A l l d i e s e B i i c h e r e n t h a l t e n k e i n e o d e r a n d e r w e i t i g

e U b u n g e n z u m H o l z p f e r d u n d s i n d d e s h a l b a l s Q u e l l e n

desBuchesvonHayashiallszuschlieIBen.

4.2"LehnnusterdesTurnens"(体操教範7b胡火孤う妬ﾉｶvonl874

D u r c h d a s T r a k t a t " L e h r m u s t e r d e s T u r n e n s " , d a s v o m j a p a n i s c h e n H e e r l 8 7 4 h e r a u s g e g e b e n w u r d e ,

b e r u h t , k o n n t e b e i e m e r U b e I m i f i l n g e i n e r f i i i h e r e r s c h i e n e n e n A u s g a b e d i e s e r " I n s t r u c t i o n " v o n l 8 4 7 festgestelltwerden,dalJdieUbungamHolzpferdmitdenender"SchriftzumHolzpferd"Hayashis

Ubereinstimmen.

DieMonographie"Instructionpourl'enseignementdelagymnastique"dientesomitalsQuelleder

C

" S c h I i f t z u m H o l z p f e r d " .

4 . 3 " I n s t r u c t i o n p o u r l ' e n s e i g n e m e n t d e l a g y m n a s t i q u e " ( 1 8 4 7 )

DiesesBuchwurdeimJahrel847vonderfi･anz6sischenArmeeherausgegeben.DerInhaltgliedertsich w i e f b l g t : 1 ) R e g l e s g e n e r a l e e t d M s i o n d e l ' i n s t r u c t i o n . 2 ) E x e r c i s e s e l e l n e n t a i r e s . 3 ) E x e r c i s e s d ' a p p l i c a t i o n .

WeiterhinfindensichdarinAnwendungsmethodenundHerstellungsverfahrenvoninsgesamt31Geraten z u r L e i b e s i i b u n g i l l u s t i e r t .

Dieinder"SchriftzumHolzpferd"dargestelltenUbungenamHolzpferdstammenausdemKapitel

" E x e r c i s e s d ' a p p l i c a t i o n " ・

WarumausderVielfaltderaufgefiihrtenUbungender"Instructionpourl'enseignementdela gyInnastique"ausgerechnetdiemitdemHolzpferdausgewahltwurden,hingtwohlmitHayashisVodiebe

fiirdieKavalleriezusammen.

5.Franz6sischeLeibeserziehungimJapanderMeiji‑Zeit(1868‑1912) 5.1″○価ziers‑SchuleT6ky6'γ

Imjahrel873richtetemaninT6ky6eineO価ziers‑Schuleein.IndieserSchulewurdeLeibeserziehung nachdemfi､anz6sischenVorbilddurchgemhrt.VonderErIichtungbisl8771eitetendenUnterrichtzwei franz6sischeInstruktoren･BeidewurdenspiiterfiirihreVerdienstebeiderEntwicklungderjapanischen LeibeserziehungvomKaiserausgezeichnet・Aufdieselnstitutiongingauchdaszuvorerw鋤nteBuch

"LehrmusterdesTurnens"zuriick.

5.2"Kaisei‑Schule"

Ausdieserl868insLebengeru伽enSchulegingl877dieUniversittitzuT6ky6heIvor.1873entstand d o r t e i n G y m n a s t i k p l a t z , d e r m i t v e r s c h i e d e n e n G y m n a s t i k ‑ G e r i i t e n a u s g e s t a t t e t w a r . D e l l U n t e r r i c h t

leitetenebenfallsfiPanz6sischeAusbilder.

5.3LeibeserziehungimSchulsystemderMeiji‑Zeit

1872wurdevomjapanischenErziehungsministeriumeinneuesSchulsystemeingefiihrt,daserstmals auchdasFachLeibeserziehungvorsah.AllerdingsgabeskeinekonkretenRichtlinienhirdiesesFach, u n d i n d e n s o g e n a n n t e n " S c h u l v o r s c h r i f t e n " f a n d e n s i c h n u r w e n i g e , t e i l w e i s e i n s j a p a n i s c h e i i b e r s e t z t e ,

ausdemBuch"A妬ﾉ7"a/ofg'7刀"asttexeﾉ℃Xses"'(1871)vonSamuelW.Masonoderausder"AeﾉZZ北力e Z伽ﾉ刀eﾉ召〕"刀"as砿'(1872)vonMoritzSchreber.AlserstesvollstiindigiibersetztesAnleitungsbuch wurde"Af""e/"G)"刀"as""e"(1872)desC.VergnesilnJahrel874indie"SchulvorschIiften"

aufgenommen.

5.4DasjapanischeErziehungsministeriumunddieLeibeserziehung

D a t r o t z d e r " S c h u l v o r s c h r i f t e n " , a b e r w o h l i n E r m a n g e l u n g k o n k r e t e r R i c h t l i n i e n , d i e L e i b e s e r z i e h u n g sogutwienichtandenSchulenimLanddurchgefiihrtwurde,ruftmJahrel878dasjapanische ErziehungsministeriumdenAmerikanerLelandnachJapanundbeginntdadurchdiejapanische LeibeserziehungnachamerikanischemVorbildauSzulichten.FiirdenAnfangwarendieLehnnethoden LelandseinfachverstandlichundaufkostengiinstigenGeritenaufgebautundfandendaherVerbreitung.

AllerdingswurdenLelandsUbungenimLaufederZeit,vorallemunterdemEindruckdessich

verstarkendenNationalismusbzw.MilitarismusinJapan,sowohlink6rperlicheralsauchgeistiger Hinsichtalsnichtmehrausreichendempfilnden,unddasjapanischeErziehungsministeriumfiihrtl886 die廿anz6sischeLeibeserziehungparalleldazuein.

SomitistdiejapanischeLeibeserziehunginihrerGriindungszeithauptsachlichvonzweiverschiedenen Str6mungenbeeinflulBtworden.

6.Schlul)bemerkung

DiejapanischeLeibeserziehunginderzweitenHil仕edesl9.Jahrhundertsspiegeltsowohldie internationalealsauchdiepolitsch‑militirischeLageimdamaligenjapanwider.Weiterhinist festzustellen,dalJnichtnurderamerikanischen,sondernauchderfi､anz6sischenLeibeserziehungein mallgebenderEinflullbeiihrerErrichtungundAusarbeitungzukam.

7)Bibliographie

1 ) S h i n o h a r a H i r o s h i . ﾉ B 伽 g z " 7 " s e r s u s b i ｰ ﾉ ﾏ i " 週 " s " g u M A o m o " " " " o A a g e ( D i e G r i i n d u n g s g e s c h i c h t e

陸軍創設史一フランス軍事顧問団の影､リブロポート)．

2)KatsuKaisha./歌岬"71℃肱ｶ/(DieGeschichtederArmee).T6ky6:Keis6Shob6,1889(勝海舟､陸

軍歴史､勁草書房)．

3)ObaKazuyoshi."71a"abe〃うsa肋助0ISMga"o伽方e〃aMzuAa/'−〃〃7〃eﾉ1jkaisets""

('IllustrationenundErkliirungendesTurnensimGrundschul‑Handbuch'vonTanabeRy6saku‑1874, I n t e r p r e t a t i o n e n ) . K i n d a i T a i i k u B u n k e n S h n s e i D a i i k k i K a i s e t s u . T 6 k y 6 : N i h o n Z u s h o S e n t a , 1 9 8 2 ( 大

書センター)．

4)ObaKazuyoshi;NaritaJijir6(Hrsg.)."7bnabe/肋sukec加捌"e"a加応じ似う砲"'一伽醐I"e"ノ

KindaiTaiikuBunkenShnseiDaiikkiKaisetsu.T6ky6:NihonZushoSenta,1982(大場一義･成田十次 郎編、田辺良輔著｢新兵体術教練｣(明治元年)解説､[近代体育文献集成第一期解説]、日本図書セン ター)．

5 ) O b a K a z u y o s h i . 7 h j 倣 脈 o 刈 万 r S " " O I ℃ A 勅 / : ( D i e G e s c h i c h t e d e r L e i b e s e r z i e h u n g u n d d e s S p o r t s . T6ky6:NihonTaiikusha,1978(大場一義､体育とスポーツの歴史、日本体育社).

6)TateyalnaHajime.F"rsushW先"s加如｡b"b"sh/:(MiindlicheOberlieferungenzudenfi､anz6sischen

7)TomitaHitoshi.RJお昭己kusmsoM"冠ka〃〃ぬmS〃〃omOﾉ〃7taC/万一""幼OS肋幼e幼o (脇"seishQノ〃。""冠"s昭誠"'(DieSchmerdesGriindersderfi･anz6sischenWissenschaftMurakami H i d e t o s h i ‑ F r a n z 6 s i s c h e W i s s e n s c h a f t e n d e r U n t e r s u c h u n g s s t e l l e f i i r a u s l a n d i s c h e B t i c h e r ) . N i h o n DaigakuH6gakubuObunRonso.T6ky6:NihonDaigaku,1987(富田仁､仏学始祖村上英俊の門人た ち･蕃書調所(開成所)のフランス学､［日本大学法学部桜文論]，日本大学)．

8)TomitaHitoshi.Fi"温"ds'"gokoroha"刀e−M"鍬a〃〃上ためs"roso"o〃上材(DerBeginnder fi･anz6sischenSprache‑MurakamiHidetoshiundseineZeit).T6ky6:NihonH6s6ShuppanKy6kai, 1983(富田仁､フランス語事始･村上英俊とその時代、日本放送出版協会).

9)OkuboHideaki.7肋創a〃Ⅷo"taM"､s〃〃okeノツ他yaM/肋"繭初Dk"6a"osho括戚e〃〃Zﾉ〃o

〃(DieBedeutungHayashiSh6jOr6s'SchriftzumHolzpferd'(uml867)indermodernen

Gakkai,1993(大久保英哲､近代日本体育史における林正十郎｢木馬之書｣(推定1867年)の意義､[体 育学研究第38巻3号]、日本体育学学会)．

10)OkuboHideaki． 肋う曲〃Ⅷo〃Z鋤伽〃o火飾e/"/dkeﾉYﾉだ"a"s"raM""oeﾉ光y6伽"o/と〃"(Der

EinflulJderfranz6sischenLeibeserziehungbeiderAusgestaltungdermodernenLeibeserziehungjapans

Daigaku,1995(大久保英哲､近代日本体育の形成におけるフランス体育の影響(その1)、平成5．6年 度科学研究費補助金成果報告書､金沢大学)．

ll)KinoshitaHideaki./尤励WtaMkaﾉ泡"ragu/7m〃う放".(DasMilitirunddieErziehungvom

杏林書院)．

12)KinoshitaHideaki.7MU段"77byamagaﾙ妨刀oraM"/b〃"(DieLeibeserziehungderHeeresschule

ピック21号]､オリンピック社)．

13)ObaKazuyoshi."7Wo〃肱lguﾉ7Z召倣us力胸〃Aag印極加""a"s"gMi〃うka"ぬ〃(Dieausder

o

Geschichte der j a p a n i s c h e n H e e r e s l e i b e s e r z i e h u n g herausragende franz6sische

M i l i t a r a u s b i l d e r d e l e g a t i o n ﾉ " : T s u k u b a D a i g a k u T a i i k u s h i K e n k y n k a i S h i I y 6 . T s u k u b a : T s u k u b a D a i g a k u , 1983(大場一義、日本陸軍体育史上に輝くフランス軍事教官団､[筑波大学体育史研究会資料]､筑波 大学)．

14)RikugunBunko.A"〃sｶﾉbｶﾉ"e/7kok〃胞師〃う加"(LehrlnusterdesTurnens‑imjahre7derAra

Meijiherausgegeben).T6ky6:Rikugun,1874(陸軍文庫､明治7年刻体操教範､陸軍)．

15)ImamuraYoshio.〃幻ﾉ〃se〃〃okeノッ〃功O"Za鰍〃〃oke/7ky(Forschungenzurjapanischen Leibeserziehungiml9.Jahrhundert).T6ky6:Fumaid6,1967(今村嘉雄､十九世紀に於ける日本体育の

●

研究､不昧堂)．

16)Takenoshitakyiz6;KishinoY@z6.ノ肋(〃肋加〃gaMOt亙倣ushi(DieGeschichtederschulischen LeibeserziehungimmodernenJapan).T6ky6:T6y6kanShuppan,1959(竹之下休蔵･岸野雄三､近代日 本学校体育史.東洋館出版)．

17)KimuraKichiji."75〃う(aZak"ze/7sbi"iokeﾉYﾉtaM""Ma"sI"Y"MMasa応""(EinGedankezur

L e i b e s e r z i e h u n g v o r d e m W e r d e n d e r U n i v e r s i t i i t T 6 k y 6 ) . N i h o n T a i i k u G a k k a i Y o n j f i s a n k a i T a i k a i g 6 .

学会43回大会号]、日本体育学学会)．

SportactMtiesintheoldJapanesehighschoolsystem Judoclublifbinl927‑28

Hbma似温c"be(加〃oftbe4功k"azawaf地力Sbhoo/'

ThepurposeofthispaperistoanalyzepartofaJudoclubtraininglog,recordedbetweenAprillst,1927 andJuly28th,1928(fbratotalofl6months),atthefburthhighschoolinKanazawa(anoldsystemhigh school)andtoclarifybothwhatthepracticeroutinewasandwhateducationaleffbcttheJudopractice hadonmembers.Analysisisbasedmainlyonwhatwaswlitteninthelog.

WecanlearnthefbllowingpointsfiPomthelog:TherewerefbrtytomymembersintheJudoclub.Their practicewasusuallyfbrtwohours,startingat3pmafterclasses.DuIingsummer,winter,andspring vacations,therewereintensivepractices,threehoursinthemorningandthreehoursintheafternoon.

Thesespecialpracticeswerequitedemanding,astheyincludedconsiderablerepetitionofbasic techniques.Thistrainingprogramwasspeciallydesignedfbrthemanybeginnersintheclub.Thiswasan originalJudostrategy,requiringalotofbasictechniquesfbrthemajorityofthosehighschoolstudents whointhebeginninghadcoInparativelypoorphysiques.

AllactivitiesoftheclubwerefbcusedonvictoIyattheAlljapanHighSchoolJudoTournament,andall practicewastothatend.DefeatinthenationaltournamentinJulyl928,however,endedwithdeep sorrowandheartbreakfbreveIyone.

AlthoughthereweresomepeoplewhowerereferredtoasInentorsinthelog,theyhadno decision‑makingpower.Theclubwaseffectivelymanagedindependentlyby､themembersthemselves.

<sWewerealwayspracticmgwheneverwehadtime.Wehadnovacationinwinterorspring.Wewere abletogohomeonlyfbrafewdaysduIingsummervacation・Therestofthevacationwasdedicatedto Judo."Thisisaquote介omonewriter,InoueYasushi,whowasamemberofthejudoclubatthattime.

Thissupportsthetraininglog'sgeneraldescIiptionofhowclubactMtieswereconducted.

Joiningthecluboftheirownwill,withselfdisciplinethroughrigorouspracticeofJudo,lifewasvery

muchlikethatinamonastery.Itisnothardtoimaginehowgreatanimpacttheirexperienceshadon

c h a r a c t e r b u i l d i n g .

UniversityRefOrmandSportinjapan

Prof.OKUBOHideaki,(KanazawaUniversity,Japan)

ThenumberofnationaluniversitiesinJapan

In2001,therewereroughly2.8millionstudentsregisteredat622universitiesacrossJapan.Teaching stairnumberedaround280,000.Amongthese,therewere620,000studentsregisteredat99national universities,withateachingstaffof60,000.Asidefrommedicaldoctors,thenumberofteachers involvedinhealth,physicaleducationandsportatnationaluniversitieswasaroundl,200.

Iwouldliketotalktoyoutodayabouthowsportandphysicaleducationshouldbemanagedandindeed re‑incorporatedatjapanesenationaluniversitiestohelpensureourcountry'sfilturepeaceand p r o s p e r i t y .

乃e〃2力【"ﾇﾙ巳ﾊs/ryﾉ浪伽刀］

Everynationaluniversityinjapaniscurrentlyundergomgsignificantrefbrms,refbrmswhichreachdowll totheverybasicstructureoftheuniversitiesthemselves.Eachofthe99nationaluniversitieswillbe reorganized,someperhapsevenconsolidated.Thefederalgovernmentwillrelinquishdirectfinancial responsibilityofeachuniversity.Theuniversitieswillinsteadbemanagedasfinanciallyindependent administrativeemities・Inaddition,thecurrentrefbrmscallfbragroupof30top‑levelresearch universitiestobeselectedandnurtured.

Japaneseuniversitieshavesofarundergonefburmajorrefbrmations.Thefirstwasinl918,whenthe qualityofeducationalinstitutionswasgreatlyimprovedunderthe6GUniversityLaw"ofthatyear.

ThesecondmajorperiodofrefbrmwasimmediatelyaiterWorldWarll.The6‑3‑3‑4schoolsystem, adoptedfromtheAmericanmodelandinplaceeventothisday,wasintroduced.AttheuniverSitylevel, asetcurriculumwhichrequired,inadditiontoone'schosenmajor,mandatorycoursesingeneral education,healthandphysicaleducation,andafbreignlanguage,wasalsoestablished.Thissystem remainedineffectuntill990.

AthirdseriesofrefbrmswereostensiblymadeinresponsetothesociallydisrUptive$GcampUSdisputef

ofthelatesixtiesandearlyseventies.Althoughpost‑secondaryeducationhadindeedbeenbrought

c l o s e r t o t h e m a s s e s i n t h e p o s t ‑ w a r y e a r s , i t w a s i n a s e n s e m e r e l y q u a n t i t a t i v e c h a l l g e . M a n y s t u d e n t s

d e m o n s t r a t e d f b r r e a l q u a l i t a t i v e r e f b r m . D e s p i t e a l o t o f m e d i a a t t e n t i o n a n d a s i g n i f i c a n t s o c i a l c a m p a i g n , h o w e v e r , v e r y l i t t l e e i f e c t i v e r e f b r m w a s a c t u a l l y c a r r i e d o u t .

Afburthset.ofrefbrmsemergedfiFom､6TheAd‑HocCouncilonEducation",establishedinthe mid‑1980'sattherequestoftheNakasonecabinet.Inotherwords,thesewererefbnnsinitiatedand carriedoutundergovernmentalleadership.

S i n c e l 9 9 1 , u n i v e r s i t i e s h a v e b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d a n d a d m i n i s t e r e d u n d e r s U c h b a n n e r s a s " l i b e r a l i z a t i o n ' ' , 66characterization","advancement",and"internationalization",nottomentiontheall‑purpose catchphrase,"filndamentalr.

Aslmentionedearlier,ithasbeendecidedthatallnationaluniversitiesinJapanmustnowbecome independentadmmistrativeentitiesin2004.Thismayresultinawideninggapamongthenational universitiesintennsoftuition,thequalityofeducation,andthelevelofresearch.Thereisevena possibilitythatlowerrankednationaluniversities,orthosedeemedtobeunpopular,willshrink drastically,orindeedclosedownaltogether.

Asalludedtopreviously,thesystemofawell‑balancededucationconsistingofgeneraleducation,a fbreignlanguage,healthandphysicaleducation,andone'schosenmajor,endedinl990.The reqUirelnentthatallstudentstakephysicaleducationwasremoved,andthenumberofphysical educationclassesdecreasedateachuniversityasaresult.ltgoeswithoutsayingthatthehiringof physicaleducationteachersalsodecreaseddrastically.Peoplewerenowfreetoquestionthemeaningof;

oreventheneedfbr,physicaleducationandsportattheuniversitylevel.

乃ebackgmuﾉ7dofme"ese"〃匂bI刀Zs

Ibelievethatthefbllowingfivefactorshaveledtothecurrentrefbrlns.

(a)Theinfluenceofderegulationinotherfields

T h e M i n i s t l y o f E d u c a t i o n ( c u r r e n t l y t h e M i n i s t r y o f E d u c a t i o n , S c i e n c e , T e c h n o l o g y , a n d S p o r t ) h a s r e g u l a t e d u n i v e r s i t i e s t o t h e l a s t l e g a l a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d e t a i l , a c c o r d i n g t o a s t r i c t g o v e r n m e n t a l standard(calledtheDaZa加馳rch//K加ﾉｶ.Thisunifbrmandcontrollingwayofmanagementcouldnot a v o i d b e i n g i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e d e r e g u l a t i o n t h a t h a s b e e n r a p i d l y p r o g r e s s i n g i n o t h e r f i e l d s . A s a r e s u l t ,

DaZa肋免rC〃ﾉ節"》.Universitiesthushavealittlemorefreedom.

( b ) A d e c r e a s e i n t h e n u m b e r o f e i g h t e e n ‑ y e a r ‑ o l d s

Thenumberofeighteen‑year‑oldswas2.5millioninl966,butbyl976,ithadplungedtol.5･million.

B y l 9 9 2 , t h e n u m b e r h a d a g a i n r i s e n t o j u s t o v e r 2 m i l l i o n b u t s t a I t e d d r o p p i n g a g a i n a f t e r t h a t . l t

standsatjustunderl．5millionatpresent・Thedecreaseinthenumberofstudentshassodirectly affecteduniversitiesthatitisreferredtobyadministratorsasthe"LongWinter".

( c ) T h e s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f u n i v e r s i t i e s

A s u n i v e r s i t i e s p r o v i d e c o u r s e s f b r a g r e a t e r c r o s s ‑ s e c t i o n o f s o c i e t y , t h e y i n e f f e c t c e a s e t o b e : G i v o I y towerr.Theymustbeawareoftheirmissionandresponsibilityaspartofasocialsystem.Society delnandsthatthefruitsofuniversityeducationandresearchbeusedmorefbritsbenefit.

( d ) T h e f i n a n c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s o f t h e c o u n t r y a t l a r g e

Duetotheprolongednationalrecession,thegovernmenthasadoptedabudgetdistributionsystem basedontheprincipleofcomPetitionamonguniversities.Forthisreason,themanagementand administrationofuniversitieshastobechanged.

( e ) I n t e r n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n a n d c o m p u t e r i z a t i o n

IthasbecomenecessaryfbreachuniversitytoprovidemoreindMdualizededucationinordertoadapt tothechangesinsociety,suchasinternationalizationandcomputerization・Someexamplesmightbe onlinelecturesorcomputer‑basedexaminations.Someuniversitiesabroadevenrequirethatstudents uploadtheircourseworkontotheirprofessor'swebsite.

Q沈加]of､u"んe刷舵s功g巳"eﾉ冠／

OnemightaskhowJapanesenationaluniversitieshavebeencriticizedsofar.Let'sexaminecriticisms

fi,olnvarioussectorS.

Criticismfromstudents

I b e l i e v e t h a t a s e n s e o f h e l p l e s s n e s s i n c r e a s e d a i t e r t h e b i t t e r c a m p u s d i s p u t e s o f t h e l 9 6 0 ' s , r e s u l t i n g ingeneralapathyamongthestudentbody.

Althoughthesearefbrtunatelynotsovisibleatnationaluniversitiesatthemoment,studemscIiticize theuniversitysysteminthefbllowing,passiveways:Notlisteningtolectures,carIyingonprivate conversationsduringclass,e‑mailing,oreventalkingoncellularphones,nottomentionreiilsingto attendcoursesoutright.

Byconsideringitakindofleisureland,orfbur‑year"deadzone"betweenthetwinrigorsofhighschool

andcareer,studentshavereducedtheeffectivenessandsocialrelevancyofuniversity.Facedwiththe

realityofmodernstudents'lives,bothadministratorsandthegeneralpublicarefinallyhitwithasense

ofcrisis.

Criticismfromparentalguardiansandcitizensingeneral

ThereiswidespreadcriticismfTomsocietyatlargeregardingtheemphasisplacedoneducational backgroundandthesystemofcompetitionthroughexaminations,especiallyuniversityentrance e x a m i n a t i o n s . P e o p l e h a v e c o n t i n u a l l y a s k e d u n i v e r s i t i e s f b r m o r e , v a r i e d e n t r a n c e p r o c e d u r e s . Evengreatercriticism,however,isreservedfbrtheuniversitierlargelynegativeresponsetorequests thattheyacceptmoreworkingstudents,Commoncitizens,andretiredpersons.

Criticismfromtheindustrialsector

Theexpectationsoftheindustrialworldhavethusfarbeenfairlylow.Underthelifelongemployment system,companiesprefもrredfreshrecr血swithlittleornoexperience;anynecessarytrainingwas c o n d u c t e d a f t e r h i I i n g ・ S i n c e t h e l a t e l 9 8 0 ' s , h o w e v e r , t h e e c o n o m i c p o w e r o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l w o r l d h a s diminished,andcompaniesarenowbeginningtoexpectmorefiPomuniversitiesintermsofbothresearch andproducingcapable,creativepeople・

Inl995,Keidanren,ortheJapaneseFederationofEconomicOrganizations,announcedthefbllowing expectationsofjapaneseuniversitieswithrespecttothegraduatestheyproduce:

l.Humanepeoplewithplanningability 2.PeoplewithoriginalityandcreatMty

3．Peoplewiththeabilitytobothspotproblemsandsolvethem 4.Peoplewithaglobaloutlook

5.Peoplewithleadership

Thesekindsofpeoplecannotbeproducedthroughanexam‑basedsystem,norcantheybeproducedin asocietywhichplacessomuchvalueonsimplythenameofone'suniversity.Thereisindeedagreat difYbrencebetweenthecurrentsituationandthatofthel970's,whenuniversitieswereaskedto producegenerallyeducatedpeoplewithaverageabilities.Asthecurrentsituationworsens,universities areunderincreasingpressuretochange.

Pressurefromthenationalgovernment

UnderthecurrentKoizumicabinet,reducingthenumberofpublicservantshasbecolnepolicy.With

eachnationaluniversitybecominganindependentadministrativeentity,itsstaffwillceasetowork

directlyfbrthegovernment.Theneedfbrsuchareorganizationhas,ofcourse,beencalledimo

question廿ommanyquarters.

Criticismfromuniversitystaff

Echoingacommonstudentcomplaint,therehasbeensomeselfcriticismfromuniversityteachingstaff regardingcourseanddegreerequirements,namelythatdoctoratedegreesaretoodifficulttoobtainin Japan.ltissaidthatsuchdifficultyhelpsweakenjapan'scompetitivenessontheworldstage.

'4"sIｨ程ﾉｶ]gmesepmhたﾉ刀s

Inanswertosomeofthesecriticisms,thefbllowingproposalshavebeenmade:

･Athoroughreorganizationofuniversities,faculties,anddepartments

･Arefbrmoftheadministrativesystemofuniversities

･Curriculumrefbrm

･Theadoptionofalifelonglearningpolicy,byopeningupgraduateschools, offeIingnightschool,andlecturesfbrthegeneralpublic

･Arefbrmofthecreditsystem

｡Thecompleteintroductionofasemestersystem

･Theintroductionofasyllabus

･ T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f e v a l u a t i o n s y s t e m s ( c o u r s e , s e l f ; o u t s i d e a u d i t i n g , e t c . )

However,manyoftherefbrmsproposedaresimplyfbllowingpreviOusAmericanmodelsofrefbnn,and thereisgreatdangerinthinkingthatasupelficialadoptionofsuchrefbnnswillbetheendofourown d i f f i c u l t i e s .

Undersuchabannerofrefbrm,Japanesenationaluniversitiesinl991abolishedcompulsorygeneral educationfbrfi､eshmenandsophomores,thusdismantlingtheliberalaItssystem,andplacedgreat emphasisonprofessionaltrainingmstead.Wenow,ofcoursehaveanewsetofdifficultiesstemming fiFomthischangeindirection.

乃e"eedh､a〃e〃たa"加gcu/ruﾉ℃

WhetheranyofthecurrentrefbnnsareindeedsuccessfillisnotbemgevalUatedatpresent.Ifanything, itisalittleironicthatthenecessityfbranewlearningcultureisbeingraisedonlytenyearsafterthe previoussetofrefbrms.

Forexample,Mr.Iijima,presidentofNagOyaUniversity,saysthateducationinjapanisfacedwitha

crisis.Atthisrate,hewondersifJapanwillbeabletoholditsowninthe21stcentUry・Hearguesthat

thel991refbnnshavebeenconceived,planned,andexecutedfromaneconomicstandpoint,withonly

M r . l i j i m a g o e s o n t o c r i t i c i z e t h a t t h e p r e s e n t u n i v e r s i t y s y s t e m i n J a p a n d o e s n o t e d u c a t e s t u d e n t s o n howtoliveasmembersofsociety,orevenashumanbeings.Althoughthisisofcoursesomethingthat mustcomefiFomwithin,universitieswon'teventouchuponthesubject.Eventeachersdon'tknowwhat tomakeofthis,either.Studentscannot,therefbre,grasptherelationbetweenhisorherlearningon onehand,andthemeaningofhisorherlifeontheother.Thisproblemmaynotbelimitedjustto universities,however.

Mr.lijimaconcludesthatfifomelementaryschooltouniversity,educationinjapanhasnottaught studentsthethreelessonsthatcannotbemissedfbrahumanbeingtolivewellintheworld・Thefrstis relatedtohumandestiny.Thesecondisrelatedtolove.Thethirdrelatestotheproblemofdeath.

Mr.Terasaki,averywisemanfifomTokyoUniversity,statesthatthenewlearningCukureatuniversity shouldbeconstructedaroundthefbllowingthemes::4Environmem''(globalwarlning,airpollution,

r e l a t i o n t o t h e u n i v e r s e , a k i n t o t h e o l o g y o r p h i l o s o p h y . )

Mr.Takeuchi,aprofessoratKyotoUniversity,statesthatmorderfbrpeopletoavoidbecoming arrogantandbecometrulygoodleadersinsociety,theymustcultivateanappreciationofcultureanda senseofmodestyoversimplypursuingmoneyandprosperity.

Finally,Mr・Ogikami,presidentoftheTokyoMetropolitanUniversity,statesthatinordertomamtain itstechnologicalintelligence,asocietymusthavearichcultureofliterature,art,science,andsoon,to suppoltit.

7Zelﾉ日/iJeof叩α丁功a上a"加gcMuﾉ汐

Itisindeedagreatmiscalculationnottosuificientlyincludesportinthenewlearningculture.Asit stands,physicaleducationandsportarecurrently"inretreat''fi､ommodernuniversitycampuses.

Eventhoughphysicaleducationandsportinuniversityhaveuntilnowbeennecessaryfbrgeneral recreationandthemaimenanceofhealth,theyarenotrecognizedasbeingfilllyworthyofacademic consideration.

I t h i n k t h a t p h y s i c a l e d u c a t i o n a n d s p o r t h a v e i m p o r t a n t r o l e s t o p l a y i n u n i v e r s i t y c u l t u r e . I n o r d e r t o

ageneralsurvey.Iwouldliketosharewithyouthefbllowingbenefitsofsport.

l.Healthandphysicalfitness

Thedirecthealthandfitnessbenefitsthatphysicaleducationandsportbringtothosewhopractice them,ofcourse,gowithoutsaying.

2．Friends,companionship,andafeelingofunity

AsNorbertEliasmentioned,thepremiseofsportis,inmanycases,builtoncompetitionwithothers.

Tensionandexcitement,mixedwithanxietyandjoy,springfTomnaturalhumandesires.Sportisavery effectivedevicethatallowsandencouragesyoutomakefiFiends,aswellasfeeltheexcitementofbeing partofagroup.

3.Self identity

Whenlaskuniversityathletesthereasonwhytheyplaytheirsport,theyareusuallyatalossfbrwords, ormumblesomethinglike,@GBecauseit'sinteresting",or:6BecauseIwanttowin''.Whenlrephrasemy questionto:"Whendoyoufeelmostalive?''moststudentseasilyreply,"Whenlamplayingmysport".

IamsorIytoreportthat"Whenlamstudying."isaveryrareanswer.

PlayingsportsinclubactMtiesisadvancedanddemandingonboththebodyandone'sschedule.The relationshipbetweenothermembersisstressfillinmanyways.Moreover,duringanimportantgame, playersareundertremendouspressureandoftenbecomenervous・Atthistime,theyfeelmost"alive''.

Sportprovidesthisgoodopportunitytofeelalive.Throughsport,theycanhaveasenseofselfidentity.

4.Religiousfilnction

WhenIsayareligiousfilnctioninthiscaselmeanitinanabstractsense.Whenwefaceanoble,great, andstrangeexistencebeyondourselves,wehaveasenseofawe.Wearedeeplyimpressedandhavea sensethatourheartshavebeencleansedinsomeway.

Aswegobackinhistory,peoplemostlikelytreasuredthesesensesorfeelings.ltwaspartoftheir eveIydaylife・Inparticular,majorlifeeventssuchasbirth,marriage,disease,disaster,anddeathwere beyondrationalexplanation,sobeliefinahigherpowerwasembraced.

Thereisasenseofreverencethatoccursafterhavingawonderfillorbeautifillfeeling.Theilnpression thathumanbeingsareindeedmagnificentisnowadaysoftenprovidedbysport.

WhywerewesoattractedtotheWorldCupsoccertoumamentinKoreaandJapan？Itwascertainly

morethanmerenationalism,concernfbrthescore,orapplaudinggoodplayingtechnique.Thereisalso reverenceofhumanitythroughsport.

Conclusion

Theuniversityrefbrmscurrentlyunderwayinjapanoughttoreflectthenew､Glearningcukure"toa

greaterextem・Sportmustnotbeleftoutofnew"culture".PropereducationofspoItinhigher

educationmustbeundertakentoensurefilturesocialpeaceandprosperity.

ThejapaneseSportHistoryofModernTimes:

ShiftfTomstatecenteredhistoryofphysicaleducationandsportshistoryinjapan

Prof.OKUBOHideaki(KanazawaUniversity,Japan)

Iwouldliketomentionabout3issuesinthisspeech,today.First,whatkindofsubjectswearefacedto atpresentinjapanesephysicaleducationandsporthistoIya仕erabriefresearchreviewofphysical educationandsporthistoIyinpostwarJapan.

S e c o r l d , I w o u l d l i k e t o e x p l a i n t h e n e e d o f t h e n e w h i s t o I y r e s e a r c h f b r o v e r c o m i n g a s t a t e ‑ c e n t e r e d

physicaleducationspoIthistory,whichisrecognizedasthebiggestsubject,recently.

Third,Iwouldliketoshowyouoneofmylocalcomparativeresearchesasanexamplefbrthenew h i s t o r y .

1.AbriefresearchreviewofphysicaleducationandsporthistoryinpostwarJapan.

ResearchesofphysicaleducationandsporthistoryinpostwarJapanhavestartedbythe establishmentofthejapaneseSocietyofPhysicalEducationinl950,organizingasectionofphysical educationhistoryinit.

Inthefirstdecade,physicaleducationhistoryresearchesweremademodelinga仕erfbreignphysical educationhistoIyresearches.

Ontheresultofthisdecade,thisfieldofstudywasrecognizedasaspecificandprofessionaloneinl960, andwasgettingscholarlyhighevaluation.

Physicaleducationhistoryinvolvedsporthistoryinitsresearchfield,butfacedtotheemphasizethat sporthistorywasdifferemfromschoolphysicaleducationhistoIyoriginally,becausesporthasno educationalconceptoriginallyinit.ThisdistinctmovementwasthefbrmationoftheJapansocietyof sporthistoryin1987.Thus,twosocietiesfbrhistoIyofphysicaleducationandsporthistoryappearedin J a p a n .

Further,thenewresearchareaofthesportanthropologywasorganizedinl989tostudythesport c u l t u r e i n t h e c h a r a c t e r ‑ l e s s a g e i n t h e j a p a n e s e S o c i e t y o f P h y s i c a l E d u c a t i o n , a n d t h e j a p a n s o c i e t y o f thesportal1thropologywasestablishedin2000.Thus,wehadthreesocietiesfbrhistoIyofphysical e d u c a t i o n a n d s p o r t h i s t o I y i n j a p a n .

Eachsocietyhasabout300membersgettingassociatedeachother.Andthereareabout30peoplewho

haveadoctor'sdegree,totally.ThisnumbercanbeexpectedtoeXpandeveryyearfiFomnow,because

2.ThephVsicaleducationandsporthistoryresearchfacin t o a turning ^3oint IthinkthephysicaleducationandsporthistoryresearchinJapanarefacingtofbllowings.

(1)Reflectionof"Modernages

(2)Reflectionof"thecentralhistoricalviewoftheWesterncountries"

(3)Reflectionof"thestate‑history"

Inotherwords,somelimitationsintheoryofthephysicaleducationandsporthistoIyresearchuntilnow isrecognized,anditisconsciousofthetrialwhichshouldgetthemodernsportover.

Thoughitisonthemodernextensionatpresent,obviouslyitistheagetosolvethemodernage.The peaceoftheworldandstability.don'tconsistofonlyacompetitiveprincipletobebasedontheviolent f i ､ e e c o m p e t i t i o n .

Forexample,Afghanwar,greenhousewarmingoftheglobalenvironment,thenuclearmenace,orNew YorkterrOrismm2001,allthesearetheproducts,whichamodernstatereallyproduced.WeJapanese researchersareexaminingwhetherthegeneralideaofthemodernagesisreallysuitablefbrthephysical educationandsporthistory,whetherthecentralhistoricalviewoftheWesterncoUntriesaresuitablefbr today,orwhetherthestate‑historyissuitablefbrustoday,seriouslynow.

ThoughintheOlympismbyCoubertintheeducation,peaceandprosperitythroughsportweremeant andpassedinthebeginning,thecompetitiveprinciple,whichiscolnefromwesternandcharacte画stics modernsport,hasfbrcedtoexplodeviolentquarrelfbrmedals,doping,VictoW‑principleinthesport gamesaswell.Wearenowconsideringandgropinghowandwhatshouldbedonetosolvethemodem sportandtoreproduceanewmodelofsport.

Isaidthatwearegropingagettingoverthestate‑centeredhistoIyofphysicaleducationand.SoI wouldliketoreportmyresearchfbrexample.

3.ShiftfromstatecenteredhistoryofphysicaleducationandsDortshisto

Sportoftengivesrisetonationalism．○neneedonlylookbacktothenationalisticfervorofeachcountry

s p o r t r e q u i r e s v a r i o u s l e v e l s o f n a t i o n a l s u p p o r t , f i ､ o m t h e p e o p l e t h e m s e l v e s t o t h e f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t .

ThephysicaledUcationsystemhasbeensupportedinasimilarway・Thenationstateofthenineteenth centuIy,whichestablishedacapitalistsystem,promotedglobaleconomiccompetition,andfbcusedits energiesontheacquisitionandsomet伽esre‑dMsionofcolonies,recognizedphysicaleducationtobe animportantpillarofthenationaleducationsystem,asameanstoprovidetalented,capable,and6t p e o p l e .

AswithotherAsiancountries,Japanwasfbrcedtobecomeaviablenationstateinashortperiodoftime, andsuchrapidtransfbnnationcouldonlyhavebeenfacilitatedbystrongnationalpolicy.Thehistorical researchofmodernphysicaleducationandsporthastherefbreoitenbeenapproached廿omanationalor stateperspective.ThisistruenotonlyfbrphysicaleducationandsportshistoIyresearch,butfbr p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y , e d u c a t i o n h i s t o I y , a n d o t h e r f i e l d s a s w e l l .

EntitieswithrecOgnitionandname‑value,containingsuchdescriptorsastheNational,theTokyo,the Govenunent,theMinistIyofEducation,theCenter,andsoon,havereceivedpreferentialstudy.

Conversely,localidentityresearchhasgenerallybeenhandledwithrespecttohometownpride,ormore often,asasub‑historyofthefbrmationandpermeationofcentralpolicyinthedistricts.

However,changeshavealreadybeguntooccurinthedirectionofsuchhistoricalresearch.Wecan describethischangeasmovingfi･omstate‑centeredtosociety‑centered・Withinthis,however,maybe classifiedtwoapproaches.

Thefirstisnotnew.Itisresearchwhichtakesawideview,perhapsinternational,perhapsoverwide

g e o g r a p h i c a l r e g i o n . l t h i n k i t i s s a f e t o c a l l t h i s @ G a r e a h i s t o r y ' ' .

"MediterraneanSea'',byBraudel,whodetailedEuropeanhistoryaroundtheMediterranean,isagood example,Isuppose.Anotherexamplemightbe@GKaratedo"byHeikoBittmann,writtenfi･omthe p e r s p e c t i v e o f c u l t u r a l e x c h a n g e i n E a s t A s i a .

S p o r t s a n t h r o p o l o g y f i F o m t h e g l o b a l p e r s p e c t i v e h a s b e e n p r o p o s e d a g a i n r e c e n t l y . W o r l d s p o r t h i s t o r y

isbeingconductedaccordingtothismodel.Theseprovethatresearchfi､omthepointofviewlhave

e x p r e s s e d a b o v e , i n o t h e r w o r d s , r e s e a r c h f i ､ o m t h e e x p a n d e d v i e w p o i n t , i s b e i n g d o n e ・ S u c h r e s e a r c h

willsurelyincreasefi､omnowon．

○nthecontrary,Iproposeresearch廿omtheperspectiveoflocalidentity,whichisbasedonpeople's

graspedmoreclearly,Iexpect.

Iwouldnowliketopresentsomeofmyresearch,asanexample.Itisacolnparativestudyofthe introductionanddihsionprocessofschoolphysicaleducationinlshikawaandlwatePrefecturesinthe MeijiEra.

IIntroduction

ThemodernjapaneseschoolsystemwasadoptedfiFomtheFrenchandDutchmodelbytheMinistryof Educationinl872.ltwasestablishedineveryprefbctureandcontainedfbrexamplecolnpulsoIy educationandthedMsionintoschooltypes.Incontrast,however,thesubjectofPhysicalEducationwas modeledaftertheAmericansystem.

Inresearchuntilnow,therehasbeentheviewthatthedevelopmentandcontentofPhysicalEducation wasthesameinevelyprefecture.Yetdueinparttoadearthofeducatedteachers,therewere significamdelaysinitsimplementation.IfweanalyzethesubjectofPhysicalEducationineach prefecture,wecanseegreatdifferences.

IwouldliketoshowthedifferencesbetweenlshikawaandlwatePrefectureswithregardtotheir histoIicaldevelopment.Theresearchmaterialusedwasbasedonthetextsofthefbrmerprefectural governments・InlshikawaPrefecture,thesubjectofPhysicalEducationwasintroducedinl883.Inlwate, itwasintroducedintomiddleschoolsinl881,butwasnotintroducedintoelementaryschoolsuntil 1887.

IIDiffbrencesinthePrefectures

(b)EconomicandNaturalConditions

IntheMeijiEra,mostelementaryschoolswerefinancedthroughprivatemeans,fbrexamplethrough

donations.Forthisreason,theeconomicpowerofeachprefecturewasofgreatimportance.Ishikawa

agriculture,especiallyfbrricecultivation.Inaddition,duetoreadyaccesstothesea,therewasa developedfisheryindustIy.BesidestheSe,therewasalreadyagoodtranSportationsystem,textile, potteIy,andlacquerwareindustries,andcoppermines.Seeninthislight,IshikawaPrefecturewas,in

Incontrast,thecl伽ateconditionsofIwatePrefecturewerenotsuitablefbrricefanninginthosedays.

TheregionisveIymountainous,sotransportationrouteswereverypoor.Theeasternpartofthe prefectureextendstothePacificOcean,butduetoitsfiords,thecoastwasalsonotverysuitablefbr economicuse.AlthoughlwatePrefectureismorethanthreetimeslargerthanlshikawa,itwasin

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companson,apoorerreglon.

Ifwecomparethecostsofeducationinbothprefecturesinl878,wecanseethatlshikawaPrefecture hadexpenditurestwoandahartimbsthoseoflwate.R､omthis,wecansaythatthescaleofthe economiesofeachprefecturewasquitedifferent.Indeed,accordingtoareportbytheMinistryof Education,IwatePrefecturewasnotabletoguaranteeregularschoolinstructionbefbrel887.

2)TheInfluenceoftheCMIWarbefbretheMeijiRestorationandofOldEducationFonns廿omtheEdo

Period

Thefbnnerlordof/Yaga,aslshikawaPrefecturewasknownbefbretheMeijiRestorationinl868,was alliedwiththeopponentsoftheoldTokugawaShogunate,andthroughthatalliance,wasmagood politicalpositionwhenthenewstatewasfbnned.IntheEdoPeriod,thelordsofKagapossessedthe g r e a t e s t l i b r a r y i n a l l o f j a p a n , a s w e l l a s a s e r i e s o f f i e fs c h o o l s w i t h a s p l e n d i d r e p u t a t i o n ・ U p o n t h i s base,thenewschoolsystemwasintroducedinlshikawa,withtheresultthatschoolsonceavailableto onlythesamuraiclasswerechangedintoelementaIyandmiddleschools.ForallintentSandpurposes, suchchangeSwerenotverynoticeable.

AfteraninspectionbytheMinistryofEducationinl874,itwasdeterlninedthatthedirectionof

compulsoIyeducationwasfirstandfbremost,andthuswantedtoadvancetheintroductionand

establishmentofelementaIyschools.Asaresult,theCommissionerofEducationfbrIshikawaputdue

emphasisonthedevelopmentofelementaIyschools.Theexpansionanddevelopmentofhigherschools

wasthusneglected.