I nt r oduct i on
When
we a s k wha t t he t r ue s i gni f i c a nc e of t he r el a t i ons hi p bet ween ma n a nd na t ur e i s , we mus t t r y ot r ei nt er pr et wha t na t ur e i s a nd we mus t c onduc t a r e- ques t i oni ng of s el f . As we t a ke t he per s pec - t i v es of t he na t ur a l , t he phys i c a l a nd t he c hemi c a l , a nd wi t h t hem, s t udy t he r el a t i ons bet ween huma n
─
I n t he Thought of Edwa r d Ca r pent er
─（II
）At s uko I NADA
先駆的共同体論の基底
─ エドワード・カーペンターをめぐって ─（I
I
）稲 田 敦 子
本稿の目的は，イギリスの「構造転換」期にあって，共生思想の先駆的系譜に位置づけられるエ ドワード・カーペンターの共同体論の基底を探ることである。カーペンターは，個と共同性をめぐ る問題を中心的な課題として，現代における自然との共生およびその具体的なあり方としての新し い共同体の再編への試論を提起した。彼の問題意識は，社会総体とその中での自己を，自然を射程 に組み込むことにより，解決の糸口を探ろうとするものである。言い換えれば，「人間的自然」の 全体性の回復を，「本来的自然」と「社会的自然」との調和的状態において成立させる方策を求め ようとしたことであろう。
近代化が推進されるにつれて，肥大化した社会関係の中では，個的な存在は社会システムの規制 状況に封じこまれ，その結果として，人間の現実的存在感は希薄となっていく様相を呈していくこ ととなる。エドワード・カーペンターは，イギリス資本主義の「構造転換」に連動して，この希薄 化をめぐる危機的状況を強く意識することとなった。彼は，自己の内と外における「負」の側面を 見据える視点から共生思想を提起していったが，共同体再編の試論はその実践的な試みといえるの である。
Key wor ds:
Edwar d Ca r pent er , Cr i t i c i s m of Moder n Ci v i l z a t i on, Res t r uc t ur i ng Communi t y Spi r i t ua l Democ r a c y
執筆者の所属：人文学部・欧米文化学科 論文受理日２００６年１１月２７日
s oc i et y a nd i t s c ompos i t e gr oups , we c a n s ee t ha t i n t he pr ogr es s of moder n c i v i l i z a t i on, t her e i s a n a wa r enes s of da nger , of t hr ea t t o t he f ounda t i ons of s oc i a l l i f e.
The
pur pos e of t hi s pa per i s t o exa mi ne t he pi oneer i ng t hought on r es t r uc t ur i ng c ommuni t y ex- pounded by Edwa r d Ca r pent er ( 1844
～1929) . Ca r pent er exa mi ned t he pr obl ems oc c ur r i ng i n t he moder n c i v i l i z ed s oc i et y of Engl a nd, wher e moder ni z a t i on f i r s t bega n, a nd i s wi del y r ec ogni z ed t ha t t he f a c t or y bega n wi t h t he i ndus t r i a l r ev ol ut i on a nd i t i s a c knowl edged t ha t t he i ndus t r i a l r ev ol ut i on’ s t hr ea t of mec ha ni z a t i on a nd t he da nger of i nj ur y a nd dea t h c a us ed by mec ha ni z a t i on des t a bi l i z ed t he l a bor env i r onment .
Edwa
r d Ca r pent er t ook up t he pr obl em of s moke pol l ut i on i n Shef f i el d v er y ea r l y a nd c onduc t ed new pr a c t i c es t ha t wer e a i med a t r ec ov er i ng t he ha r mony of s oc i a l l i f e.
1)The a ge i n whi c h Edwa r d Ca r pent er l i v ed wa s one i n whi c h c l ouds ha d begun t o f or m ov er t he opt i mi s m pr ev i ous l y f el t a bout qua l i t a t i v e pr ogr es s i n t he r ea l i t y of huma n l i f e c ompa r ed t o t he a c c el er a t i on of f or wa r d pr ogr es s i n c i v i l i z a t i on’ s s i z e. I t wa s a t i me when t he c ha nge i n t he pa r a di gm of our exi s t enc e f r om a n open t o a c l os ed t hr ea d wa s begi nni ng t o r emov e t he i dea l of pr ogr es s f r om t he s t a ge. Huma ni s t i c na t ur e l os t i t s a bs ol ut e c ha r a c t er a nd ha d been r emov ed f r om t he huma n f eel i ngs of a n exi s t enc e i n r ea l i t y a nd t he huma n a s a bs ol ut e a nd t her e wa s no l onger a ny oppor t uni t y t o put t he br a kes on t hes e f eel i ngs ev en wi t hi n t he s el f .
Chapt er Ⅰ : The I nescapabl e Rel at i onshi p bet ween Man and Nat ur e
Hi
s t or i c a l l y , t he c onc ept of na t ur e ha s been i n c or r el a t i on wi t h t he s ens i bi l i t i es of ea c h pa s s i ng er a , a nd c l a s s i f i ed a s a n i ndi v i dua l s oc i a l c a t egor y . The c ur r ent nega t i v e a s pec t s of env i r onment a l des t r uc - t i on pr ov oked by t he domi na t i on of na t ur e t hr ough t ec hnol ogy ha s r a i s ed pr es ent et hi c a l a nd mor a l c ons c i enc e of peopl e wi t h r ega r d t o t hi s pr obl em. A ma n wel l a hea d of hi s t i me, Edwa r d Ca r pent er , bei ng a wa r e of t he i nes c a pa bl e r el a t i ons hi p bet ween ma n a nd na t ur e a nd s t r i v i ng t o a wa ken t hi s i n- na t e c ons c i enc e i n peopl e, a dv a nc ed a c r i t i que of moder n c i v i l i z a t i on i n a bi d t o i ns t i l l hi s v i ews on en- v i r onment a l pr obl ems i nt o c ont empor a r y s oc i et y .
The
ma i n t hr us t of hi s c r i t i c a l es s a y on moder n c i v i l i z a t i on wa s t he c l a s s i f i c a t i on of t wo mea ni ngs
f or di s ea s e a s a l os s of onenes s or a s a l os s of ha r mony . The f i r s t ma l a dy he def i ned a s bei ng br ought
on by t he wa s t i ng of one’ s c ons t i t ut i on by s oc i a l pa r a s i t i c gr oups , a nd t he s ec ond ma l a dy he des c r i bed
a s t he f a l l i ng f r om a s t a t e i n whi c h one i s f ul l y c ogni z a nt of hi s onenes s t o a s t a t e i n whi c h t hi s one-
nes s ha s di s a ppea r ed. Ai mi ng f or a r es t or a t i on of ha r mony f r om wi t hi n t he l a t t er s t a t e, Ca r pent er el u-
c i da t ed wha t t he ba s i s of l i f e i s , a nd exper i ment ed wi t h t he a i m of a c t ua l i z i ng a r ev ol ut i on i n l i f es t yl es
by under t a ki ng pr oduc t i on a c t i v i t i es i n ha r mony a nd i nt i ma t e c ommuni on wi t h na t ur e whi l e exper i - enc i ng na t ur e t ha t l a bor s t o i nt er wea v e na t ur e a nd l i f e‘ i nei na nder a r bei t en’ .
As
moder ni z a t i on mov ed f or wa r d, s oc i a l s ys t ems dev el oped a nd bec a me hi ghl y a dv a nc ed but t ha t a l s o t hr ea t ened t r a di t i ona l s oc i a l f ounda t i ons a nd ev en br ought on t he da nger of des t r oyi ng t hem.
The i ndi v i dua l huma n bei ng wa s bei ng s ea l ed wi t hi n a s et of hyper t r ophyi ng s oc i a l r el a t i ons t ha t r e- s ul t ed i n a di mi nut i on of t he f eel i ngs of r ea l i t y a s a huma n bei ng. Ca r pent er wa s s t r ongl y a wa r e of t he c r i s i s s ur r oundi ng t hi s di mi nut i on, es pec i a l l y i n i t s l i nks t o t he s t r uc t ur a l c ha nges oc c ur r i ng i n Br i t i s h c a pi t a l i s m. For Ca r pent er , i t wa s a t i me of ma ny di f f er ent t hought s a nd emot i ons . The pr obl ems of c i v i l i z a t i on bec a me t he t a s k a nd t heme of hi s ent i r e l i f e. I n a nd ext r emel y l i t er a r y f a s hi on, he bega n t o t a ke up t he mor e nega t i v e a s pec t s t ha t bel ong t o moder n c i v i l i z a t i on. Thr ough hi s t heor i es of s oc i a l ha r mony , s el f - r ea l i z a t i on a nd per f ec t i on of c ha r a c t er , he hel d t ha t onl y t he s oc i et y wi l l exi s t t ha t , f i r s t of a l l , r ec ogni z es t he ot her , t ha t ha s a n a wa r enes s of t he ot her , not j us t a r ec ogni t i on of t he l one i ndi v i dua l .
2)The
t el eol ogi c a l v i ew of r ega r ds na t ur e a s a c er t a i n t ype of ha r moni c or der ( c os mos ) a nd ma nki nd’ s c ul t ur a l a nd s oc i a l c onduc t i s ba s i c a l l y s ubs umed wi t hi n t ha t c os mos . The t r ue na t ur e of t hi ngs i s not a n a t t r i but e of s ome ot her s ubj ec t a nd t hi ngs t ha t a r e not wi t hi n s ome ot her s ubj ec t , a r e c ons i der ed t o be i ndi v i dua l s . An ent i t y c a nnot exi s t a pa r t f r om t he i ndi v i dua l . Ther ef or e, t he uni v er s a l exi s t s wi t hi n t he i ndi v i dua l . The uni v er s a l ma y not exi s t a pa r t f r om t he i ndi v i dua l . Uni v er s a l t hi ngs a nd i ndi - v i dua l t hi ngs a r e not s epa r a t ed a nd i n c onf l i c t , r a t her t he uni v er s a l exi s t s wi t hi n t he i ndi v i dua l , a nd i t i s t hr ough t hei r t r a ns f or ma t i on t ha t t he s el f i s r ea l i z ed.
Si
nc e t he a dv ent of t he moder n er a , a wa r enes s of hi s t or y ha s been ba s ed upon t r ends of pr ogr es s a nd gr owt h, i . e. , t he t i me s t r uc t ur e i s t hought of a s a v er t i c a l l y- di v i ded one. Howev er , c ha nge i n t he hi s t or y of r ea l i t y i n whi c h na t ur e i s i nc l uded t a kes pl a c e i n ext r emel y l ong, uni t s of 10, 000 or 100 mi l - l i on yea r s , a nd c a nnot a dequa t el y be depi c t ed l i nea r l y . I t t a kes t he f or m of a c ompos i t e body of hor i z ont a l l y- di v i ded a nd mul t i l a yer ed mea s ur es of t i me. An hi s t or i c a l a wa r enes s f ounded on t hes e mul t i l a yer ed mea s ur es of t i me l i es a t t he f ounda t i on of Ca r pent er ’ s c r i t i c i s m of c i v i l i z a t i on.
3)The
t wo ma j or v i ews of t he r el a t i ons hi p bet ween ma n a nd na t ur e a r e t he v i ew of na t ur e a s t el eol ogi - c a l , whi c h wa s t he r ul e f r om a nc i ent t i mes t hr ough t he mi ddl e a ges , a nd t he mec ha ni s t i c v i ew whi c h mec ha ni c a l l y c ombi nes na t ur e wi t h a f ounda t i on on whi c h s t a nd t he met hods a nd pr i nc i pl es of t he moder n na t ur a l s c i enc es . Fr om t he c r i t i c i s ms of t he v i ew of na t ur e i n t he moder n enl i ght enment , a r os e a t hi nki ng t ha t a i ms f or a r es t or a t i on of t he or ga ni c v i ew of na t ur e a nd s ees a new or ga ni c r el a - t i ons hi p bet ween ma n a nd na t ur e.
Ca
r pent er wa s not r et i c ent a bout hi s phi l os ophy or a bout t he i ma ge of huma n na t ur e der i v ed f r om
i t . Qui t e expl i c i t l y Ca r pent er r ef us ed t o s epa r a t e t he huma n r a c e f r om t he r es t of na t ur e. Ra t her t he whol e uni v er s e wa s a n expr es s i on of a pur pos i v e mys t i c a l ent i t y . Huma ni t y’ s r ol e i n t hi s s c heme wa s bot h pr odi ga l s on a nd s a v i or i ns i de na t ur e a nd yet a t t he s a me t i me c a pa bl e of v i ewi ng i t f r om t he out - s i de, huma n exper i enc e wa s t o be t he a genc y t hr ough whi c h t he c onnec t ednes s of t hi ngs wa s t o be c el ebr a t ed a nd t he s ha t t er ed whol enes s of t he c os mos t o be r ei nt egr a t ed.
Chapt er Ⅱ : Awar eness of ‘ t he I l l ness of t he Soci et y’
Ca
r pent er ’ s publ i s hi ng of Ci vi l i zat i on – I t s Caus e s and Cur e i n 1889, wa s a wa y a hea d of i t s t i mes i n i t s c r i t i c i s m of t he r a t i ona l e of Soc i a l Da r wi ni s m. He ha r s hl y c r i t i c i z es t he r i gi di t y c a us ed by t he c onc ent r a t i on of or ga ni z a t i on a nd a ut hor i t y , but r a t her t ha n empha s i z i ng t hi s c r i t i que i s muc h mor e i nt er es t ed i n t he gr owt h of a new huma ni t y c r ea t ed out of r es pec t t owa r d wor k a nd huma n bei ngs t ha t wi l l open up a hol e i n t he pr es ent s i t ua t i on a nd s ea r c hes f or wha t t ha t s houl d be l i ke. He wa s de- t er mi ned t o pr omot e l i f e’ s i nt er na l c r ea t i v e power s a s t he l i f e of t he c ommuni t y a nd t he a wa keni ng a nd gr owt h of t ha t a wa r enes s wa s mov i ng f or wa r d a s a medi um i nt er a c t i ng wi t h na t ur e.
Ca
r pent er ’ s whol e l i f e pr es ent ed a n open r ev ol t a ga i ns t t he i l l nes s of t he s oc i et y . The t wo r emedi es he s ugges t ed wer e t he c ommi ngl i ng of ‘ c l a s s es a nd ma s s es ’ a nd t he a dopt i on of t he na t ur a l modes of l i f e s t i l l pr ev a l ent , a s he t hought , a mong t he l a t t er . I n pur s ui t of t hes e a i ms he hi t upon t he i dea s of c ommuni t y , democ r a c y , a nd s i mpl i c i t y .
4)One
of t he Vi c t or i a n or t hodoxi es wa s a n opt i mi s t i c bel i ef i n s c i enc e a nd pr ogr es s , a nd Ca r pent er r e- v ol t ed a ga i ns t i nhuma ni t i es i nv ol v ed i n t hi s a l mos t bl i nd f a i t h i n ma n’ s ma s t er y ov er na t ur e. Hi s r e- v ol t , howev er , wa s s omewha t er r a t i c : di s i l l us i oned wi t h wha t he f el t t o be t he s ha ms of t he Es t a bl i s hed Chur c h, he t hr ew r el i gi on ov er boa r d, but he s oon f ound hi ms el f t or ment ed by t he c a l l ous - nes s of moder n s c i enc e. An ex- c ur a t e a nd a f or mer l ec t ur er on s c i ent i f i c s ubj ec t s , he a t l a s t endea v - or ed t o r ec onc i l e r el i gi on a nd s c i enc e. Ca r pent er ’ s s ev er e c r i t i c i s m a ga i ns t t he Vi c t or i a n or t hodoxi es , wr i t es Edwa r d Thomps on, wa s ‘ expr es s ed i n a n i ndi v i dua l i s t i c f or m’ .
5)Per ha ps i t woul d be mor e a c c u- r a t e t o c a l l hi s r ev ol t per s ona l t ha n i ndi v i dua l i s t i c . I t or i gi na t ed f r om hi s s ens e of a l i ena t i on, a nd t ook t he f or m of a n ef f or t t o c onquer hi s own i s ol a t i on a nd s el f - c ons c i ous nes s a nd t o r es t or e hea l t h a nd uni t y t o hi s per s ona l i t y . Henc e a r os e hi s s t r ong des i r e f or per s ona l c ont a c t s , f or f r i ends hi p, f el l ows hi p, a nd c omr a des hi p, whi c h wa s not onl y whol e- hea r t ed but ‘ whol e- bodi es ’ .
6)Ca
r pent er r ega r ded moder n c a pi t a l i s t i c c i v i l i z a t i on a s s oc i a l l y a nd mor a l l y di s ea s ed. Si c knes s a r i s es
f r om t he l os s of t he phys i c a l uni t y t ha t ma kes up hea l t h a nd t he r es ul t t her e i s a c onf l i c t bet ween t he
s epa r a t e pa r t s or a f r i c t i on bet ween t he or ga ns or a gr owi ng a bnor ma l i t y of t hos e or ga ns , or t he or ga n-
i s m wea r s out . I n c ont r a s t t o t hi s , our l i v es i n moder n s oc i et y of t he uni f i c a t i on t ha t f or ms t r ue s oc i e- t y , a r e l os t , a nd i n t hei r pl a c e a r i s es a c onf l i c t bet ween c l a s s es or bet ween i ndi v i dua l s , t her e i s a bnor ma l dev el opment of a l l t hi ngs t ha t v i ol a t e t he ot her , a nd t her e i s a l a r ge number of gr oups who a r e pa r a s i t es on s oc i et y . Thi s i s s een a s a s i c knes s t ha t ev er y t ype of gr oup mus t get .
I
n The He al i ng of Nat i ons and t he Hi dde n Sour c e s of The i r St r i f e , publ i s hed i n 1915, Ca r pent er us es phr a s e “ c l a s s di s ea s e” , t o s a y t ha t when one c l a s s does not a c t i n a c c or da nc e wi t h t he i nt er es t s of t he whol e, t a ki ng ov er gov er nment a ut hor i t y a nd s eeki ng onl y i t s own i nt er es t s a nd a dv a nt a ges , i t bec omes a pa r a s i t i c body a nd t he s t a t e mus t of nec es s i t y bec ome i l l .
7)He
poi nt s out t ha t when t he huma n body does not s uppl y t he needs i t r equi r es i n i t s ent i r et y , t he pa r t bec ome a pa r a s i t e on t he ent i r e s t r uc t ur e, a nd ent er s a n a bs ol ut i s t s ol ut i on. He r ega r ded t ha t a s t he t r ue s t a t e of i l l nes s . Ca r pent er poi nt s out t ha t a n i l l nes s of s oc i et y i s t he s a me a s a n i l l nes s i n t he huma n body , t ha t t her e i s a pl under i ng c l a s s a nd a s t a t e of pa r a s i t i s m, i n ot her wor ds , a l os s of ha r mo- ny , r es ul t i ng i n ps yc hol ogi c a l di s ea s e.
8)“
I t hi nk i t ma y per ha ps be a gr eed, onc e f or a l l , t ha t t he huma n mi nd i s i nc a pa bl e of r ea l l y def i ni ng ev en t he s ma l l es t f a c t of na t ur e. The s i mpl es t t hi ng, or ev ent , ba f f l es us a t t he l a s t . I t i s l i ke t r yi ng t o l ook a t t he f r ont a nd ba c k of a mi r r or a t t he s a me t i me. The ut mos t s qui nt i ng a v a i l s not . The ego a nd t he non- ego da nc e el udi ng t hr ough c r ea t i on. To c a t c h t hem bot h i n a ny mor t a l obj ec t a nd pi n t hem t her e, s ur pa s s es our power s . ”
9)He a l s o c r i t i c i z ed t he gr owt h of bur ea uc r a c y i n Towar d I ndus t r i al Fr e e dom.
“
Mos t peopl e a gr ee nowa da ys i n t he v i ew t ha t t he gr owt h of bur ea uc r a c y a nd of f i c i a l i s m i n t he mod- er n s t a t e i s a s er i ous ev i l , a nd t ha t t he ext ens i on of t he gov er nment i nt er f er enc e a nd t he mul t i pl i c a - t i on of l a ws a r e a gr ea t da nger . We a l l know t ha t t he i ns t i t ut i on of t he l a w a nd t he c our t s a c t ua l l y c r ea t es a nd gi v es r i s e t o huge ma s s es of ev i l
─br i ber y , bl a c kma i l , per j ur y . . . ”
10)“ We ha v e t o r ea l i z e t ha t our pr es ent s oc i a l f or ms a r e a s ugl y a nd i nhuma n a s a c l ub f oot ; a nd t hen we s ha l l begi n t o r ea l - i z e how l i t t l e nec es s a r y a r e t hes e i ns t i t ut i ons , l i ke l a w a nd pol i c e, whos e c hi ef c onc er n a nd of f i c e i s t o r et a i n a nd def end t hes e f or ms . The c hi ef di f f i c ul t y , t hen, whi c h a r i s es i n peopl e’ s mi nds a t t he t hought of a f r ee non gov er nment a l s oc i et y does not c onc er n i t s des i r a bi l i t y
─t hey a r e a gr eed a s a r ul e t ha t i t woul d be des i r a bl e
─but c onc er ns i t s pr a c t i c a bi l i t y . ”
11)The wea r i ng down of t he s t r uc t ur e by t hes e s oc i a l pa r a s i t e gr oups i nev i t a bl y r es ul t s i n ma ny di f f er ent ki nds of a bnor ma l dev el opment t ha t i nc l ude s t r i f e bet ween i ndi v i dua l s a nd v i ol a t i ons of t he ot her .
Hi
ndma n c r i t i c i z es Ca r pent er ’ s t heor y of c i v i l i z a t i on a s not hi ng mor e t ha n a nd expa ns i on of t he He-
gel i a n t heor y of hi s t or i c a l dev el opment , mov i ng f r om uni f i c a t i on t o di s s ol ut i on a nd t hen t o a hi gher
s t a ge of uni f i c a t i on. The gr oup r epor t of t ha t da ys s a ys t ha t Mr . Hi ndma n c r i t i c i z es wi t h s t r ong l a ngu-
a ge a t heor y t ha t t he ba r ba r i a n ha d f ew i l l nes s es c ompa r ed wi t h t oda y’ s huma n bei ng a nd t ha t t he moder n ma n i s s t r onger a nd t ougher t ha n t he ba r ba r i a n. We c a n s ee i n Hi ndma n’ s r ebut t a l a c r i t i c i s m of Ca r pent er t ha t i s , f i r s t of a l l , a mi s under s t a ndi ng of Hegel i a n phi l os ophy . And, s ec ondl y , f r om t he r ea c t i on t o t he us e of t he wor d ba r ba r i a n t ha t i s pl a c ed i n oppos i t i on t o ‘ c i v i l i z a t i on’ , i t i s a t ot a l deni a l of t he phi l os ophy of pr ogr es s i v e dev el opment . Ther e wer e a l s o r ea c t i ons t o Ca r pent er ’ s ba s i c i nt en- t i on bec a us e t hey di d not under s t a nd i t , a nd t hos e c r i t i c i s ms c a me f r om wi t hi n t he mov ement f or s o- c i a l enl i ght enment of t ha t t i me, t hey bel i ev ed i n t he c ons t a nt pr ogr es s of s c i ent i f i c c i v i l i z a t i on a nd t hey i ndi c a t e one s i de of t he s i t ua t i on i n whi c h s c i ent i f i c c i v i l i z a t i on a nd t he pr ogr es s of t he i nt el l ec t wer e s ynonymous .
Chapt er Ⅲ : The Foundat i on of t he Cooper at i ve Soci et y
The
c ommuna l i t y of wor k ha s now been l os t , wor k i s us ed by t he pr oduc t i on s ys t em i n s epa r a t e a nd i s ol a t ed uni t s , a nd we s ee t ha t t he r es ul t i s t he huma n bei ng i t s el f bec omi ng a n i s ol a t ed ent i t y wi t hi n wor k. Ma n a nd wor k a r e i s ol a t ed t he t hi n t ha t c onnec t s wor k of t he huma n bei ng i s t he pr oduc - t i on s ys t em, t he mer c ha ndi s e ec onomy , t he s oc i et y . A s i t ua t i on wher e c ommuni t y bet ween i ndi v i du- a l s a nd di r ec t r el a t i ons hi ps a r e l os t , i s a s i t ua t i on i n whi c h ea c h a nd ev er y huma n bei ng l i v es i n i s ol a t i on. The c onnec t i ons bet ween i ndi v i dua l huma ns a r e c r ea t ed a s s epa r a t ed a nd i s ol a t ed s ys t ems .
Car pent er exper i enc ed t he f r i c t i on of t r a di t i ona l Br i t i s h s oc i et y a nd di s c us s ed t he da nger of s i t ua - t i on i n whi c h s oc i a l , a s wel l a s pol i t i c a l , t yr a nny s ev er el y t hr ea t ens i ndi v i dua l f r eedom. “ The ev i l
─huge a nd mons t r ous a s i t i s
─i s not s ens el es s , one ma y f eel s ur e. Ev en now her e i n Engl a nd one per - c ei v es a n ext r a or di na r y pul l i ng t oget her a nd br a c i ng up of t he peopl e, a dev el opment of s ol i da r i t y a nd mut ua l hel pf ul nes s , a gr ea t er s er i ous nes s , a nd di s r ega r di ng of a r t i f i c i a l i t i es , whi c h a r e a l l t o t he good.
Thes e t hi ngs a r e ga i ns , ev en t hough t he wa y of t hei r ma ni f es t a t i on i s t hr ough muc h of enmi t y a nd i g- nor a nc e. And one ma y f a i r l y s uppos e t ha t s i mi l a r r es ul t s a r e t r a c ea bl e i n t he ot her na t i ons c onc er ned.
Wounds a nd dea t h ma y s eem s ens el es s a nd needl es s , but t hos e who s uf f er t hem do not s uf f er i n v a i n.
Al l t hes e s ha t t er i ng exper i enc es , whet her i n a na t i on’ s c a r eer or i n t he c a r eer of a n i ndi v i dua l , c a us e one
─t hey f or c e one
─t o l ook i nt o t he ba s es of l i f e a nd t o get nea r er i t s r ea l i t i es . ”
12)Thi
s i s a wa r ni ng f r om wi t hi n a ga i ns t t he t ype of beha v i or t ha t gov er ns t he mi ddl e c l a s s i n moder n
c i v i l s oc i et y a nd i s t he expr es s i on of a des i r e f or a r ea l i s t i c mode f or c ons c i ent i ous f r eedom of
t hought . Ca r pent er wa s keenl y a wa r e t ha t na t ur e wa s ent er i ng a c r i t i c a l s t a t e, a nd he ques t i oned t he
one- di mens i ona l na t ur e of t hi s i dea l of pr ogr es s i n t he f or wa r d t hr us t of moder ni z a t i on. When t he ex-
i s t enc e of t he s el f , or t he ba s i s f or t ha t exi s t enc e, i s s ha ken or t hr ea t ened, peopl e l ook i nt o i nt er na l
a nd ext er na l na t ur e, a t t empt i ng t o ga z e s t ea di l y i nt o t he dept hs i n a s ea r c h f or s omet hi ng c onc r et e.
When t he ba s i s or t he c ondi t i ons of r ea l i t y a r e s ha ken, or t her e a r e s i gns t ha t ba s i s wi l l be t hr ea t ened, na t ur e t oo begi ns t o s how el ement s of da nger . The obj ec t i f yi ng of na t ur e ha s been a c ent r a l t a s k i n di s c ov er i ng t he unknown el ement s , a nd t he a ppea r a nc e of el ement s of da nger c ha nges t he c ent r a l t a s k i nt o one of c l a r i f yi ng t he s t r uc t ur e of t he c ompos i t e body of known el ement s .
We
huma n bei ngs do not s i mpl y l i v e wi t hi n gr oups we ha v e c r ea t ed, we l i v e i n c ompl ex a nd i nt r i - c a t e s et s of r el a t i ons hi ps
─t hei r pa t t er n ha v i ng no pa r t i c ul a r l y ma nda t or y c ha r a c t er
─wi t h ma ny di f - f er ent a s pec t s t he mos t i mpor t a nt of t hem bei ng l a ngua ge. Na t ur e ha s by t hi s poi nt bec ome a mea ns of pr oduc t i on i n t hes e r el a t i ons hi ps , a nd i n t he s a me wa y t ha t t he r el a t i on bet ween ma n a nd na t ur e c a n no l onger be s een i n wor k, t he r el a t i ons hi ps bet ween huma n bei ngs ha v e bec ome r el a t i ons hi ps of a l i ena t i on a nd mer e mea ns of pr oduc t i on. Peopl e ga t her t oget her s ol el y a c c or di ng t o t he r equi r e- ment s f or pr oduc t i on a nd t hey a r e mer el y pl a c ed i n t hos e r el a t i ons hi ps . No s ens e of c ommuni t y ex- i s t s bet ween huma n bei ngs . The pr oduc t i v e s ys t em i s t he ma i n ent i t y , a nd peopl e ha v e been ga t her ed t oget her onl y a s a mea ns f or t ha t pr oduc t i on. Peopl e s c a t t er a bout wi t h no s ens e of uni t y bec a us e wor k i s a mea ns of t he pr oduc t i on s ys t em. And t hey a r e us ed i ndi s c r i mi na t el y a s mea ns of t he pr oduc - t i on s ys t em.
Ca r pent er s a i d i n Towar ds I ndus t r i al Fr e e dom, “ Thus i t wi l l be obs er v ed t ha t wher ea s t he pr es ent s oc i et y i s f ounded on a l a w- enf or c ed s ys t em of pr i v a t e pr oper t y , i n whi c h, a l mos t nec es s a r i l y , t he c ov - et ous ha r d t ype of ma n bec omes t he l a r ge pr opr i et or a nd i s ena bl ed t o pr ey upon t he s ma l l one; a nd wher ea s t he r es ul t of t hi s a r r a ngement i s a bi t t er a nd c ont i nuous s t r uggl e f or pos s es s i on, i n whi c h t he mot i v e t o a c t i v i t y i s ma i nl y f ea r . We on t he c ont r a r y , a r e di s ent a ngl i ng a c onc ept i on of a s oc i et y i n whi c h pr i v a t e pr oper t y i s s uppor t ed by no a ppa r a t us of a r med a ut hor i t y , but a s f a r a s i t exi s t s i s a per - f ec t l y s pont a neous a r r a ngement . The ma i n mot i v es t o a c t i v i t y a r e nei t her f ea r nor gr eed of ga i n, but r a t her c ommuni t y of l i f e a nd i nt er es t i n l i f e. ”
13)As
moder ni z a t i on mov ed f or wa r d, s oc i a l s ys t ems dev el oped a nd bec a me hi ghl y a dv a nc ed but t ha t a l s o t hr ea t ened t r a di t i ona l s oc i a l f ounda t i ons a nd ev en br ought on t he da nger of des t r oyi ng t hem.
The i ndi v i dua l huma n bei ng wa s bei ng s ea l ed wi t hi n a s et of hyper t r ophyi ng s oc i a l r el a t i ons t ha t r e- s ul t ed i n a di mi nut i on of t he f eel i ngs of r ea l i t y a s a huma n bei ng. Ca r pent er wa s s t r ongl y a wa r e of t he c r i s i s s ur r oundi ng t hi s di mi nut i on, es pec i a l l y i n i t s l i nks t o t he s t r uc t ur a l c ha nges oc c ur r i ng i n Br i t i s h c a pi t a l i s m.
The
pi oneer s f r om t he begi nni ng of t he 19t h c ent ur y on who woul d i nf l uenc e Ca r pent er a t t empt ed
t o us e t hi s model t o t es t t he c onc r et enes s of c oexi s t enc e of di v er s i t y a mong peopl e. Si nc e t he s t a r t of
t he i ndus t r i a l r ev ol ut i on, t he peopl e who ha d ma de t hos e a t t empt s wer e a wa r e of t he pos i t i v e a nd
nega t i v e a s pec t s of t he mec ha ni s m of ma c hi ne a nd mec ha ni z ed i ndus t r y , t he f a c t or t ha t mos t r egu- l a t es moder n i ndus t r i a l s oc i et y . They wer e a wa r e t ha t a c c or di ng t o t he wa y i n whi c h s c i enc e a nd t ec h- nol ogy wer e us ed ei t her t he gr ea t es t ha ppi nes s or t he gr ea t es t mi s er y woul d be br ought t o ma nki nd, a nd t hey c onc ei v ed a wor l d i n whi c h t he unl i mi t ed pr ogr es s of s c i enc e a nd t ec hnol ogy t hr ough t he i n- dus t r i a l r ev ol ut i on woul d es t a bl i s h bot h ha ppi nes s a nd good f or t une f or a l l huma n bei ngs . I n Towar d De moc r ac y , c ent r a l t heme i s t ha t t he f or wa r d pr ogr es s of democ r a c y i s a j us t a nd r i ght eous c a us e of t he c ommon ma n. The c ommon ma n of whi c h Ca r pent er s pea ks i s not t he gr oup, t he gr eat mas s of peopl e, but t he i ndi vi dual , each of whi ch has a hol y s el f . He bor r ows Rus ki n’ s wor ds and s ays t hat i f you t ake i nt er es t on money wi l l you l os e i nt er es t i n l i f e? Car pent er devot es a gr eat deal of hi s at - t ent i on t o t he r oot s of t he i ndi vi dual human s oul and s ays t hat equal i t y i s a t ool wi t h whi ch t he i ndi - vi dual human bei ng gai ns knowl edge of s el f .
The bui l di ng of a s i mpl e or gani z at i on r oot ed i n l i f e i s , accor di ng t o Car pent er , t aki ng t he i ni t i at i ve i n bui l di ng a cont empor ar y net wor k. “ I can s ee onl y one ul t i mat e way out of t he mor as s i n whi ch we ar e engul f ed. The pr es ent commer ci al s ys t em wi l l have t o go, and t her e wi l l have t o be a r et ur n t o t he much s i mpl er s ys t ems of co- oper at i on bel ongi ng t o a bygone age. . . . . . To t hat condi t i on, or s ome- t hi ng ver y l i ke i t , I am convi nced we s hal l have t o r et ur n i f s oci et y i s t o s ur vi ve. I s ay t hi s af t er a l ong and cl os e obs er vat i on of l i f e i n many phas es . . . . . . Thi s i s what t he mi ner s , I t hi nk, i n a di m, s ub- cons ci ous way , have al r eady per cei ved, f or t hey r et ai n i n t hei r mi nds much of t he pr i mi t i ve ment al - i t y of pr e- ci vi l i z at i on days . ”
14)Car pent er s eeks not j us t a pol i t i cal democr acy but al s o a democr acy of i ndi vi dual emot i on and he at t empt s t o make i t s pr act i cal appl i cat i on a r eal i t y . He t akes t he pat t er n f or l i vi ng as a human bei ng as t he f oundat i on of hi s t hought and, bas ed on t hat , devel ops a cr i t i ci s m of cont empor ar y ci vi l i z a- t i on under capi t al i s m. The l os s of har mony i n t he moder n s oci et y , as he i s awar e, i ndi cat es al i ena- t i on f r om nat ur e, t he s el f and common man. He at t empt s a pr act i cal means f or a r api d r ecover y of har mony becaus e he i s awar e f r om hi s own l i f e s t yl e and s ens i t i vi t y of t he dept h of t hat al i enat i on.
An or i ent at i on t owar d t r ue f r eedom and equal i t y , whi ch i s t he f oundat i on, i ndi cat es a uni ver s al hu- man t as k t hat goes beyond s t at es and nat i ons and beyond Eas t and Wes t .
Ca
r pent er f i xes t he s t r uc t ur e of c ent r a l i z ed a ut hor i t y , a nd r ega r ds t he s ys t em of t he ef f i c i ent s oc i -
et y i n whi c h onl y t hi ngs t ha t a r e us ef ul a r e pr opel l ed f or wa r d, a s a n ext er na l s ki n t ha t wi l l ev ent ua l l y
peel of f . He s a ys t ha t he i s s ea r c hi ng f or t he s ec r et of s oc i et y’ s exi s t enc e, a nd t hi nks t ha t , a s f a r a s s o-
c i a l ev ol ut i on i s c onc er ned, s oc i et y wi l l pr ogr es s by t a ki ng of f a nd t hi nks t ha t , a s f a r a s s oc i a l ev ol u-
t i on i s c onc er ned, s oc i et y wi l l pr ogr es s by t a ki ng of f a nd t hr owi ng a wa y out of nec es s i t y t hi s ext er na l
s ki n t ha t i t i s f i t t ed wi t h, a nd a s f or s oc i a l pr ogr es s , t ha t we mus t c ons t a nt l y c ondemn t he obs t a c l es
c r ea t ed by t he f r eez i ng of t he exi s t i ng l ega l s ys t em.
Concl usi on
Ca
r pent er ’ s c onc ept of c ompl et e r ec ov er y i s not a s i mpl e ut opi a n c onc ept of c r i s i s r ec ov er y , i t i s a wa y of c r i t i c a l l y dea l i ng wi t h t he r ea l i t i es of s t a t i s m a nd a bs ol ut i s m a nd a l l of i t s phi l os ophi c a l under - pi nni ngs . I t t a kes f a c t a s f a c t a nd i s a pr oduc t of na t ur e a nd r ea s on t ha t i s s uppor t ed by ps yc hol ogy t ha t i s i n l i ne wi t h a nd does not depa r t f r om t he f a c t s . Ca r pent er ’ s pr a c t i c a l i t y l i es i n t he es t a bl i s h- ment of a t ot a l r ec ov er y of huma ni s t i c na t ur e i n a s t a t e ha r moni ous wi t h s oc i et a l na t ur e. The s oc i a l r ef or ma t i ons t ha t gua r a nt ees t he r ec ov er y i s t hen put i nt o pr a c t i c e us i ng a c ooper a t i v e t hought t ha t i nc or por a t es na t ur e a s i t s ba s e.
Thi
s t heor y of a c ooper a t i v e s oc i et y r emov es t he s t a t e, a s uper f i c i a l i t y s t a ndi ng i n a n a r t i f i c i a l , r ul - i ng pos i t i on, a nd ma kes mos t i mpor t a nt t he wa y i n whi c h t he na t ur a l a nd l i f e di mens i ons t ha t a r e ba s ed on t he huma n bei ng exi s t . I n r ea l i t y , t he s t a t e t ha t r ul es a l l s oc i a l r el a t i ons hi ps ba s ed on i t s s u- per i or i t y i s , or i gi na l l y , not hi ng mor e t ha n a n ent i t y t ha t t a kes c a r e of one of t he f unc t i ons i n s oc i a l l y or ga ni c r el a t i ons hi ps . Ther ef or e, t hi s i s a t heor y of s oc i a l ha r mony r educ es t he r ul i ng c ha r a c t er i s t i c s of t he s t a t e i t s el f i nt o t hos e of a one f unc t i on ent i t y a nd c r ea t es c ooper a t i v e r el a t i ons hi ps a bov e t hem.
Not es
１）I
n Ma y 1889 Ca r pent er s t a r t ed a c r us a de a ga i ns t a i r pol l ut i on or t he ‘ s moke nui s a nc e’ , a s he c a l l ed i t , t ha t ma de Shef f i el d ‘ a by- wor d. . .
t
hr oughout t he c i v i l i z ed wor l d’ . A l et t er he wr ot e on t he s ubj ec t t o t he She f f i e l d I nde pe nde nt a t t r a c t ed wi de a t t ent i on.
Rec
ur r i ng epi demi c s ea r l i er i n t he c ent ur y ha d f or c ed publ i c a t t ent i on t o t he ques t i on of t he pol l ut i on of r i v er s a nd s t r ea ms wi t h t he r ef us e of c i t i es , but a i r pol l ut i on whi c h wa s ‘ equa l l y i ns a ne’ r ema i ned l a r gel y negl ec t ed. I t i s t r ue t ha t Smoke Aba t ement Exhi bi t i ons wer e hel d i n 1881a nd 1882, but i t wa s onl y a f t er t he publ i c a t i on of Ca r pent er ’ s l et t er s t ha t t he i s s ue wa s r ev i v ed, a nd s ev er a l Smoke Aba t ement As s oc i a t i ons i n t he nor t her t owns bec a me a c t i v el y enga ged i n pr omot i ng t he us e of s moke- pr ev ent i ng a ppl i a nc es .
Chus
hi c hi Ts uz uki , Edwar d Car pe nt e r 1844- 1929, Pr ophe t of Human Fe l l ows hi p , Ca mbr i dge Uni - v er s i t y Pr es s , 1980, pp. 83
～84
２）The
r a pi d i nc r ea s e i n ur ba n popul a t i on i n t he t wo c ent ur i es s i nc e t he begi nni ng of t he I ndus t r i a l Rev o-
l ut i on ha s been poi nt ed out a s a wor l d wi de phenomenon, a nd t he exa mpl es of c ha nge i n popul a t i on of
Br i t i s h I ndus t r i a l c i t i es a nd of wor l d popul a t i on t r ends a f t er t he I ndus t r i a l Rev ol ut i on c l ea r l y s hows t ha t
ma nki nd ha s di r ec t ed i t s el f t owa r d t he c i t i es a nd c ons t a nt l y ga t her ed i n t hem. Popul a t i on c onc ent r a t i on
ha s gr ea t l y c ha nged ur ba n c ondi t i ons . Thi s ha s pr oduc ed t wo ma j or ki nds of s oc i a l pr obl ems : ur ba n pr ob-
l ems s uc h a s l a c k of s a ni t a t i on, c r i me a nd del i nquenc y; a nd env i r onment a l pr obl ems s uc h a s a i r , wa t er
a nd noi s e pol l ut i on, bot h of t he wor ki ng t o r ei nf or c e a nd wor s en ea c h ot her a nd t o ha v e ma j or ef f ec t s on
t he l ower c l a s s es of t he c i t y .
３）The
per s on who ha d a s t r ong i nf l uenc e on Ca r pent er i n l i ght of t he i nt er na l a ngui s h wa s Wa l t Whi t ma n.
I t wa s dur i ng hi s da ys a t Ca mbr i dge t ha t Ca r pent er c a me a c r os s Whi t ma n’ s poem, “ Suppor t of t he Hea r t ” . The f i r s t of t he poems t ha t he r ea d wa s Whi t ma n’ s “ Lea v es of Gr a s s ” , whi c h c omf or t ed hi m a nd ga v e hi m enc our a gement , but t he “ Democ r a t i c Vi s t a s ” t ha t Whi t ma n ha d publ i s hed i n 1871 ga v e hi m t he i mpa c t t o hi nd t he “ Vei n f or New Thought ” .
４）Chus
hi c hi Ts uz uki , op. c i t . , p. 2
５）E.
P . Thomps on, Wi l l i a m Mor r i s , Roma nt i c t o Rev ol ut i ona r y ( 1977ed. ) p. 290
６）Chushi c hi Ts uz uki , op. c i t . , p. 3
７）Edwa
r d Ca r pent er , T he He al i ng of Nat i ons , and t he Hi dde n Sour c e s of t he i r St r i f e , London, 1915, p. 5
８）I
bi d. , p. 11
９）Edwa
r d Ca r pent er , Ci vi l i zat i on: I t s Caus e and Cur e , London, 1889, p. 181
１０）Edwar d Ca r pent er , Towar ds I ndus t r i al Fr e e dom, London, 1917, p. 76
１１）I bi d, p. 77
１２）Edwa
r d Ca r pent er , The He al i ng of Nat i ons , and t he Hi dde n Sour c e s of t he i r St r i f e , London, 1915, pp. 9
～10
１３）Edwa
r d Ca r pent er , Towar ds I ndus t r i al Fr e e dom, pp. 87- 88
１４）Edwa
