Control and Boundaries of the Firm in the International Franchising : A Case Study of Coca‑Cola Company in Japan
著者(英) MURAYAMA Takatoshi
journal or
publication title
The bulletin of the Institute for Research of Accounting, Tohoku Gakuin University
number 12
page range 33‑46
year 2004‑03‑31
URL http://id.nii.ac.jp/1204/00024249/
The Bulletin of the Institute for Research of Accounting,No.l 2 (March2004)
.
pp.33-
46Publishedby the Institute for Research of Accounting,Tohoku Gakuin University
Controland Boundaries of the Firm in the International Franchising:A Case Study of Coca - Cola
Company in Japan
*Takatoshi Murayama* *
Abstract. This article attempts to expand the boundariesof multinationalcorporations from an equity mode (foreigndirect investment)to a non
-
equity m o d e (franchising). Franchising by Coca-
Cola Company in Japan is investigated to revealthe mechanism of intemationalintemal controlbetween franchisors and franchisees. The existence of an effective controlmechanism is confirmed,while the narrow and restrictivescope of conventionaltheory is critiqued. Finally,the necessity to considerflexible boundaries of multinationalcorporations is suggestedto understand the realsignilicance of multinationalcorporations.Key Words. Intemationalfranchising
.
multinationalcorporations,non-
equity modes.
power andcontrol,llexible boundaries of multinationalcorporations
Introduction .
Currently,gIobalservice companies,some of which use franchising to expand their businessin foreign markets,are rapidly growing. Thosecompanies enlarge not only their corporate brands but also power of controlin the globaIeconomy. Nevertheless, i t canbe thought that research on internationalfranchisecompanies hasbeen fruitlessso far.
Especially,anaIyzing intemalmechanisms of intemationalfranchisecompanies is now being urged(Paswan,2002).
The purpose of this article is to investigatethe inside of a worldwide franchisecompany:
whether franchisors can controltheir foreignfranchisees and also how franchisors can controlthe operation of franchisees. If the companies can effectively controlthem,this research also implies to extend the boundaries (Coase,1937;Felstead,l993;W加iamson,
' This paper was originally presentedto2003AnnualConference of AdministrativeSciences Associa
-
tion of Canada(ASAC)held in Halifax
.
Nova Scotia. Author thanks academic advice from Dr.Marc S.Mentzer and alsohelpfulcomments from participantsin the conference.
''Takatoshi
.
Murayama is Associate Professor of IntemationalBusiness Marketing and Management,, hpartment of BusinessAdministration,Faculty of Economics.
Tohoku Gakuin University.
l-
3-
lTsuchitoi
.
AobakuSendai.
Miyagi.
Japan,ZIP980-
85l1 E-
mail;[email protected]-
gakuin.acjp
「l.M!mya
'
na/Co1'
tt'
o l a n d B o! tndanesof theF ir ml975) of multinationalcorporations (hereinafterMNCs). In order to dealwith theseques
-
tions,the internaloperations of Coca
-
Cola Companyl in Japan are examined.AnalyticalFramework: A Definition of MNCs
The definition of an MNC has been closelylinkedwithforeigndirect investment (FDI) since Hymer's dissertation,a breakthrough,inl960. Hymer(l960)had emphasized con
-
tro「'of foreignbusinessunits(e.g.,foreignsubsidiary,foreignbranch,foreignsalesoflice and so forth)by its headquarters,and then recognized FDI as a strong toolof control. Many internationalbusinessscholars,such as Buckley and Casson(1976),Dunning(l988) and Kindleberger(1969),have followedand sophisticated Hymer's conventionaldefinition of the MNC.
A definition that emphasizesthe controlaspect of an MNC might be stillvalid. A problem,however,is modes of control
.
Most of the conventionaltheories,if not all,stated that the ownership of the equity stake of foreignbusinessunits,known as anequity mode, constitutes controlof that unit. For instance, Jones (1996,p.5) stated that the basic idea that MNEs(multinationalenterprises)engage in FDI which enables them to own and control assets in foreigncountriesis straightforward. FDI is conventionally used as a proxy to measure the extent and direction of MNE activity.Howeverespecially in recent years,it has been becoming common for companiesto exploit non
-
equity modes,such as strategic alliances,licensing,franchising,leasing,manage-
mentservice contracts andlong
-
term contracts,to expand their businessactivities and assets acrossborders (Contractor and Kundu,1998;Erramilli eta l,2002;Quinn and Doherty, 2000). If the boundary of an MNC is simply definedbythe flow of FDI, the internationa1 companies that utilize non-
equity modes aren't categorized as MNCs.
In contrast,if the boundary is defined in term of control, the outcome w加be slightly different from that suggested by the conventionaltheory. In other words,the possibility that companies can tightly controltheir foreignbusinesses and assets by the useof non
-
equitymodes exists there,and also the companies mightberecognizedas the MNCs(seefigure1).
At any rate,it is necessary to revisit the question raised by Caves (l996,p.1)in the past;
that is, What constitutes'control'over a foreignestablishment is another judgmentalissue.
Internationalbusinessscholars should positively dealwith this judgmenta「'issue and have to judge the realsignificance of MNCs inthe present globalsociety.
This article focuses on internationalfranchising as a typicalnon
-
equity mode,which is not based on ownership,but on formalagreement between franchisors and franchisees,whichFigure1. ModalChoices and Boundaries of M
・ 、
1'Cs--- - m
EquiW
-
一、
、Wholly
-
owned'〇 foreignsubsldiary
l 1
Majority
-
o wnedjoint venture : Minority
-
ownedf(amiale
一
〇 Franchisel:
1 '
Attempt to extend the boundary
foreign
Licenslng Strategic aIliance Long
-
termcontracte
'
CT
Necessity tolnvestigate them ln the future
are independent businesses. Especia11y, the mechanism to controlthe foreign franchisees is investigated here. Also, if controlthrough franchising is confirmed, it fo11ows that the definition of MNC ought to be espanded to include non-ec1uity modes as
、
ve11as e(luity modes.In the next section,the internaland internationalbusiness process of Coca-Cola Company in Japan is examined to clarify the relation of franchising to contro11ing.
Strategy and Controlin Coca-Cola's Franchise System BottIing System Based on the Franchise Agreement
It is
゛
,e11-kno、、
,n that Coca-Cola Company main1、
,uses franchising, 1、nown in Japan as the bottling system, to e1、
pand their business operations domestically and internationa11y.Their so
-
ca11ed business format, consisting of their production sy、stem, expertise in marketing and distribution,traden、
ar1、
,and concentrate of their drinks,is transferred to1oca1 franchisees through the franchise agreement.Coca
-
Cola Company had made itsfirst franchise agreement with two1ocalbusinessmen of Tennessee on July21,1899(Coca-Cola Japan Company,1987;Pendergrast, l 9 9 3 ). This first600一、、
'ord contract clearly became a prototype of the current more sophisticated agree-
ment.2 In the agreements,localfranchisees.often kno
、、
・・n as 1ocalbottlers, aregranted theT.Ml t
, 一 ̲
l1/Co,
1l,
・o lan dBo1̲
1a,
1,
:,sof 1/1cFi,
・mexclusive right to a territory, and also they have to build their production sites, hire employees, procure delivery vehicles and other materials, and developlocaI distribution channels using their own investments in the territory (seefigure2). In contrast,Coca
-
Cola Company is obligated to transfer its business format and sales promotion programs to support the business deve1opment of thelocalbottlers. The1ocalbottlers aIso have to purchase concentrate of the drinks from Coca-
Cola Company and,needless to say,it becomes the main revenue of Coca-
Cola Company(Kohno and Murayama,1997).The wholesale price of the concentrate includes not only the cost of the concentrate itself,but also royalties for using the Coca
-
Cola Company's expertise and trademark. Most of Coca-
Cola Company's revenues are generated from selling the concentrate to the1ocal bottlers. Thus,if the sales volume(not profit ) o f the1ocalbottlers expands,the revenue of Coca-
Cola Company also increases. In other words, the financialresult of Coca-
ColaCompany is heavily dependent on the sales performance of the1ocalbottlers,such that Coca- Cola Company has strong incentive to expand the sales volume of the IocaI bottlers.
Franchising is also recognized as the reciprocalbusiness system ;franchisers can quick1
、
,expand their revenue
、
vithout their o、、 -
n investment for physicalequipment and,in contrast, franchisees can smoothlylaunch their business relying on the transferred business format.A Japanese Coca
-
Cola bottling system had been structured by17bottlers and a foreign subsidiary of Coca-
Cola Company until1999(seefigure3). In recent years,however,some36
Figure2. Franchise S
、
stem of Coca-Cola CompanyFigure3. GeographicalLocation of Japanese Bottlers
〇oca
-
〇olaw
estJapan
: { =
Hoi,t dl;oCCBC
bottlers,such as Coca
-
Cola West Japan and Coca-
Cola Central Japan, merged with other bottIers to form anchor bottlers in order to share strategic objectives with Coca-
Cola Company, t o pursue greater economies of scale and scope(FeIstead,1993), and to sustain competitive advantages against a new strong competitor, Pepsi-
Suntory(a Japaneselarge alcoholic and beverage producer)coalition formed in1997.The duration of a franchise agreement is basically10 years in Japan. In many cases,it might be expanded to20 years without renegotiating process. If there are not any serious violations of the agreement in the previous contractuaI term,the same bottler couldlegally renew the agreement regarding the same territory(Emerson,1998).
InternationalStrategy
Coca
-
Cola Company operates its business system in nearly200 countries (The Coca-
Cola Company,2001) and has an internationalstrategy to integrate its worldwide operations.
The fundamentals of the internationalstrategy,consisting of product standardization and localization, had been formulated by Robert W.Woodruff (known as The Boss )in the 1930's and have guided its internationalization process ever since.
The strategy of product standardization exists to maintain the same high quality and the sameflavor of products, Coca
-
Cola, Sprite, Fanta, Mel1o Ye11ow, Minute Maid and so forth,allover the world, thus creating a g1oba11y unified brand image of Coca-
ColaCompany and its productsin the huge globalmarket. The corporate brand and product brands arethe most valuable intangible assets,which vaIue is equivalent to$70.4 5 b加ion in 2003(Reuters News Service
.
2003),to generate revenues in Coca-
Cola Company. Hence,Coca
-
Cola Company places the highest priority on protecting their value.Localization hasbeen basedon one of Woodruff's credos (Coca
-
Cola Japan Company,1987); A healthy worldeconomy depends on a healthylocaleconomy. Thus,Coca
-
ColaCompany organizes businesspartnerships withlocalfranchiseesand the franchiseesprocure ingredients,containers (bottles and cans),production equipment,delivery vehicles and so on fromlocalmarkets in order to promote healthylocaleconomies. If the wagelevels and the living standards risebecausethelocaleconomy is developing,people can afford to purchase soft drinks including Coca
-
Cola Company's brands. MoreoverCoca-
Cola Company can expect to avoid hostiIity fromlocalconsumers by promoting friendships withlocaleconomy and industry.Controlof Bottlers'0perations
Coca
-
Cola Company has to controlthelocalbottlers,which produce and distribute products in eachlocalmarket,to operationa「ize the internationalstrategy well. In this section,severalcontrolmechanisms of franchising,such as monitoring system,information system and sharing of benefits,in Japanesemarket are investigated.Mon,itormgS l
'
8te m.
It is dispensable for product standardization,an essentialpart of the internationalstrategy,that thelocalbottlers purchase the right concentrate from Coca-
Cola Company,use the right materials approved by Coca
-
Cola Company,and manufacture and distribute products usingthe right method. Thus,Coca-
Cola Company has a monitoring system to ensure that thelocalbottlers never deviate from the proper procedure. In the Japanesemarket,Coca-
Cola Japan Company Ltd. (hereil Mf
ter Coca-
Cola Japan),a wholly-
owned foreignsubsidiary of Coca
-
Cola Company,implements periodicsecret inspections of fnalproducts in eachlocalbottler's market. After picking up samplesfrom vending machines,shelves of retailstore and so forthin each bottler's territory,and bringing them to Coca-
Cola Japan's chemicallaboratory,Coca-
Cola Japan analyzes their ingredients and formulas. If alocalbottler violates the technicalconditions spedfied by Coca-
Cola Com-
pany,Coca
-
Cola Japan enforces the bottler to review its manufacturing processand advises it on corrections. 0 f course,Coca-
Cola Company can terminate the franchiseagreement in the worst cases. Also,Coca-
Cola Japan keepsthe inspectionssecret,especially about when and where,so that each bottler has to be sensitive to their quality controlat alltimes.
38
「l
:
Mtralyama/Contro l a n dBlotmdan'esof theF i1rmEven if the strategyof localization describedin textbooks of internationalmanagement involvesdecentralization of power tolocaI franchisees (Bartlett and Ghoshal,l989;Porter, 1986),it is operationalizedwithcentralized controlpolicy in Coca
-
Cola Company.
Forinstance,regarding Iocalprocurement of product materials,thelocalbottlers are never permitted their own discretion in choosingsuppliers. Coca
-
Cola Company and Coca-
ColaJapan hold the power toselect suppliers,to examinethe quality of materials produced by the suppliersand to approve them. In the case of building a new plant,for instance,even if the localbottlers are obligated to finance allof it,they also have to accept detailedtechnical inspections,implemented by Coca
-
Cola Japan's technicalstaff,regarding building sites, quality of water,plantlayout and so on. In other words,Coca-
Cola Company can fully interfere in the production processand quality controlsystem of the new plant owned by the locaI bottlers without anyfinancialobligations.InfiormationSUstem
.
An information system is also indispensable to an effective contro11ing system.
Coca-
Cola Company and Coca-
Cola Japan have to analyze constantly incoming information regardinglocalbottlers'behaviors.Area MarketingManagers (herein
,
aft
er AMMs)have an important role in gathering information of localbottlers andlinking Coca-
Cola Company's strategyto1ocalbottlers' operations. The AMMs,employedby Coca-
Cola Japan,visit thelocalbottlers'offices severaltimes for a week. Inthis process,theysend thelocalbottlers documentation regarding Coca-
Cola Company's businessplans,product policies,marketing and sales promo-
tions,while simultaneously gathering the information regarding businessplans,performances and managerialproblems of thelocalbottlers.
The information gatheredbythe AMMs is constantly brought back to Coca
-
Cola Japan, and shared and analyzed amongthe departmentsof Coca-
Cola Japan,such as the technical department(including quality controland production),the marketing department and the support staff (regardinglegaland public relation)3,andthensent to Coca-
Cola Company'sworld headquarters by the useof the internaI globalinformation system. For example, industrialanalystscommentedonthe information system structured by Roberto Goizueta and Douglas Ivester,who arethe former CEOs of Coca
-
Cola Company,as follow; the company's globalsystem,which gathersbottler data from alloverthe world and is accessible through the company's information network. The company carefully monitors what is happening market by market worldwide. Any trendsthat develop are picked up and projects are monitoredmonthly. 'Having that information system,andseeing from sales data that thingsaren't goingthe waythey should[in a particular market]-
within a week,'makes it much easier for the company to jump on a given probIem or opportunity (Ho11eran,
1996,p.35). Obviously,Coca
-
Cola Company not only utilizes the information for contro11ing bottlers'operations but also uses it in the formation of ne、
vbusiness poIicies.Economi c F1oulsan d S harin g, of Benefits. Atleast four economic flows between Coca-Cola Company and the1ocalbottlers can be confirmed(seefigure4).4
Regarding the wholesale purchase of concentrate,as referred to above, t h e bottlers are obligated to purchase concentrate from Coca
-
Cola Company at a certain price. Thus,since the dilution rate of concentrate isfixed,the revenue of Coca-Cola Company rises in propor-
tion to expansion of the bottlers'sale volume. The price of concentrate islega11y determined by Coca-CoIa Con
、
pany,、、
,hiIe it does change due to inflation,currencyfluctuation and other reasonable reasons. Although changing the price is a subject of negotiation between Coca-
Cola Company and the1ocalbottlers,Coca-Cola Company might hold the stronger negotiat
-
ing position against the1ocalbottIers because of its monopoly power as the only se11er of concentrate. A certain portion of the concentrate price, as a consideration for using valuable brand name and trademark, is transmitted to Coca-Cola's world headquarters through Coca-Cola Japan.
Regarding the t o l l p r o d u c t (see also FeIstead,1993), thelocaI bottlers are forced to purchase severalfinished products ca11ed as the to1lproducts,such as So-K e
,
1-B i-C11a ( a Japanese mixed ready-
to-
drink t e a ) , Minute Maid and so forth, from Coca-Cola Japan.・10
Figure4. Economic Flows in Coca-Col a Business
In this case,thelocalbottlers pay Coca
-
Cola Japan forthe wholesale price of the toll products,and then addthe margin and sellthem to retailers orfinalconsumers. The pricing processof the product might be similar tothat of the concentrate.Regarding the subcontracted products,more complicated than the other deals,Coca
-
Cola Japan subcontracts the bottlers,especia1ly who own well
-
developed facilities, t omanufacture certain products,such a s So
-
Ken-
B i-
Cha. Subsequently,Coca-
Cola Japanonce purchases the productsfrom the bottlersby paying the manufacturing cost,and then wholesales them,as the to1lproducts, t o the bottlers again. Also,Coca
-
Cola Japan and the bottlers sometimes jointly invested in the new production facilitiesfor the subcontracted products. Needless to say,the differentialbetween the manufacturing cost paid to the bottlers and the wholesale price of the tollproducts paid by the bottlersbecomesgross profits of the subcontracted products for Coca-
Cola Company and Coca-
Cola Japan.Regarding the sharing of expendituresfor marketing and sales promotions,while Coca
-
Cola Company and Coca
-
Cola Japan arelogically obligatedto fund the nationwide advertise-
ments and sales promotions for enhancing the value of the Coca
-
Cola's brands themselves, thelocalbottlers basically supply the funds for regional-
based advertisements and sales promotions. The regionaI marketing and salespromotion expenditures funded by the bottlers are included in the price of the concentrate,and thus,as the bottlers purchasethe concentrate,the expendituresare once collectedby Coca-
Cola Japan. Subsequently, t h e localbottlers are requiredto formulate annuallocalmarketing and salespromotion plansfor their territories and to budget for thoseplans. Eventually,Coca-
Cola Company and Coca-
Cola Japan reallocate funds to each bottler's plan through cost and benefit analysis although some discretion in thesedecisions might be involved. This means that,even if the expendi
-
ture is shared by Coca
-
Cola Company and the1ocalbottlers,Coca-
Cola Company might have the greater influence on how to useit.Discussion and Implications
Mechan i8m of Contr o l
.
Felstead (l993,p.203),by investigating Coca-
Cola's fran-
chisebusinessin Germany,remarkedthat inthe case of franchising,economic power is exercisednot by directly owing and controlling the physicalassets of doing business,but by controlling the useto which the intangible assets,such as the trade mark/idea/format,are put. In addition,this paper attempted to clarify the detailof Coca
-
Cola's internalcontrol mechanism. As summarizedinfigure5,Coca-
CoIa Company directs Coca-
Cola Japan to monitor tightly the behaviors of thelocalbottlers. Coca-
Cola Japan might take responsibil・ities for contro11ing the aspects of techno1ogy and product quality, a n d sharing of benefits while Coca
-
Cola Companymight be obIigated to influence the process of sharing benefits just by changing the wholesale price of concentrate.In the internationalfranchise,since the headcluarters islimited to approach1ocalfran
-
chisees because of physicaland psycho1ogicaldistance, t h e majority
-
owned foreign subsidi-
ary,such as Coca-Cola Japan,should play vitalroles to controlthe foreignlocalfranchisees through closely monitoring instead. Although the controlmechanism, named here as in
-
d i r e c t (=non
-
e(1uity)controlcombined with d i r e c t ( =equity)controI, differs from that based on FDI, it is stilI confirmed that the franchisor(Coca-
Cola Company)can effectiveIy controlthe foreign franchisees(foreign1ocalbottlers)there.Moreover, it should be emphasized that the wel1
-
established information system might constitute the essentials to make the controI mechanism effective. In the case of Coca-
Cola business in Japan,the AMMs hired by Coca-
Cola Japan convey the information regarding the Coca-
Cola's business policies and thelocalbottlers'operations from Coca-
Cola Company to the bottlers and11'1ceυe;sa. Such human networking based on the AMMs'activites,compar-
ed to the computer
-
based networl、
.ing, holds an advantage to gain verbaland non-verbal information deeply embedded in the decentralized1ocalbusiness context in which the1ocaI bottlers operate. Clearly,those kinds of 1ocaI information system are indispensable tolink the Coca-
Cola's strategy to the1ocalbottlers'implementation,especia1ly in the high-
context.12
Figure5. Mechanism of Controlof Coca-Cola Company in Japan
society,such as J a p a n (I-la1land Hall,1987;0gawa,1999).
As the practicaland managerialimplications for successfu11y controlling of the interna
-
tionalfranchise chain,this article might underline that franchisors should organize the
、、
.,e11- operated and majority-o、、
ned foreign subsidiaries,as1ocalfranchisors,and then establish the human-based netvl,orking, 1ed by the1ocalfranchisors, t o gain the1ocalinformation.Delining t he B o u n daries of MNC. As mentioned above, franchising might allo
、、
,Coca
-
Cola Compan、
to controlthe1ocalbottlers effectively. In particular, monitoring (samplinginspection and approved1ocalprocurement)and the information system(work of AMMs)through Coca-Cola Japan become key tools of control. In addition, Coca-
Cola Company has an influence on how benefits are shared with thelocalbottlers. Such indirect,but tight,controlthrough franchising raises a theoretica1(luestion:whether this entity that controls foreign business operations through a non
-
equity mode would be recognized as an MNCUnder the conventionaltheory,such as advocated by Hymer(1960), this entity would never be recognized as an MiN'C. The con
、
,entionaI theory、、
,ouldlead to the interpretation that Coca-
Cola Japan, as a whol]y-o、、
,ned subsidiary, is included in the boundaries of the MNC, b u t thelocalbottlers (franchisees) are excluded because of thelack of o、
vnership(FDI)linkage. Mean
、、
,hile, if the element of controlis emphasized, one isled to different conclusion. In fact,an effective management cycle of planning,doing and monitoring (see fig u r e 6 ) h a s been established bet、、
,een Coca-Cola Compan、
and thelocalbottlers. If one accepts the premise that the notion of controlis the key in defining what constitutes anFigure6. Management C
、
cle and Controlin Coc a-Cola Company in Jap an1 Standardization of product Localism
Manufacturing.
distributjng and marketing ofCoca
-
Cola's brands
m
1 1 S eApproving 的et inspsystem 的ion of l開lprocurementl Role ofAMMs to gatherlocalinlormation
Figure.7. Bound aries of MNCs Based on Two Different Perspectives
、
HQs Ooca-
Cola Japan(100%owned)
LocalBottlers (Franchisees) Conventional
Perspective 0wnership
一 - -
・̲
. 、
Internal- - - --- - - -
Internal- - - 一 ̲ 一 j
ExternalNew Perspective
0ontrol
一 ̲ -
, -
'
Internal、 一 - - ̲ - - - - -- ---
lnternal-- - -- - - - - - ̲ ー、
lnternal
・ 、
̲ 一 一
lll'- --
interna1organization,it follow that even the Japanese bottlers,as franchisees,are within the boundaries of the MNC known as Coca
-
Cola Company(seefigure7). Eventually, it is implied that the concept of contro1, especially in the internationalbusiness study, h a v e to detach from thef1o、、
,・of FDI,and then it bring internationalbusinessscholars more compre-
hensive interpretation regarding the nature of po
、、
er and contro1of MIN'Cs.Conclusion
Globalservice industries, some of them utilizing franchise system to expand their businesses, are rapidly growing with power and controlin recent years. Not surprisingly, this movement wi11gradua11ylead to modification of the conventionaldefinition of MNCs.
For instance, Jones (1996,p.6 ) h a s already pointed out that the existence of intermedi
-
ate modes bet
、 、
・een e、1porting and、、
'holly-
o、、
'ned FDI re-inforces the criticalpoint that the realsignificanceof MNEs is not as an institutionalvehicle for foreign investment. Also,Buckley and Casson(1998) have emphasized that new models of the MNC should take account of the 'flexible boundaries of the firm and their competitive advantages. Some other researchers ha
、
,e alread、
,begun the empiricalstudies to investigate effectiveness and advantages of non-e(luity modes,such as franchising,management contracts andlicensing,as foreign entry strategies and internationaldistribution channels(Contractor and Kundo,1998;ErramilIi et a1.2002). and the dynamic nature of po
、 、
,er and controlin the international franc、hise business(Quinn and Doherty.2000).This article suggests expanding the organizationalboundaries of MNCs to include non
-
e(luity relationships as we11as equity relationships is becoming essentialto understand the
・1・
TM;faya
,
na/C:
ontfo la,
ldBloundariesof the月'n nrealsignificance of MNCs. For instance,the conservativenessof Japanesemarket for foreignMNCs is sometime critiqued by foreigngovemments mainly based on the statistics of FDI. However,if the argument had taken account of thepenetration of foreign franchise businessowned by Japanesefranchisees,such as in fast food and cafe businesses,in Japan (Hibbert,2003),it mightlead to the opposite conclusion;that is,the opennessof Japanese market.
Notes
However
.
the officialcompany name imprintedin the annualreport is The Coca-
Cola Company.
notCoca
-
Cola Company.Obviously
.
Coca-
Cola Company doesnot disclosethe fulltext of franchiseagreement for outsiders. A fewscrapsof the agreement,however.
were referredin the interviews withseveral Japaneselocal bottlers. The interviews were conductedas follows:Chukyo Coca-
Cola Bottling (March26.
1996).
Coca
-
Cola Japan Company(March27,l997),Coca-
Cola NationalSalesCompany (March26,l997;July22
.
l999),Hokuriku Coca-
Cola Bottling (June4.
l999),Kinki Coca-
Cola Bottling(September8, l999).
Kitakyushu Coca-
Cola Bottling(March28-
29.
1999) andSendai Coca-
Cola Bottling ( M a y 2.
l996).
Coca
-
Cola Japan has never disclosed outsiders its organizationalchart. The organizationalstructure of Coca-
Cola Japan described here is basedon interviews with Coca-
Cola NationalSalesCompany (CCNSC) t h a t is asalesagent foundedinl995tosellCoca-
Cola's products toseveralbig nationwide retailchain stores.Based on annualfinancialstatements ofsomelistedIocalbottlers
.
Chukyo Coca-
Cola Bottling.
FujiCoca
-
Cola Bottling,Hokkaido Coca-
Cola Bottling,Kinki Coca-
Cola Bottling.
Kitakyushu Coca-
ColaBottling,MikasaCoca
-
Cola Bottling.
Mikuni Coca-
Cola Bottling.
Sanyo Coca-
Cola Bottling,are referenced.References
Bartlett,Christopher A.and Sumantra Ghoshal. (l989), Managing Across Border.'T heT m n snationa1 Solutio
,
l,Boston:Harvard BusinessSchoolPress.Buckley,Peter J.and Mark Casson.(l976)
.
TheFt tureof theMultinati,onalEnterl)rise,London:Macmillan.Buckley,Peter J.and Mark Casson.(l998),Models of the MultinationalEnterprise,J,oltrna1of I
'
tterna・ti'on,alBusm essStudies
.
2 9 ( l ) : 2 l-
44.Caves,Richard E.(l996)
.
Multinational E nte,
pn'se and Economic Analysis (updated ed.).
New York:Cambridge University Press.
Coase,Ronald H.(l937),The Nature of the Firm,Economica, 4 ( l 6 ) : 3 8 6
-
405.Coca
-
Cola Japan Company.(l987),TheFirstTlulrtyYe解s,Tokyo:Coca-
Cola (Japan)Company Ltd Contractor,Farok J.and Sumit K.Kundu. (l998),Franchising VersusCompany RunOperations:ModalChoice in the GlobalHotelSector,J'io u r n a ! o f 1
'
tternational M a'
itetiug.
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53.:
「
:
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