The Effective Classroom
効果的な授業
PaulCarty
MarkD.Lucas
本論文では、日本の大学でコミュニケーションクラスを受講する 1 年生に効果的な教授 技術を調査する。学生は実用的な会話スキルを持たないため、オープンエンドタスクの使用 は不十分であるし、また、語彙中心の授業も、学生が高校で習得するような潜在的語彙を増 加させるだけである。必要なのは、学生の特定のニーズに合うこれらの中間点である。 この「中間点」には以下 4 つのポイントが含まれる: 1 )親しみのあるトピックを利用 して、学生が言語に特化したスキルに注意を向け、そのトピックについて話したくなるよう な状態に促す。 2 )打ち解けた雰囲気を作り出して、なじみのない場所で話すことへのため らいを払拭する。 3 )英語を使わなければならない教室環境にすることで、どんな状況にお いても、学生が英語を使用するように促す。 4 )特定の会話ツールを教えることで、学生の 自信を向上させ、学生自らが気軽に会話を始めたり、終わらせたりできるよう促す。
Inthispapertheauthorshopetooutlineaneffectivefirst-semestercourseforJapanesecollege studentsofintermediateability.Atfirst,wewilldescribeourstudentpopulation,andgiveafuller descriptionofourgoals.Wewillalsoshowhowtodevelopacongenialclassroomatmosphereand illustratethespecifictoolsofconversation.Wewillexplainindetailaclassweuseinthefirst termwhichincorporatesmanyofthesepoints.Finally,ourresearchandtestingprocedureswill beoutlined.
Ourstudents,likealmostallfirst-yearJapaneseuniversitystudents,havereceivedsixyearsof Englisheducation.AboutathirdofthestudentsinourprogramhadanativeEnglishspeakerin theclassroomatsomepointduringjuniororseniorhighschool.Bytheirfreshmenyearofcollege ourstudentsbringagreatdealofgrammarandvocabularyknowledgetotheclassroom.In general,theirspeakingabilityhasnotbeendevelopedtothesamelevelashastheirgrammarand vocabulary. This results in a college freshman who can not readily call upon or use their knowledgeofEnglishwhenattemptingtospeak.Ofcoursethereareacertainpercentagein everyclasswhoeitherhaveanaturaltalentforEnglishorhaveakeeninterestandhavefurther pursuedEnglishstudyoutsideofschool.Soineveryclassthereareafewstudentswhofeelmore
orlesscomfortabletryingtocommunicateinEnglish.Thevastmajority,however,arevery hesitanttodoso.Inourinitialsurvey,whenaskedhowwelltheycouldcommunicateinEnglish, thestudentsratedthemselves5.1onscaleof1to10with1beingthehighest.
Theprimarygoalforourfirst-termcommunicationclassistohelpstudentsdeveloptheirEnglish abilitytothepointwheretheycanengageinafiveminuteconversation.Toachievethisgoal,the authorsfeelitisnecessarytoestablishaclasswhichusesamorestructuredapproach,uses familiartopics,andisnotoverlyreliantonalargecorpusofnewvocabulary.Offundamental importanceistoreinforceandbuildupontheEnglishknowledgethestudentshave,tomake themfeelcomfortableandconfidentinusingEnglishinmeaningfulexchanges.Inordertodo this,itisnecessarytocreateanatmosphereinwhichtheyfeelsafetoexchangeinformation,in otherwords,tocreateaclassthatfeelsbondedandworkswelltogether.
OneofthemajorobstaclestoovercomeinacommunicationclasswithJapanesestudentsistheir relativehesitationtoexpressthemselvesinsocialsituations,especiallyinfrontofstrangers.Itis thereforeextremelyimportanttosetthemoodinthefirstfewclassesbyusingactivitiesthat emphasizeinteractionwithothers.Oneofourpreferredtechniquesisaninformationcard creationactivitythatinvolvesstudentinterviews.Insteadofhavingstudentssimplyfillout informationcards,thestudentsarepairedwithpartnersnotknowntothem.Student1(S1)and Student2(S2)intervieweachotherand,subsequently,createeachother’scards.Afterthecards arecreated,theyareexchangedsothateachstudentholdsthecardcontaininghisorher personalinformation.S1andS2thenworktogethertocreatequestionsonthebackoftheircards designedtoelicitpersonalinformationfromtheteacher.S1andS2thenattempttoguessthe teacher’sanswerstothesequestionsbywritingouttheirpredictionsonthecards.Whilethe studentscreateidenticalquestionsfortheteacher,theyareallowedtomaketheirownguesses. After both sides of the card are completed, S1andS2arepairedwithS3andS4.S1then introducesS2totheothergroupmembersusinginformationrememberedfromtheinterview stage.S3andS4willtheneachaskoneoriginalquestionaboutS2beyondthescopeofthecard’s informationthatS1willattempttoanswerbasedonhisorherimpressionofS2.Thisactivitywill continueuntilallfourgroupmembershaveintroducedtheirpartners.Thisallowseachstudent tolearnarathersignificantamountofinformationaboutthreeofhisorherclassmatesina relativelyshortperiodoftime.Aftercompletingthisactivity,thecardsarecollectedbythe teacherwhowilleitherverballyanswercommonlyaskedquestionsonthebacksofthecards,or willwritetheanswersoneachcardandreturnthecardsnextweekatwhichtimethestudents
canaffixtheirphotostothefront.
An effective communication class is one in which all members feel comfortable sharing information,wheremembersarewillingtoaskfollow-upquestions,andwherethemembersfeel aresponsibilitytowardshelpingeachotherlearnEnglish.Itisforthesereasonsthattheteacher mustmakeanearnestefforttohelptheclasstobond.Thisshouldbegininthefirstclass.Our studentsarefreshmeninanewcollege,withnewclassmatesandanewstyleofcommunication class.Theactivitiesofthefirstweeksshouldbecommunicativeonesinwhichthestudentscan findoutasmuchabouteachotheraspossible.Itisinthefirstfewweekswheretheclasscangel, commoninterestscanbediscovered,andfriendshipsformed.Whenthestudentsfeelconnected toeachothertheywillworkhardertomaketheclassmoreeffective.Ourresearchshowedthat studentspreferredpairandsmallgroupactivitiesoverwholeclassandsoloactivities[seefigure 1].Teachersshouldbeawareofstudentscomfortzonewhendesigningclassactivities,inorderto enhancethisfeelingofinterconnectedness.
Student Grouping for Speaking Tasks Solo (11.6%)
Pair (33.3%) Small Group (34.2%)
Whole Class (20.9%)
Figure1
AconcernformanyteachersiscontrollingtheamountofJapanesespokenintheclassroom.As adultlearners,thestudentshaveanopportunitytousetheirnativelanguage(L1)inbeneficial ways.Unfortunately,L1toooftenbecomesacrutchforlesshighly-motivatedstudentsandcan spreadoutofcontrolunlessmanagedefficiently.Weadvocateahybridapproach.Inourclasses wehavefoundthatallowingstudentstouseJapanese,whenembeddedwithinEnglishquestions andstatements,worksextremelywellinmostcases.Ifstudentsconstantlycheckdictionaries,it breaks the natural flow of communication and reduces focus; while if students lapse into Japaneseconversation,theymisstheopportunitytoimprove.Wehavefoundthatinthecases whereS1doesnotknowthecorrectwaytosaysomethinginEnglish,shecansimplyaskher partner,“Howdoyousay______inEnglish?”ThismaintainsthespiritofusingEnglishasthe
primarylanguageintheclassaswellasprovidingtheopportunityforS2toaccessherknowledge ofEnglishwhentranslatingthewordorphraseforS1.Thistechniqueismuchquickerthanusing adictionaryandmaintainstheflowoftheconversation.Therearetwocautionarynoteswiththis approach.First,theclassroomEnglishneedstobeintroducedintheinitialclassmeetingand reinforcedinseveralsubsequentclasses.Weusea10-minutesurprisequizinthesecondclass thatisgradedimmediatelyafteritisgiven.Thestudentsaretoldthattheywillbegiventhesame quizinthethirdclassandthatiftheirscoreonthesecondtestishigherthanonthefirst,they willreceivethatgrade.However,iftheirscoreislowerthesecondtime,theywillreceivethe averageofthetwogrades.Thisguaranteesatleastthreeweeksofactiveexposuretoclassroom Englishwithouttakingupaninordinateamountofclasstime.Thesecondcautionarynoteis concernedwithacommonerrorthatstudentsmakewiththetwoquestions,“Howdoyousay _____inEnglish?”(Q1)and“Whatdoes______mean?”(Q2).Theproblemlieswithanerrorin translation.TheJapaneseequivalentofQ1is“______は英語で何と言いますか”Thequestion wordintheJapaneseversion“何”means“What”inEnglish.TheoppositeistrueforQ2where thequestionwordintheJapaneseversion“______は ど う 言 う 意 味 で す か”means“How”in English.Asaresult,studentsoftenask,“Whatdoyousay______inEnglish?”and“Howdoes ______mean?”Iftheteacheremphasizesthispointofconfusioninthefirstclass,itwillprovide thestudentswithamemorydevicetoavoidmisusingthesequestionsthroughouttheentireyear.
Teachingthefundamentaltoolsofmakingconversationisacentralpartofourcommunication class.Thesecanbetaughtandreinforcedduringthefirstsemesterasstudentsdeveloptheir communication skills. As simple and rote as the skill of making introductions seems, recognizingyourpartner,learninghername,andintroducingyourselfareclearindicationstothe speakerthatthiswillbeanauthenticconversation.Notonlydointroductionsreinforcesocial connections,theyforcestudentstorecognizetheirclassmates.Inadditiontousingcertain phrases,introductionsalsorequireacertaindisposition.Eyecontactandasmilemightappear unimportantbut,infact,theyaregreataidstocommunication.Theysignaltoone’spartnera willingnesstolisten,whichinspiresconfidenceinthespeaker.
Anotherimportantconversationskillisopeningaconversation.Thissignalstoone’spartner whatthespeakerintendstodiscuss.Forexample,whenthetopicis“hometown”,onestudent mightsay,“So,whereareyoufrom?”Thesestructuresarenecessaryforeffectivecommunication. Students often hesitate to begin speaking because they are not sure how to start the conversation.Thesestructureshelpthestudenttospeakmorenaturallyandgivethestudent
confidence to start speaking. It is very important for the students to realize that they are initiatingtheconversationinanormalandpoliteway.Thesephrasesserveascatalystsandhelp studentstoovercomethisinitialinertia.Suchactivationstructuresareofgreatassistanceto nervousfirstyearstudents.Closingtheconversationisequallyimportant.Ofcoursetherearea varietyofwaystocloseaconversationandtakeone’sleave.Onepatternthatstudentsenjoyis lookingattheirwatchanddramaticallysaying,“Oh,sorry,Ihavetogo.Nicetalkingtoyou.”To whichthelistenerresponds,“Oh,mypleasure.Seeyoulater.”
Anotherimportantskillforstudentstolearnisactivelistening.Thesearetheinterjectionsand phrasesweusewhenlisteningtoshowthespeakerweareinterestedandlisteningcarefully.A few examples are: “Wow.” “I see.” “Really!” These phrases are significant in that they give studentstoolstousewhentheymightbetemptedtouseJapanese.Inaddition,usingsuch phrasesreinforcestheideathattheframeworklanguageoftheclassisEnglish.Weintroduce activelisteningduringaclassaboutschedules.Asthestudentslistentoanswerstheymust respondwithanappropriatephrase.Arewardsystemusinganytypeofcounters(marbles,poker chips,fakemoney)placedinabowlinfrontofeachgroup,canbeusedasagreatmotivator.Each timeastudentauthenticallyusesactivelistening,theycantakeapokerchip.Eachtimethey useJapanesetheylosetwochips.Thissystemcanberegularlyusedtoovercomethestudents’ inclinationtoresorttotheirL1whenreactingnaturally.Anotheraspectofactivelisteningisa repetition of part of the speaker’s statement. For example, S1says,“Igetupat6a.m.on Tuesday.”S2says,“Oh6a.m.”S1:“ItaketheHankyutraineveryday.”S2:“OhIsee,Hankyu.” Thisisanexcellentwaytocheckwhatonehasheardinordertoavoidmiscommunicationaswell astoshowthespeakerthatoneistrulylistening.
Perhapsthemostimportantconversationtoolwecanteachstudentsinthefirsttermistheskill ofgeneratingfollow-upquestions.Follow-upquestionsrequirelistenerstopaycarefulattention tothespeakerandbasetheirquestionsonwhattheyhavejustheard.Thiskeepsthestudentson topicsincelowertointermediatelanguagelearnerstendtohopfromtopictotopic.Bystaying with the speaker’s subject, students can expand and deepen the conversation. Follow-up questionscanalsoleadtoclarificationwhenthelistenerisconfusedaboutsomepointandcan addgreaterdetailtothespeaker’sstatement.Theymakeconversationricherandstrongly connecttheinterlocutors.Inthefirstsemester,ineveryclassfollow-upquestionsarepracticed. Itsimportanceasaskillcannotbeover-emphasized.
Aguidingprincipleofourclassesisthatusingfamiliartopicswillhelpstudentstogreatlyexpand theircommunicationskills.FearofusingEnglishandmakingmistakespreventsstudentsfrom communicatingcomfortably.Intermsofefficiency,ifourgoalistogetstudentscommunicating comfortablywhileovercomingtheirfearofusingEnglishthenthemostefficientwaytoovercome thisfear,shortofahome-stayinSydney,istogetthemtalkingaboutsomethingtheyknowvery well.Inadditionitshouldideallybeaboutsomethingtheywouldliketonotonlytalkaboutbut alsohearabout.Ourresearchunderlinesthispoint.Itshowsthatstudents’interestandskill levelsincreasedafterparticipatinginaclassaboutfamily[seefigure2].
Family Lesson
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00
1.79
2.77
1.39
2.38
Interest Level Before Interest Level After Skill Level Before Skill Level After Figure2
Withtheparametersoffamiliarandengagingtopicsinmind,we’dliketoexplainindetailone lessonthatincorporatesmanyofthepreviouslydiscussedlanguageskills.Onetopicthatisclose tostudentsbothemotionallyandchronologicallyis“highschool”.Topreparestudentsforthe class,theyaregivenasmallwritingassignment-fivesentencesabouttheirhighschool(favorite subject,teacher,classtrip,etc).Homeworkhelpsorientstudentstowardthetopic.
Thefirstactivityisdesignedtogetthestudents’Englishflowingwithalivelyactivity.Thelesson beginswitha“FindSomeoneWho”activitywithcolumnsfor“name”and“follow-upquestions”. Studentsgetachancetoaskseveralquestions,learnsomenewvocabulary,practicefollow-up questions, and use active listening skills. Most importantly, students are being exposed to languagewhichlatercanbeusedinconversation.
Inthenextexercise,thestudentswritethreequestionsabouttheteacher’shighschooldays.Not onlyisthisagoodwayforstudentstopracticeformingquestionsbutit’salsohighlymotivating.
Studentsreallyenjoycomparingtheirhighschoolexperiencewiththatofsomeonefromanother country.Atthestartofthisactivitytheteacherdictatesfivesentencesabouthis/herhighschool. Studentschecktoseeiftheirquestionswereanswered.Ifnot,theydirectlyasktheteacher,and awhole-classdiscussionaboutthedifferencesbetweenJapanesehighschoolsandAmerican highschoolsensues.
Itistimenowforacontrolledconversationabouthighschool.Studentsaregiventenkeywords orphrasessuchas:teacher,festival,classtrip,etc.Fromthese,studentsorallyformquestions withoutwritingthemdown.Theteacherchecksthatstudentshaveformedgrammaticallycorrect questionsandexplainsthatareafewwaystoaskthesamequestion.Studentsthenchatwith someoneabouthighschoolusingthetenkeywordsasframeworkuponwhichtheycanbuilda conversation. Students are told to keep chatting for five minutes and ask many follow-up questions,useactivelisteningandopenandclosetheconversation.Aftertheconversation, studentswritedownwhattheirpartnersaidabouthis/herhighschool.Finally,studentschange partnersandpracticetheconversationagain.
Withlower-levelstudentsmorestructurecanbegiven,andofcoursewithhigher-levelstudents morechallengingdiscussionquestionscanbeintroduced.Ingeneral,studentsareveryexcitedto talkabouttheirhighschoolandtofindoutaboutothers’highschoolexperience.Fiveminutes beforetheendoftheclass,theteachershouldbringtothestudents’attentionthattheyhave beenengagedinafiveminuteconversation.Thisisanimportantstrategyinhelpingstudentsto overcomethedeeplyentrenchedloopthatrunsintheirheads,“Ican’tspeakEnglish.”Students needtobecontinuallyremindedthattheycaninfactcommunicateinEnglish.Oncetheybegin toacceptthis,theycanbecomemoreconfidentanddeveloptheirEnglishskillstothepoint wheretheywillviewEnglishasnotjustanannoyingsubjectinschoolbutasausefulmethodfor exchanginginformation.
Thefirstsemesterculminateswithanoralexamination.Thetopicscoveredduringthesemester aresplitintothreethematicallyconsistentgroupsandstudentsareprovidedwithareviewsheet inthepenultimateclass.Onthedayofthetest,studentsarerandomlypairedwithpartnersand queued.Whenitistheirturntospeak,thepairscometothefrontoftheclassanddrawasingle cardfromasetofthree.Thiscardrepresentsthetopicgroupthatthestudentswilltalkaboutfor 5-7minutes.Duringtheexam,theteacherdoesnotspeakotherthantoprovideclarification. Havingthestudentsrandomlyselectthespeakingtopicjustpriortobeginningthetestforces
themtopreparetospeakonallofthetopics;whilebyhavingrandompairings,thestudents cannotprepare“canned”dialogues,whichguaranteesreal-time,authenticconversation.This helpstopromoteactivelisteningaswellasinterjectionusage.Accordingtoourpost-semester survey,studentsfeltthatpreparingforthetestrateda4.1onaneffectivenessscaleof1to10(1 beingthehighest).
Afirst-semestercourseforJapanesecollegestudentsofintermediateabilitypresentsitsownset ofuniquechallenges.Inlightofthis,wefeelthemosteffectiveclassroomshouldutilizefamiliar topics which help students focus primarily on language-specific skills. Also, establishing a congenial classroom atmosphere helps students overcome their hesitancy to speak in an unfamiliarsetting.Inaddition,aclassroomenvironmentthatexpectsEnglishwillencourage studentstouseEnglishinallsituations.Finally,specificconversationaltoolshelpincrease students’confidencelevelandincreasetheeasewithwhichtheycaninitiateandterminate conversationalexchanges.