MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF CAMBODIA
著者(英) Sam‑Ang Sam
journal or
publication title
Senri Ethnological Reports
volume 29
page range 1‑162
year 2002‑03‑29
URL http://doi.org/10.15021/00002033
Senri Ethnological Reports 29
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF
CAMBODIA
SAM‑ANG SAM
National Museum ofEthnology
Osaka 2002
PREFACE
()lill[]b/rgda,V'/lg,:rrl8.n./1!n,tjs:aSdim:i;,{;.:hc:/1'i.ge:mXMgie.!.t3,il,IEes,:,g,li//nrm,st,ii‑.i/1.na,tyCa:rga.",Edsstililia¥:ne,dt'.
Cambodia. Second, they have been treated extensively elsewhere in works on European musical instruments. Reflecting on this, this book should be more appropriately entitled Traditional Musical Instruments of Cambodia. But, I choose to drop the word
"Traditional."
Up until the present, there are three manuscripts, which treat single musical instruments ofCambodia at length. Yet, they have not been published nor have they been seen or read by anyone but a few with whom the manuscripts are shared by the authors. One manuscript on the khsae muay (musical bow or monochord) and another on a complete spectrum of musical instruments in Cambodia entitled "Heritage of Khmer Music" are authored by Narom Keo. There is another research project
conducted in the refugee camp (Site II), along the Khmer‑Thai borders, in the early 1 990s under the guidance ofmy late brother Yang Sam, on the tror Khmer or tror khsae bay (three‑stringed spike fiddle) by Sambath Sok. In 1994,I was introduced to two more works on musical instruments of Cambodia, one authored by Sarin Hun (unpublished) and another entitled Traditional Musical Instruments of Cambodia published by the UNESCO (1 994). Otherwise, musical instruments ofCambodia have been treated as part of a body of works on other topics than musical instruments specifica}ly (Mao ( 1 998), Mao (1 996), Yun (l 995), Sam and Campbell (1 991 ), Giuriati (1988), Sam (1988), Traditional Music of Cambodia (1987), Cravath (1985), Pich (1970), Musique Khmere (l969), and de Gironcourt (1942)).
This book attempts at providing a spectrum of musical instruments of Cambodia, whether or not they belong to the Khmer or the various nationalities (minority ethnic groups) in Cambodia. It also intends to put the instruments in question in an organological perspective. The latter is indeed a preliminary and first time ever attempt to undertake such a study on musical instruments ofCambodia. The study will examine both the world view and practice oforganology versus the Khmer perspective on organology as it has been practiced by Khmer musicians,
I include in this work sixty‑five musical instruments and thirteen music ensembles. They are the most prominent and used today. When talking about musical instruments ofCambodia, I refer to those man‑made objects consciously intended to be musical instruments. Thus, "voice," for example, is not included here. They are to make "music" and to be used in ensembles or as solo instruments. They are not made to be children toys, and because they make sounds, one might consider them "musical instruments." This is a debatable topic, which needs a special attention on its own.
iii
iV Musical Instruments ofCambodia
Researchers, who have read literature on musical instruments of Cambodia, should have noticed that there has not been a standard in terms of instrument sizes, as instruments in Cambodia are hand‑made and there has not been a standardized system as to what size an instrument should be made. Measurements provided in this book are actual and taken from instruments of my own collection, instruments belonging to Khmer musicians in the United States, instruments at the Royal University ofFine Arts in Phnom Penh, and instruments in the collection ofthe National Museum ofEthnology in Osaka, Japan.
I use my own devised system ofRomanization ofKhmer vvords (in italics). All fbreign words appear in italics throughout. Titles, proper names, and place names appear with initial capital letters. These foreign words appear only in the singuiar form in both the singular and plural contexts.
I prefer the word "Khmer" over "Cambodian." Ifthe latter appears in the text of this book, it is a word used in the original quote or title of a work that I use as reference.
The variegation ofspelling is not a typography, but because it is used that way by different authors in their original works, i.e., grap (7lrrapLpV, ranat froneaij, khong wong (korng vung), khim (khimnij, pinpeat CPinnpeaij, bassac (basaklt), Arab (Arabb), Mon (Morn), phnom (phnomm), Angkor Wat (Angkor Vatt), and Ayutthaya (Ayuth aya).
All photographs in this book belong to the author, except when they are indicated otherwise. I extend my appreciation to Sam Ath Nguon for providing me with the photographs numbers 7, 24, 29, 52, and 55. Lastly,Iwould like to thank Sothira Hav for her kindness and time reading my manuscripts.
January 16, 2002 Sam‑Ang Sam National Museum of Ethnology, Osaka
TABLEOFCONTENTS
PREFACE ...･･････････････‑･･･'''''''''‑'‑‑‑'̀̀'''̀'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' iii
LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS AND ILLUSTRATIONS ... vii
ROMANIZATION OF KHMER WORDS: A TRANSCRJPTION SYSTEM ... ix
CHAPTER 1: A BRIEF HISTORY OF CAMBODIA ... 1
CHAPTER 2: MUSIC OF CAMBODIA ... 5
Tuning System‑Scale‑Mode‑Metabole‑Tempo and Rhythm‑ Composition‑Score and Notation CHAPTER 3: MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF CAMBODIA ..,...,... 17
Aerophones‑Chordophones‑ldiophones‑Membranophones CHAPTER 4: AEROPHONES ...,... 25
Circular Breathing CHAPTER 5: CHORDOPHONES ...,,... 43
CHAPTER 6: IDIOPHONES ...,... 67
CHAPTER 7: MEMBRANOPHONES ... 95
CHAPTER 8i ORGANOLOGY ,..,... 113
Beyond Hornbostel and Sachs Greek‑Chinese‑Indonesian‑African and Arabian‑Indian‑Khmer CHAPTER 9: MUSIC ENSEMBLES OF CAMBODIA ... 143
Vung Phleng Arakk‑ Vung Phleng Kar‑ Vung Phleng Pinn Peat‑ Vung Phleng Mbhori‑Vung Phleng Korng Skor‑Vlring Phleng Pey Keo‑
Vung Phleng Skor Chhneah‑ Vung Phleng Pradall‑ Vung Phleng Yike‑
Vung Phleng Basakk‑Vung Phleng Ayai‑Vung Phleng Chrieng Chape" Vung Phleng Ken
v
vi
CONCLUSION ...
REFERENCES CITED . . . .
Musical Instruments pfCambodia
.‑..""""..HH""..."H."153
""""...‑..."..."".."." 155
LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS AND ILLUSTRATIONS
L
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
1O.
IL
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26, 27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33, 34.
35.
36.
Saing.,...26
KhloyAek...28
Snaeng...29
PeyPork...3O RIep...31
Play.,,...32
Ken...,...,,...33
PeyPrabauh...,.34
SralaiCarving at Angkor Vatt ...,... 36
Sralai 7"buch ...‑･ 37
Sralai 7HIPiomm ... 37
SralaiChvea...38
Angkuoch (Made ofBamboo) ...,... 40
Angkuoch (Made ofMetal) ,,,...,...,...,...,...,... 40
Slekk...41
Pinn Carving at Bayon ...,,,,,... 44
Memm Carving at Bayon ...･‑‑･･. 46
Khsae Mitay Carving at Bayon ...,... 48
Khsae Mbeay ... 49
b'or Chhe ... 51
Tror So 7lauch ... 52
Tror So Thomm ..,...,,,...,,... 53
Tror Ou ,..,,..,...,... 54
7>"or Ou Chamhieng ... 55
Tror Thomm ... 56
7>"or Khmer ...,... 58
Chapelv Dang Veng ... 60
Khimm Tlauch ... 62
Khimm 77iomm ... 62
Krapeu...63
Anthuot...64
Korng Ring ... 65
RoneatAek...70
Roneat 71hung ...,... 71
RoneatDaek...72
Korng Carving at Angkor Vatt ... 74
vii
Viii
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
Musical Instruments ofCambodia
Khmuoh...,...,.,...75
KorngChhmol...76
Korng Mong ...,... 77
Korng?Vhi,....,...78
PeatCarving at Angkor Vatt ... 79
Korng Vbeng Tbuch ...,,･･･.･･･････‑‑･‑･････‑･‑‑‑･･･ 81
Korng Vizng 71homm ...,,,...81
Chhing Carving at Angkor Vatt ....,....,.,...,.,,.... 83
Chhing...,.,,...83
Chhap ...,,...,...,,,,,. 84
Kandoeung...,,...,,...85
K}'app Kou ...,... 86
K}"app Chroluonh ...,,...,.,... 87
Klrapp Phlett ...,,...,.,... 88
,Ifrapp Popeay Chapp ...,... 89
Pann...,...90
K}"apeah...91
Kbnhchhae...,..,...92
Kanhchraim .,... 93
SkorArakk...,...96
Tliaun...97
Skor Chhalyaim ... 98
Rumanea...99
Skor Yike ... 1OO Sampho Carving at AngkorVatt ... 102
Sampho ...,... 103
Skor77iommCarvingatAngkorVatt...,.,,.,,.,...105
S:kor 7‑]homm ... 106
Skor Chey ...,,.,,... 107
Skor }'blCarving at Angkor Vatt ,... 1O8 SkorSZ2ingna...,...109
SkorKhaek...11O SIkorPhluoh...,...111
ROMANIZATION OF KHMER WORDS:
A TRANSCRIPTION SYSTEM
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Khmer sounds, which are transcribed with thirty‑three coRsonants, twenty‑fbur vowels, and fifteen special vowels. However, despite the complexity and variety ofphonemes within the Khmer language, I have devised a system that is consistent throughout the pages ofthis book.
KHMER SOUND ENGLISH SOUND TRANSCRIPTION
Single‑Vowel Sounds:
ap ap app app
at at att att
ay eh en enn ey
ih in inn
ok okk
omomm
or orng
ut
carp job
cup top cart
ought cut lot tie yes plain
men(no sound close to Khmer) police
mpan
wm(no sound close to Khmer) (no sound close to Khmer) (no sound close to Khmer) (no sound close to Khmer) (no sound close to Khmer) (no sound close to Khmer) put
kap dap khapp sapp kat that batt chatt
bay she venChenn
sray nih masin minn
lok tokk
romkromm
tror
korng chhut
(poem)
(bottle) (thick) (corpse) (ID card) (drawer) (lose) (bitter) (rice) (horse) (turn) (Chinese) (female) (this)
(machine)
(not)
(monk)
(tab)e) (fur)
(group) (fiddle) (gong)
(act)
ix
X Musical Instruments ojACambodia
Double‑Vowel Sounds:
aen
al .alm
.amg
ao
aom
aok au ea eah eak eo eu
Ie.
oam
oat ou uo uoh
(no sound close to Khmer) fight
some
(no sound c}ose to Khmer)
how
(no sound close to Khmer) (no sound close to Khmer) low
ear
(no sound close to Khmer) (no sound close to Khmer) (no sound close to Khmer) milieu
clear
warmwhat you your
(no sound close to Khmer)
naen dai praim
Baraing hao kraom thaok dau
tea
Preah yeak
keo chheu
tien
roam moat keou khuor puoh
(tight) (hand) (five) (French)
(call)
(under) (cheap) (change) (duck) (Buddha)
(giant) (glass)
(wood)
(candle) (dance) (mouth) (teacher) (brain) (snake)
Triple‑Vowel Sounds:
eou oeu oeung oeurng
(no sound close to Khmer) (no sound close to Khmer) (no sound close to Khmer) (no sound close to Khmer)
peoupunloeu noeung roeurng
(youngest)
(light) (and) (story)
Consonant Sounds:
ch chh chhng kh khnh ng nh p ph
(no sound close to Khmer) church
(no sound close to Khmer) cake
(no sound close to Khmer) singer
canyon speak pen
chek chhoeu chhngay khaim khnhomm nguoh nhaim
Pl
phoum
(banana) (sick) (far) (bite) (I)
(ogre) (eat) (two) (viilage)
CHAPTER 1
A BRIEF HISTORY OF CAMBODIA
Af.RSsl.ie:S.g.di:,o,"eh2M,ze'B,:･:.'ht.&//･L:sY.･lh,teg:･2.gigf:o÷g.ieiglhf:,toC,:･l/ilgS,ele,･r:,8d."dieXf:a:,'?,ig,
first King ofFounan (Funan), Kaundinya had the title "King ofthe Mountain" (ibid.:53).
The Founan center was situated on the lower Mekong delta, but its territory coyered the southern part ofVietnam, the middle Mekong, and a large part ofthe Menam valley and the Malay peninsula. It is impossible to pinpoint exactly the capital of Vyadhapura, which means "The Hunter's City."
Toward the middle ofthe sixth century A.D., Founan was in an acute decline.
Chenla, a state located primarily in the middle Mekong in the Bassac region (southern part of present Laos), was under the domination of Champa at the end of the fifth century A.D. According to T'ang history, around 706 the country was divided into two states. The North, filled with mountains and valleys, and therefore known as Chenla Kok (Land Chenla), occupied lower and middle Laos in the Bassac region. The South, bordering the sea and covering the lakes, known as Chenla Toeuk (Water Chenla), stretched along the Mekong basin, from the fa11s ofKhon to the sea.
Jayavamian II (802‑850), a descendant of the eighth‑century dynasties, was belieyed to have taken refuge in Java at the confutation ofsuccession. Right at the beginning ofthe ninth century, he returned, liberated, and unified Chenla. He is known
to be the founder of the Angkorean kingdom. The unjfication of the country began around 800, with control eventually centering above the great lake Tonle Sap.
Cam bodia was assimi]ated by the Khmer near the end ofthe 800s, after which the Mon territory along the shores ofthe Gulfof Siam was also brought under Khmer control.
The kingdom remained unified until the middle of the tenth century. The first civilization ofChenla left numerous traces‑temples, statues, and inscriptions‑which constituted what has been known to us as the "pre‑Angkorean arts." King Jayavarman II then founded his capital near Roluos in the province ofSiem Reap in the early ninth century (Groslier 1962:9l, Coedes 1963:79, Stierlin l983:17‑19).
From the religious point ofview, it has been said that all religions practiced in Cambodia have come from India, first Brahmanism and then Buddhism. For a long time, Shivaism had been a state religion, while Vishnuism was practiced only in the court. However, Buddhism, which was introduced to Southeast Asia as fhr back as the
1
2 Musical lnstruments ofCambodia
third century B.C., was widely accepted by the indigenous people, and coexisted with other religions (Pang 1 98 1 :92, Sam 1 987:1 , Pak Nam 1 988:82). During the pre‑Angkor period, Hinduism did not really touch the masses; it was practiced only by the leading classes. The masses practiced ancestral animism‑the old Mon‑Khmer cult. Khmer civilization vvas essentially religious. Temples vvere symbols ofthe divine order. One saw thereafter that the first gesture ofthe founder ofthe Khmer kingdom‑Jayavarman II‑established his authority on a religious abode, instituting the Deva Raja cult or the cult ofGod‑King (the King who was identified as God).
Angkor vvas the most opulent and glorious era of Khmer history. The culminating period (ninth‑fifteenth centuries) was synonymous with the magnificent temple ofAngkor Vatt, which was built by King Suryavarman II (1 1 1 3‑‑ l 1 50), and the Khmer classical arts‑architecture, sculpture, literature, dance and music,
Jayavarman VII (1181‑1218) was a Buddhist, very pious and fu11 of compassion. It was during this time (early twelfth century) that Mahayana Buddhism had strong royal support and consequently became the state religion for the first time.
Later ofi, by the beginning of the fburteenth century, the Khmer had converted to Theravada (Hinayana) Buddhism and have continued to practice it until the present (Sam l987:1). It should be noted that during this time King Jayavarman VII was regarded as Buddha Raja or "Buddha‑King" (the King who was identified as Buddha), replacing the old image of Deva Raja (Coedes 1 963 :98).
Jayavarman VII took povver in l 181 and established a new capital, Angkor Thomm, where he built the great temple of four faces known as the Bayon. After his death in 1218,i there was no more construction oftemples. The most glorious period was then ended. Under his first successor, Khmer power declined. In 1352 the Siamese successfu11y took Angkor and occupied it until 1357. In 1430 the Siamese launched their second attack at Angkor, fbrcing the Khmer to abandon it in 1432 (Delvert 1983:34). The Lungvek‑Oudong period (fifteenth‑nineteenth centuries), which fbllovved, was an obscure one. After the fall ofAngkor, the country became unable to resist the steady Siamese invasions, which resulted in the absorption of province after province of Khmer territory. The Khmer subsequent}y moved their capitals time and time again. Finally, with the help ofthe Siamese in 1 842, Ang Duong retook Oudong.
A peace treaty was signed in 1846, and Ang Duong was crowned King by
representatives from Siam and Dai Viet (Vietnam). He reigned from 1847 to 1860, vvhen he died (Leang 1965: l 3). The period ofdecline (fifteenth‑nineteenth centuries), after the glorious Angkor er4 provided us little account on Khmer arts. It was not until King Ang Duong ascended the throne, that Khmer arts were revived and began to flourish again. The nineteenth century marked a very important period and could be called the "Period ofRenaissance," since the country for the first time, after the decline,
1 Giteau dated the death ofJayavarman VII in l219 (1965:288).
A BriefHisto,y ofCambodia 3
was ruled by an educated and matured King. King Ang Duong boosted education and worked to reorganize the country's infrastructure (Leang 1965:72, Ly 1969:83).
Fo]lovving the Oudong period, the capital was moved to the present city seat.
The city of Phnom Penh was established on the fbur confluences ofthe Mekong river, thus known as Chaktomouk, meaning "fbur faces," after which this period is named.
During the Chaktomouk period, from 1864‑1953, Cambodia was under the French protectorate. The Khmer Monarchy, under Prince Norodom Sihanouk reigned Cambodia until March 1 8, l 970 when the Republic, led by Marshal Lon Nol overthrew the Monarchy and controlled Cambodia until April 17, 1975 when it was taken by the Khmer Rouge under Pol Pot until January 7, 1979. The Khmer Rouge was deposed by the more socialist‑communist People's Republic ofKampuchea under Heng Samrin.
On October 21, 1991 a peace accord was singed in Paris by all the waning factions, which resulted in a national election in 1993 under the sanction ofthe United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia(UNTAC). Fotlowingthe 1993 election, Cambodia adopted a new constitution, which re‑instituted the Monarchy with Norodom Sihanouk being King ofCambodia.
Under the Khmer Rouge (l975‑1979), Cambodia was plunged into a "Hell on Earth." Almost two million Khmer were killed or died oftorture, starvation, and illness.
The Khmer Rouge radical regime deyastatingly destroyed the Khmer foundation oflife and family. They created mass ignorance, mistrust, demoralization, and poverty.
After }979, Khmer culture has been revived and survived to the present day.
Artists came together, regrouped, and worked hard to reestablish their cultural foundation. The cultural institutions are now reopened and the Khmer artistry is once again taught and learned. There have been effbrts to revive, conserve, preserve, and promote Khmer culture. Some ofthe dying traditions, namely, the sbaekpoar (colored puppetry),2 lkhaon ape ((u)e theater), lkhaon pol sray (fema}e narrative theater), and lkhaon ken (mouth organ theater) have been revived. There have also been effbrts to establish programs to support cultural exhibits, festivals, publications, recordings, touring, and cultural exchange.
2 The Khmer Culture Association, a non‑profit Non‑Governmenta] Organization (NGO), in Cambodia received support from the Slawsons (USA) to produce a set of colored puppet panels. A production entitled Churning of the Ocean of Milk NN'as mounted and had its premiere performance at the Chaktomouk Theater in Phnom Penh on March 24, 2000.
CHAPTER 2
MUSIC OF CAMBODIA
KllMgei.ie,FS,uS,gi4ih:Sg･:,fiifo,igel,?h,igc:o,fiii,gge,e;ifo,5R,eg'g,"Pc¥'1'S',:.:,2it"7:'Y8ellCi,i,ighi'
can be seen in religion: Brahmanism, Hinduism, and Buddhism; in literature, the Ramayana; and in music, the shawms and double‑headed barrel drums. The Chinese influence can be traced back to the two‑stringed fiddles, hammered dulcimers, drums, and cymbals, vvhereas the European phenomenon is attested by the musical notations and instruments.
Musically speaking, Cambodia is very much homogeneous, differentiating only between the Khmer proper or sometimes referred to as Khmer Kandal meaning ̀CMiddle Khmer" and the nationalities or minority ethnic groups.
Khmer civilization reached its peak during the Angkor period, from the ninth to fifteenth centuries. In its compound, scores ofgigantic masterpieces stand, symbolizing the union ofcelestial and earthly beings. Carved on the walls ofthose great temples in the Angkor vicinity, we see figures ofthe apsara (celestial nymphs or dancers), along with various musical instruments, namely, the pinn (angular harp), memm (bowed monochord), khsae mucty (musical bow or plucked monochord), sralai (quadruple‑reed shawm or oboe), korng (gong), chhing (small finger cymbals), sampho (small double‑
headed barrel drum), skoryoi (suspended barrel drum), and skor thomm (large double‑
headed barrel drums).
Instruments ofthe present day Khmer music and the make‑up ofensembles are similar to those we see presented on the bas‑reliefs ofAngkor, Consequently, we have every reason to believe that the present Khmer musical fbrrns are the living continuation of the musical tradition of the ancient Khmer.
There are several types ofmusic ensembles in Cambodia, including the arakk (worship ofthe spirit), kar (wedding), yike (fblk theater ofMuslim origin), and basakk (theater ofChinese origin). It is seldom that these ensembles are perfbrmed merely fbr listening to, rather, they are usually played in a context, be it vvorship ofthe spirit, wedding, funeral, or dance and theater perfbrmances.
Musical instruments used in the above ensembles are numerous. They
encompass buffalo horns, pipes, fiutes, shawms, fiddles, dulcimers, zithers, lutes, xylophones, gongs, cymbals, and drums. Khmer composers and their compositions are not known. Traditional[y, pieces are not written down, but passed on orally from master to pupil. Khmer music consists ofpolyphonic stratification and is based predominantly on the pentatonic (five‑tone) scale, but the heptatonic (seven･‑tone) scale is also used. It
5
6 Musical lnstruments ofCambodia
is built linearly devoid of harmony in the Western sense. Embellishment or ornarnentation is an inherent characteristic in the rendition ofKhmer music. Musicians in the ensemble have a collective melody in mind, but do not play it. Instead, they embellish that melody.
Khmer music is an important aspect of Khmer life and culture. It epitomizes the history ofCambodia, its society, people, art, customs, and beliefs. This importance can be observed in the significance ofmusic to the performing arts as well as to the traditional and religious ceremonies‑weddings and worship of the spirits.
Khmer music has a dual function: ritualistic and entertaining. In the former, it has the power to bring a medium into trance and to please the spirits. In the latter, it enhances the atmosphere and enlivens the listener's mind. It is said that music accompanies every Khmer as far back as his cradle. It reflects the soul and character of the Khmer people.
Examining the present day music ensembles, instruments, and repertoires, it indicates tangibly that both the secular and religious musics ofCambodia have grown out of ritualistic contexts. It is definite that the Khmer entertainment music is a later make up ofmusic and ensemble in Cambodia.
In Cambodia, the only institution that provides formal education in music is the Royal University ofFine Arts in Phnom Penh. Primary and secondary schools do not include such courses in music in their cunicula, like for instance in the United States.
Besides the University, music transmission is passed on orally from master to pupil in an informal situation most often within a family ofmusicians. Virtually every village in Cambodia possesses a music ensemble. Female musicians are not commonly found.
Female vocalists, however, are genera}ly the norm.
TUNING SYSTEM
Throughout this book, unless specified, the term "equidistance" refers only to seven equal intervals to the octave. The word "key" refers to a given pitch‑percussion bar or gong, or an aerophone fingering, not necessarily "key" in the Western sense. For instance, the references to C and G are the same as bar (roneat) or gong (korng) number 3 and 6 respective}y.3
The concept and claim of"equidistant interval" in Khmer or Southeast Asian music are but a cliche (Duriyanga and Silapabanleng 1994:42, Frederick 1 981 :359, Tran k9.8.tt'gRillrlg?rt7?!,liZ7,2･51.'.7'i,G,aJfi,,9Z,i,9,Z5.l̀?6,D,VgLY,a:,g8,ifi,g3,:g,‑2',ne,ge.f.i26,9fiAg'
3 Khmer musicians count their xylophone bars and gongs from top to bottom.
4 For Khmer tuning system, see also Sam‑Ang Sam (1988, pp. 1OO‑107).
Music ofCambodia 7
not been able to put this utopian theory into the practice of Khmer music.
Can a musician start apiece ofmusic on any key‑the theoretical]y fundamental basis ofequidistance, which would comfbrtably allow a musician to do so? On the complete contrary, Khmer musicians in an ensemble must begin and end a piece on a certain predetermined pitch, for starting and ending on another would produce not an equal transposition ofthe original pitch level but indeed a different mode. In pairing p]aying a Khmer piece with speaking the Khmer language, when playing a piece in an inappropriate key is like the Khmer language being spoken by the Chinese or Vietnamese. It is understood but with a heavy accent.
The equidistance is one theory and system. In actual practice, each Khmer musician has hisfher own tuning system when tuning an instrument Among Khmer ensembles and instruments, there are no two xylophones, which sound alike.
.
.
.
.
When tuning a tror, a good player aims at the perfect fifth. Otherwise, it is out oftune.5 Khmer musicians tune their instruments using the concept ofperfect fourth, fifth, and octave. While, by and large, the 3‑4 and 7‑8 degrees are more or }ess half steps.
Khmer vocalists do not sing equidistant intervals. As avocalist, I acquire and sing hundreds ofKhmer songs, and I do not sing equidistant intervals. I cannot sing them even ifI wanted to.
There is such a thing as "wrong key" in Khmer music, contradicting the concept and theory of equidistance, in which eyery key is a right key, because all the intervals are the same. Starting a piece on a wrong key will put the sralai in an awkward situation.6
Interestingly enough, Khmer music can also be played on Western instruments with a degree ofsatisfaction. There is a modern and popular music ensemble known as mohori samai, using Western instruments, namely, flute, violin, banjo‑mandolin, guitar, and accordion to play the traditional Khmer music.
These instruments are not conventionally constructed to produce seven
equidistant intervals to the octave.
In short, when the vocalists do not sing equidistant intervals, the instrument, such as sralai is not built to produce equidistant intervals, the fifth is perfect, Western instruments used to play Khmer music are incapable of producing seven equidistant intervals to the octave, and musicians cannot start a piece just on any key, the concept and claim ofequidistance in Khmer music are but beyond doubt and the merit ofthe concept and claim must be cal}ed into question.
5 Provided equidistant intervals are desired for the tuning, the fi fth would be diminished, notperfecL
6 Sraiai is mxi
i main specialized instrument.
8 Musical Instruments ofCambodia
SCALE
Khmer music is based principally on two main scales: the five‑tone pentatonic and seven‑tone heptatonic. The former is the fbundation ofthepinnpeat and mohori repertoires, whereas the latter is prominent in the arakk and kar. However, there haye been just a handfu1 of studies and writings on Khmer scale (Giuriati (1988), Sam (1988), Brunet (1974, 1969), Danielou (1957), Musique Khmere (1969), de Gironcourt (l942)). There had not been a Khmer term for scale until recently,7 when scholars and researchers began to be interested in it. One ofthe earliest writings on Khmer scale vvas by de Gironcourt (1942:85) which was again shown in the book Mllsique Khmere without reference or explanation (1969:13). The book Musique Khmere also presented the pentatonic and heptatonic scales (without discussion) (ibid.:40). On thejacket ofa sound recording A Musical Anthology ofthe Orient:
Cambodia (BM 30 L 2002), Danielou discusses Khmer scales without providing any documentation to support his claims:
.
.
. .
.
.
He believes that the Khmer have borrowed the gandhara‑grama scale from the Indians.8
He suggests that the Khmer have a halfltone scale without the fifth and augmented fburth.
He thinks that the Khmer have borrowed the pentatonic scale from the Chinese.
The Khmer scale is tempered heptatonic [equidistance], because the Khmer tuning is.
By this time, he sees that the Khmer have two scales: the pentatonic and heptatonic. The former is Chinese and the latter could possibly (as he did not say) be Khmer replacing the fbrmer.
He divides Khmer compositions into "ancient" and "traditional" (and although he does not say, I assume he implies that there is another type ofcomposition vvhich is "modern.") The so‑called ancient pieces are based on an ancient scale, which is replaced by the Chinese pentatonic scale. Therefbre, the Khmer have three scales: the ancient (Khmer‑ldest), the pentatonic (Chinese), and the heptatonic (apparently Khmer).
7 The Khmer term fbr"scale" is kaim samieng.
8 Viswanathan, an Indian flute master and exponent ofCarnatic music, told me that even the Indians do not have the gandhara‑grama scale anymore today, and they have come to believe that the scale has already gone to heaven (personal communication, l987).
Music ofCambodia 9
Turning to the materials at hand, there are two scales: the pentatonic, or more precisely, anhemitonic pentatonic scale consisting of five pitches devoid ofhalfsteps,9 and the heptatonic scale having seven pitches of more or less half and whole‑step intervals.
The Khmer use two scale types, vvhich are based on instrument tunings and on the pitches used in a given piece. In the pinnpeat context, the scale is based on G (approximate Western key equivalent), regardless what pitch apiece ends on. This basis ofscale compels Khmer musicians to play a piece only at the designated level. Thus, the characteristics of Khmer scale can be summarized as fbllow:
.
.
.
.
.
The ayailability of all pitches (five in the pentatonic and seven in the heptatonic), based on the tuning ofKhmer instruments, which can be used in a piece.
The central pitch ofa scale is alvvays constant (referring to a set of intervailic structure, not final; in the case ofpinnpeat, it is G (in the case ofmohori, it is C).
The ditlbrence between the pentatonic and heptatonic is the different number of important pitches used in a piece‑five pitches in the former and seven in the latter. The anhemitonic pentatonic scale has the structural pitches of 1 2 3 5 6 8
or G A B D E G or M2 M2 m3 M2 m3 with the fburth and seventh degrees as passing tones, whereas the heptatonic scale has all the seven pitches equally important. In other words, all the seven pitches available in the tuning system are considered structurally significant.
Provided there are only two scale types, there are only two distinct intervallic
structures. One is 123568orGABDEGor M2 M2 m3 M2 m3 and another is 1 234S678 or GABCDEFG or M2 M2 m2 M2 M2 M2 m2.
Since it is non‑equidistance, the 1 2 3 5 6 8 pattern, fbr instance, can begin only in a certain note or key, and not all the five or seven. More precisely, one can only play a piece in G, Changing the central pitch, the scale is changed. For example, the G scale 1 2 3 5 6 8 or G A B D E G or M2 M2 m3 M2 m3 cannot be changed to l 2 3 5 6 8 or A B C E F A, because its intervallic structure
would be changed from M2 M2 m3 M2 m3 to M2 m2 M3 M2 m3. This is
9 Hood calls it ‑gapped scale" (1971 :325), a term which is opposed by Scholes who has stated:
"Scales consist of five notes within the octave and exist in several forms, are sometimes misleadingly terrned Cgapped' scales, by comparison with seven‑note diatonic scales (which hosN'ever are themselves 'gapped' in terms ofmicrotonal scales); but the pentatonic scale is no less complete than any other scale, and the tcrm Cgapped' is bcst ayoided." (l983:1622)
10 Musical lnstruments ofCambodia
incorrect. Clearly, when the central pitch G ofthe G scale ofthepinnpeat is changed to C with the same intervallic structure, it becomes a C scale and thus a mohori scale.
MODE
Like scale, there is no Khmer term for mode, and Khmer musicians do not verbalize about it. It is even difificult to ask a Khmer musician what a mode is.
Nonetheless, the notion and concept exist and knowledge is acquired implicitly.
In the study ofKhmer mode, I suggest that the basis for Khmer mode lies in a set of five, six, and seven pitches or tones, and a hierarchical system of pitch relationship. It neither has names nor conveys feelings like the modes ofother nations in Asia: Thai, Burmese, Vietnamese, Indonesian, Korean, and Chinese (Garfias 1 975:44, Morton 1976:1 15‑1 79, Lee 1978:42‑43, Ho 1983:l33‑l34). Khmer modes are based on the same scale with different finals, as required by a given piece, unlike Indian music, in which the tonic is part of the echelle generale (Powers 1980:430). Powers said:
"'Tonic' does not mean Cfinal' nor ̀predominant' nor any other tonal function. The tonic in Indian music belongs to the system as a whole, not to individual modal complexes" (ibid.). This modal practice is striking}y different from the one which is practiced by other cultures in Asia, such as Khmer (ibid.:436). The hierarchyin Khmer mode correlates with point of rest, piece ending, cycle ending, phrase ending, and cadential resolution, all essential to the identification ofmode because they govern the basic structure ofa piece.iO
An overview ofKhmer mode can be made, including the fbllovving parameters:
.
.
.
.
Mode cannot be separated from scale whose central pitch is, for example, the constant G (in a6 scale), to which all finals (including G itselD relate.
Mode, therefore, is recognizable according to its final in relationship with the principal pitch ofthe scale.
In this realm, scale is the echelle generaie, whereas mode is the gamme particuliere.
Because mode is based on different finals, it manifests different intervallic structures; each is distinctive to each mode. Thus, it is theoretically possible to have twelve modes altogether, but practically less.]i Five modes are generated from the five‑tone scale (G A B D E) and seven from the seven‑tone scale (G A
10 For detailed study of Khmer mode, see Sam‑Ang Sam (1988, pp. 1 14‑141 ).
11 This is because Khmerpinn peat pieces are not likely to end on F.
Music pfCambodia 11
.
.
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B C D E F), each vvith a different final. However, under a given circumstance, only six tones selected from the heptatonic scale may be used.
Khmer modes are identified by their final pitch rather than being generated from the same tonic as in classical Indian music.
It is a practice in Khmer music to create a new modal stmcture by shifting the tonal emphasis from one pitch to another within the same tuning or scale.
Consequently, Khmer musicians are carefu1 when staning and ending a piece.
With a wrong start in an inappropriate key or pitch, the piece will end in a wrong final and will put it in a wrong mode, because it affects the intervallic structure.
Thus, the five‑ and seven‑tone scales, when starting and ending in diffk)rent tones and appearing in different orders are capable ofproducing various modes.
METABOLE
Listeners who do not know Khmer music might have the impression that Khmer pieces all sound the same. This, to some extent, is true. The majority ofKhmerpinn peat pieces are rendered in relation to the G scale. However, some pieces, like Lo and
Rev, use a metabole switching to a different tonal level. Metabole functions in a manner similar to transposition. It is a term developed and presented by Brailoiu (l955), Tran (1962), and Morton (1976), who all agree that since "modulation" is a Western terrn denoting a change or switch of key or tonality within a harmonic system, it is inappropriate fbr describing a change or switch ofa basic pitch‑leve[ ofan Asian non‑
harmonic and linear system ofmusic. The metabolic process ofKhmer music is simple.
First, it does not feature the harmonic preparation and resolution to the home key or tonality that marks Western modulation. Second, it does not shift key or tonality, but simply switches to a new tonal level (usually at a fburth or fifth above or below the original leyel). Third, the new level is exactly the same as the previous section in terms oflength ofthe piece, tone progression, and structure, except that it might be expressed through a dififerent melodic motion. This is due to the range limitation of the instruments, which requires octave displacement, as shown in the example below, Fourth, the metabole in Khmer music occurs only after the piece has completed its full cycle.
The below example illustrates that the metabole of Lo takes place at a fburth above or fifth below the original key with the exact same pitch progression.
G(32 measures) C(32 measures)
I‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑IV F
I IV
12 ?Lftisical lnstruments ofCambodia
AAEAEEAA AGDD
EAGG AAEA
EEAA AGDD
EAGG DDADAADD DCGGADCC DDADAADD DCGGADCC
TEMPO AND RHYTHM
There are no tempo markings in Khmer music. In a performance, the rhythm‑
marking instrument‑the drum‑sets the tempo for the ensemble. In terms ofrhythmic organization, one should not get confused vvith "strong beat" and "stressed stroke." The strong beats mark phrase sections and rhythmic cycles. The very last strong beat ofa rhythmic cycle gives musicians a feeling of final resolution, which might not necessarily fa11 on a stressed stroke. In other words, the final beat (strong) ofa cycle could occur on a stressed or unstressed stroke ofthe drum.
The shortest Khmer rhythmic cycle has at least eight beats (two measures if transcribed in 4/4). Only the last stressed stroke ofthe cycle marks its end. A rhythmic cycle starts on a weak beat and thus ends on a strong beat.
Pieces are grouped according to their rhythmic patterns, i.e., muoy choan, pi ehoan, and bay choan. Thus, pieces are known as Toch Yomm Muoy Choan, Khyall Bakk Cheung Phnomm Pi Choan, Chvea Srokk Morn Bey Choan, and so on.
The three rhythmic patterns are differentiated by the length ofcycle, i.e., muay choan has eight beats,pi ehoan has sixteen beats, and bay choan thirty‑two beats. Each rhythmic cycle has a rhythmic phrase and nuance, which match the melodic phrase of the same length. Therefbre, it is only appropriate to use the one‑level rhythmic pattern in the one‑level piece.
COMPOSITION
There are over one thousand traditional Khmer compositions in the current practice ofKhmer music. These compositions bear no names oftheir composers. Mr.
Phon Chheng, fbrrner Minister ofCulture, once claimed: C̀There are 1,080 pieces of Khmer music" (personal communication, 1985). Today, several hundreds ofthose are gone with the memories of the music masters who passed away and took them along with them. As the Khmer continue to wage wars, which destroy lives and create hardship and poverty, more pieces will continue to be lost as old masters will pass away and young musicians do not possess large repertoires. Many ofthe pieces are known only by their names and titles; the music is gone. Through several programs now in place, there have been efforts to notate and audio record the remaining pieces.
Music ofCambodia 13
Khmer compositions are grouped into the fo11owing categories:
Descriptive:
e OmmTouk (RowaBoat)
e Khyall Bakk Cheung Phnomm (The Wind Blows at the Foot ofthe Mountain)
Sentimental:
e SdechSaok (A KingWeeps)
Another group ofcomposition bears generic names or national accents: Khmer, Morn, Phoumea, Chvea, Chenn, Baraing, and Arabb. Because their names relate to specific groups, their compositions have a certain character, style, and general manner proper to each.
Khmer:
e KhmerKrangPhka (KhmerStringFlowers) Mom:
. Morn Chauh Touk (Morn Get On a Boat) Phoumea:
e PhoumeaHo (BurmeseWhoop)
Chvea:
. Chvea Srokk Morn (Javanese from the Morn Country) Chenn:
e Chenn Sae (Chinese Medical Doctor)
Baraing:
e Baraing Srav Puor (French Pull the Rope) Arabb:
e ArabbThvayPor (ArabWish)
Khmer compositions are principally categorized into two major groups:phleng chrieng (singing music or music with song) and phleng skor (drum music or music set to specific drum pattern, also knovvn as action tune) orphleng laim (dance music or
14 Mitsical Instruments ofCambodia
music for dance). The former is set to the drum patterns ofmuoy choan, pi ehoan, and bqy chean, whereas the latter is set individually to specific patterns appropriate fbr the piece, for example, Sathukar music is set to Sathukar drum pattern, Krao Nai music is set to Krao Nai drum pattern, and Punhea Doeur music is set to Punhea Doeur drum pattern. The former, with songs, is generally used more freely forvarious situations; the latter, without songs, is called for specific actions, i.e., Sathukar fbr invocation ofthe spirit, Krao Nai for battle of monkeys, and Punhea Doeur fbr marching of human characters in the Khmer court dance and dance drama, masked play, and shadow play.
Khmer music is linear in character devoid ofharmony. The musical system is essentially modal and melodic with a successive tonal progression. The composition is based primarily on important structural points, which determine and dififerentiate one song from another. Each line contributes to the integral part ofthe intricate whole ofa composition, each with its delicate balanceea process known as polyphony or polyphonic stratification,
Musicians in a Khmer ensemble have a collective melody in mind that no one person really plays.i2 The collective melody serves as the guideline for all the musicians to fbllow from beginning to end, and also as a dynamic to hold them together as an ensemble.
SCORE AND NOTATION
Musical scores and notations are recent phenomena in Cambodia. They have been introdueed to Khmer musicians by the Europeans. The most common musicians who utilize the musical scores and notations are those ofthe Royal University ofFine Arts, particularly at the Faculty of Music, and the popular musicians. Traditional musicians ofany sort do not have knowledge ofscores and notations and consequently do not utilize them. They teach, learn, and perform pieces from memories. This situation, in fact, is characteristic of Khmer music, in that it gives Khmer musicians great fiexibility and freedom in the rendition ofthe pieces. There are no two renditions alike.
In Khmer music, one can merely talk on the basis of "constant key" or
"conceptual key," and not actual pitch (measured in cents), The actual pitch varies depending upon the tuning of instruments, Whatever the tuning might be, Khmer musicians always play a piece in the designated key and fingering. IL for instance, a piece is played by two ensembles, the result ofwhich is that one sounds one tone lower
l2 For further study on "collective melody," see Sam‑Ang Sam (1988), and for analogous concept in another Southeast Asian music, see "Inner Melody in Javanese Gamelan" (1976) by Sumarsam.
Music pfCambodia 15
than another, it does not mean that musicians change their key (xylophone key or bar) from number 6 to 7 or G to F, but because the tuning ofone ensemble is one tone lower than another. Consequently, it is only reasonable to transcribe a piece using a constant G as the basis. This transcription should be a generic one. Transcribing a piece, fbr instance, in A will tell Khmer musicians to play on a different level than G (svvitching from the xylophone bar number 6 to 5) and thus put the sralai in an awkward position to play the piece. This is simply because Khmer musicians set their mind to attach pitches to instrument keys and fingerings. The difference between G and A is not only the difference in pitches, but atso keys and fingerings. In some situations, G can be even higher than A, provided the tuning ofthe ensemble vvhich plays the piece in G is tuned higher than that vvhich renders the piece in A. Two versions of the Apsara Dance performed by the court ensembles result one in the approximate C and another in the approximate Bb (personal collection ofsound recordings).i3 Are they played in different keys? No, they both center on C or roneat bar number 3. It is the tuning which is approximately one tone different. The point is that a transcription ofa Khmer piece in G can be played on any ensemble ofwhatever tuning. On the contrary, a transcription other than G cannot be translated back to the "right" key and fingering of Khmer instruments. It isjust like original term being better than a translated one, because a translated term can be incorrect when translated back to the original term.
13 These are mohori ensembles w'hose key is C.
CHAPTER3
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
OF CAMBODIA
ince the olden times, Khmer music has been associated with and inspired by the village }ife and its natural environment. Music events are centered around rimals and ceremonies which are called for, be it birth, ordination, maniage, funeral, installation ofa village chieC or the crowning ofa king or queen.
Cambodia is home to over sixty musical instruments and over a dozen music ensembles. The richness ofthis musical tradition ovves itselfto the heavenly blessed natural resources from which musical instruments are made, i.e., clay, bamboo, wood, plant, iron, copper, brass, bronze, nylon, and animal parts (gut, skin, hair, bone, ivory, and shell). One can often hear the sound of a bamboo flute played by a young boy riding on the back of water buffalo in the middle ofa pond, or under a straw hut while watching his rice fields keeping them away from birds.
Included here are instruments fbund in Cambodia belonging to the Khmer and different nationalities.
1 AEROPHONES
11 Conchshell 111 Saing 12 Flute (Klhlay)
121
122
High‑pitched duct or fipple flute Khlay aek
Low‑‑pitched duct or fipple flute
KhlQy thomm
13 Free‑read pipelorgan
131 Sjng]e free‑reed hornlpipe
1311 Bamboofree‑reedbuffalohorn Snaeng
17
18
2
14
15
16
l7
Musicai Instruments ofCambodia
1312 Brassfree‑reedpipe(sideblown) Paypork
132 Free‑reed mouth organ 1321 Single free‑reed 13211 Rlep 1322 Multiplefree‑reed 13221 Gourd resonator Play
13222 Woodenresonator Ken
Double‑reed pipe
141 Pey prabauh
Quadruple‑reed shawm Sralai
151 High‑pitched quadruple‑reed shawm) Sralai taueh
1 52 Low‑pitched quadruple‑reed shawm Sralai thomm
153 Quadruple‑reed bell‑like shawm ofJavanese origin Sralai Chvea
Jew's harp
161 Angkuoch
Leaf
171 Slekk
CHORDOPHONES
21 Harp
Musical Instruments ofCambodia 19
211 Angular harp Pinn
22 Monochord
23
221 Bowed monochord Mbmm
222 Musical bow or plucked monochord Khsae muoy
Fidd1e (7">'oi;J
231 Two‑stringed fiddle
2311 High‑pitchedtwo‑stringedfiddte 7>or chhe
2312 Mediumhigh‑pitchedtwo‑stringedfiddle 7‑>"or so tauch
2313 Medium low‑pitched two‑stringed fiddle 7}or so thomm
2314 Low‑pitchedtwo‑stringedfiddle 7)"or ou
2315 Medium‑sizedtwo‑stringedfiddle 7)or kandal
2316 Large‑sizedtwo‑stringedfiddle 7'beor thomm
232 Three‑stringed fiddle
2321 Three‑stringedspikefiddle 7izor Khmer aror khsae bop 24 Lute
25
241 Long‑necked lute Chopey dang veng Dulcimer (Khimm)
25 1 High‑pitched hammered dulcimer Khimm taueh
