• 検索結果がありません。

Control and Boundaries of the Firm in the International Franchising : A Case Study of Coca-Cola Company in Japan

N/A
N/A
Protected

Academic year: 2021

シェア "Control and Boundaries of the Firm in the International Franchising : A Case Study of Coca-Cola Company in Japan"

Copied!
15
0
0

読み込み中.... (全文を見る)

全文

(1)

Control and Boundaries of the Firm in the International Franchising : A Case Study of Coca‑Cola Company in Japan

著者(英) MURAYAMA Takatoshi

journal or

publication title

The bulletin of the Institute for Research of Accounting, Tohoku Gakuin University

number 12

page range 33‑46

year 2004‑03‑31

URL http://id.nii.ac.jp/1204/00024249/

(2)

The Bulletin of the Institute for Research of  Accounting,No.l 2 (March2004)

.

pp.33

-

46

Publishedby the Institute for Research of Accounting,Tohoku Gakuin University

Controland Boundaries  of  the Firm  in  the International Franchising:A  Case  Study  of  Coca - Cola

Company  in Japan

*

Takatoshi Murayama* *

AbstractThis article attempts to expand the boundariesof  multinationalcorporations from an equity  mode (foreigndirect investment)to non

-

equity m o d e (franchising)Franchising by Coca

-

Cola Company in  Japan is investigated to revealthe mechanism of intemationalintemal controlbetween franchisors and franchisees.  The existence of  an effective controlmechanism is confirmed,while the narrow and restrictivescope of conventionaltheory is critiqued.  Finally,the necessity to considerflexible boundaries of multinationalcorporations is suggestedto understand the realsignilicance of multinationalcorporations.

Key Words.  Intemationalfranchising

.

multinationalcorporations,non

-

equity modes

.

power and

control,llexible boundaries of  multinationalcorporations

Introduction  .

Currently,gIobalservice companies,some of which use  franchising  to expand  their businessin foreign markets,are rapidly growing.  Thosecompanies enlarge not only their corporate brands but also power of controlin the globaIeconomy.  Nevertheless, i t  canbe thought that research on internationalfranchisecompanies hasbeen  fruitlessso far.

Especially,anaIyzing intemalmechanisms of intemationalfranchisecompanies is now being urged(Paswan,2002).

The purpose of this article is to investigatethe inside of a worldwide franchisecompany:

whether franchisors can controltheir foreignfranchisees and also  how  franchisors can controlthe operation of franchisees.  If  the companies can effectively  controlthem,this research also implies to extend the boundaries (Coase,1937;Felstead,l993;Wiamson,

This paper was originally presentedto2003AnnualConference of  AdministrativeSciences Associa

-

tion of Canada(ASAC)held in Halifax

.

Nova Scotia.  Author thanks academic advice from Dr.

Marc S.Mentzer and alsohelpfulcomments from participantsin the conference.

''Takatoshi

.

Murayama is Associate Professor of IntemationalBusiness Marketing and Management,, hpartment of  BusinessAdministration,Faculty of Economics

.

Tohoku Gakuin University

.

l

-

3

-

l

Tsuchitoi

.

AobakuSendai

.

Miyagi

Japan,ZIP980

-

85l1  E

-

mail;[email protected]

-

gakuin.

acjp

(3)

l.M!mya

'

na/Co1

'

tt

'

o l a n d B o! tndanesof theF ir m

l975) of multinationalcorporations (hereinafterMNCs).  In order to dealwith theseques

-

tions,the internaloperations of Coca

-

Cola Companyl in Japan are examined.

AnalyticalFramework: A Definition of MNCs

The definition of an MNC has been closelylinkedwithforeigndirect investment (FDI) since Hymer's dissertation,a breakthrough,inl960.  Hymer(l960)had emphasized con

-

tro「'of foreignbusinessunits(e.g.,foreignsubsidiary,foreignbranch,foreignsalesoflice and so forth)by its headquarters,and then recognized FDI as a strong toolof control.  Many internationalbusinessscholars,such as Buckley  and Casson(1976),Dunning(l988) and Kindleberger(1969),have followedand sophisticated Hymer's conventionaldefinition of the MNC.

A definition that emphasizesthe controlaspect of an MNC might be stillvalid.  A problem,however,is modes of control

Most of the conventionaltheories,if not all,stated that the ownership of the equity stake of foreignbusinessunits,known as anequity mode, constitutes controlof that unit.  For instance, Jones (1996,p.5) stated that the basic idea that MNEs(multinationalenterprises)engage in FDI which enables them to own and control assets in foreigncountriesis straightforward.  FDI is conventionally  used as a  proxy to measure the extent and direction of MNE activity.

Howeverespecially in recent  years,it has been becoming common for companiesto exploit non

-

equity modes,such as strategic alliances,licensing,franchising,leasing,manage

-

mentservice contracts andlong

-

term contracts,to expand their businessactivities and assets acrossborders (Contractor and  Kundu,1998;Erramilli eta l,2002;Quinn and  Doherty, 2000).  If the boundary of an MNC is simply definedbythe flow of FDI, the internationa1 companies that utilize non

-

equity modes aren't categorized as MNCs

.

In contrast,if  the boundary is defined in term of control, the outcome wbe slightly different from that suggested by the conventionaltheory.  In other words,the possibility that companies can tightly controltheir foreignbusinesses and assets by  the useof non

-

equity

modes exists there,and also the companies mightberecognizedas the MNCs(seefigure1).

At any rate,it is necessary to revisit the question raised by Caves (l996,p.1)in the past;

that is, What constitutes'control'over a foreignestablishment is another judgmentalissue.

Internationalbusinessscholars should positively dealwith this judgmenta「'issue and have to judge the realsignificance of  MNCs inthe present globalsociety.

This article focuses on internationalfranchising as a typicalnon

-

equity mode,which is not based on ownership,but on formalagreement between franchisors and franchisees,which

(4)

Figure1ModalChoices and Boundaries of  M

・ 、

1'Cs

--- - m

Equi

-

Wholly

-

owned

'〇 foreignsubsldiary

1

Majority

-

o wned

joint venture : Minority

-

ownedf(

amiale

〇 Franchisel

:

'

Attempt  to extend the boundary

foreign

Licenslng Strategic aIliance Long

-

termcontract

e

'

T

Necessity tolnvestigate them lthe future

are independent businesses Especia11y, the mechanism to controlthe foreign franchisees is investigated here.  Also, if controlthrough franchising  is confirmed, it fo11ows that  the definition of MNC ought to be espanded to include non-ec1uity modes as

ve11as e(luity modes.

In the next section,the internaland internationalbusiness process of Coca-Cola Company in Japan is examined to clarify the relation of  franchising to contro11ing.

Strategy and Controlin Coca-Cola's Franchise System BottIing System Based on the Franchise Agreement

It is 

,e11-kno

、、

,that Coca-Cola Company main1

,uses franchising, 1nown in Japan as the bottling system, to e1

pand their business operations domestically and internationa11y.

Their so

-

ca11ed business format, consisting of  their  production  system, expertise in marketing and distribution,traden

ar1

,and concentrate of  their drinks,is transferred to1oca1 franchisees through the franchise agreement.

Coca

-

Cola Company had made itsfirst franchise agreement with two1ocalbusinessmen of Tennessee on July21,1899(Coca-Cola Japan Company,1987;Pendergrast, l 9 9 3 ) This first600

、、

'ord contract clearly became a prototype of the current more sophisticated agree

-

ment. In the agreements,localfranchisees.often kno

、、

as 1ocalbottlers, aregranted the

(5)

T.Ml t

, 一 ̲

l1/Co

,

1l

,

o lan dBo1

̲

1a

,

1

,

:,sof 1/1cFi

,

m

exclusive right  to a  territory, and also  they have to build their production sites, hire employees, procure  delivery  vehicles  and other  materials, and  developlocaI  distribution channels using their own investments in the territory (seefigure2).  In contrast,Coca

-

Cola Company is  obligated to transfer  its business  format  and  sales  promotion  programs to support the business deve1opment of  thelocalbottlers The1ocalbottlers aIso  have to purchase concentrate of  the drinks from Coca

-

Cola Company and,needless to say,it becomes the main revenue of  Coca

-

Cola Company(Kohno and Murayama,1997).

The  wholesale price of  the concentrate  includes not  only  the cost of  the  concentrate itself,but also royalties for using the Coca

-

Cola Company's expertise and trademark.  Most of  Coca

-

Cola Company's revenues are generated  from selling  the concentrate  to  the1ocal bottlers Thus,if the sales volume(not profit ) o f  the1ocalbottlers expands,the revenue of Coca

-

Cola Company also  increases.  In  other  words, the financialresult of  Coca

-

Cola

Company is heavily dependent on the sales performance of  the1ocalbottlers,such that Coca- Cola Company  has  strong  incentive to expand  the  sales  volume of  the IocaI  bottlers.

Franchising is also recognized as the reciprocalbusiness system ;franchisers can quick1

,

expand their revenue

vithout their o

、、 -

n investment for physicalequipment and,in contrast, franchisees can smoothlylaunch their business relying on  the transferred business format.

A Japanese Coca

-

Cola bottling system had been structured by17bottlers and a foreign subsidiary of Coca

-

Cola Company until1999(seefigure3).  In recent years,however,some

36

Figure2Franchise S

stem of Coca-Cola Company

(6)

Figure3GeographicalLocation of Japanese Bottlers

oca

-

ola

w

est

Japan

: { =

Hoi,t dl;oCCBC

bottlers,such as Coca

-

Cola West Japan and Coca

-

Cola Central Japan, merged  with other bottIers  to form anchor  bottlers in  order to share strategic objectives  with  Coca

-

Cola Company, t o  pursue greater economies of  scale and scope(FeIstead,1993), and  to sustain competitive advantages against a new strong competitor, Pepsi

-

Suntory(a Japaneselarge alcoholic and beverage producer)coalition formed in1997.

The duration of a franchise agreement is basically10 years in Japan.  In many cases,it might be expanded to20 years without renegotiating process.  If  there are not any serious violations of the agreement in the previous contractuaI term,the same bottler couldlegally renew the agreement regarding the same territory(Emerson,1998).

InternationalStrategy

Coca

-

Cola Company operates its business system in nearly200 countries (The Coca

-

Cola Company,2001) and has an internationalstrategy to integrate its worldwide operations.

The fundamentals of the internationalstrategy,consisting of  product standardization and localization, had been  formulated by Robert W.Woodruff (known as The Boss )in the 1930's and have guided its internationalization process ever since.

The strategy of product standardization exists to maintain the same high quality and the sameflavor of products, Coca

-

Cola, Sprite, Fanta, Mel1o Ye11ow, Minute Maid and so forth,allover  the  world, thus creating a g1oba11y  unified  brand  image  of Coca

-

Cola

(7)

Company and its productsin the huge globalmarket.  The corporate brand and  product brands arethe most valuable intangible assets,which vaIue is equivalent to$70.4 5 bion in 2003(Reuters News Service

.

2003),to generate revenues in Coca

-

Cola Company.  Hence,

Coca

-

Cola Company places the highest priority on protecting their value.

Localization hasbeen basedon one of Woodruff's credos (Coca

-

Cola Japan Company,

1987); A healthy worldeconomy depends on a healthylocaleconomy.   Thus,Coca

-

Cola

Company organizes businesspartnerships withlocalfranchiseesand the franchiseesprocure ingredients,containers (bottles and cans),production equipment,delivery vehicles and so on fromlocalmarkets in order to promote healthylocaleconomies.  If the wagelevels and the living standards risebecausethelocaleconomy is developing,people can afford to purchase soft drinks including Coca

-

Cola Company's brands.  MoreoverCoca

-

Cola Company can expect to avoid hostiIity fromlocalconsumers by promoting friendships withlocaleconomy and industry.

Controlof Bottlers'0perations

Coca

-

Cola Company has  to  controlthelocalbottlers,which produce and distribute products in eachlocalmarket,to operationa「ize the internationalstrategy well.  In this section,severalcontrolmechanisms of  franchising,such as monitoring system,information system and sharing of benefits,in Japanesemarket are investigated.

Mon,itormgS l

'

8te m

It is dispensable for product standardization,an essentialpart of the internationalstrategy,that thelocalbottlers purchase the right concentrate from Coca

-

Cola Company,use the right materials approved by Coca

-

Cola Company,and manufacture and distribute products usingthe right method.  Thus,Coca

-

Cola Company has a monitoring system to ensure that thelocalbottlers never deviate from the proper procedure.  In the Japanesemarket,Coca

-

Cola Japan Company Ltd. (hereil M

f

ter Coca

-

Cola Japan),a wholly

-

owned foreignsubsidiary of Coca

-

Cola Company,implements periodicsecret inspections of fnalproducts  in  eachlocalbottler's market.  After  picking  up samplesfrom vending machines,shelves of retailstore and so forthin each bottler's territory,and bringing them to Coca

-

Cola Japan's chemicallaboratory,Coca

-

Cola Japan analyzes  their  ingredients and formulas.  If alocalbottler violates the technicalconditions spedfied by Coca

-

Cola Com

-

pany,Coca

-

Cola Japan enforces the bottler to review its manufacturing processand advises it on corrections.  0 f  course,Coca

-

Cola Company can terminate the franchiseagreement in the worst cases.  Also,Coca

-

Cola Japan keepsthe inspectionssecret,especially about when and where,so that each bottler has to be sensitive to their quality controlat alltimes

.

38

(8)

l

:

Mtralyama/Contro l a n dBlotmdan'esof theF i1rm

Even if the strategyof localization describedin textbooks of internationalmanagement involvesdecentralization of power tolocaI franchisees (Bartlett and Ghoshal,l989;Porter, 1986),it is operationalizedwithcentralized controlpolicy  in Coca

-

Cola Company

For

instance,regarding Iocalprocurement of  product materials,thelocalbottlers are  never permitted their own discretion in choosingsuppliers.  Coca

-

Cola Company and Coca

-

Cola

Japan hold the power toselect suppliers,to examinethe quality of materials produced by the suppliersand to approve them.  In the case of building a new plant,for instance,even if the localbottlers are obligated to finance allof it,they also have to accept detailedtechnical inspections,implemented by Coca

-

Cola  Japan's technicalstaff,regarding  building sites, quality of water,plantlayout and so on.  In other words,Coca

-

Cola Company can fully interfere in the production processand quality controlsystem of the new plant owned by the locaI bottlers without anyfinancialobligations.

InfiormationSUstem

An information system  is also indispensable to an effective contro11ing system

Coca

-

Cola Company and Coca

-

Cola Japan have to analyze constantly incoming information regardinglocalbottlers'behaviors.

Area MarketingManagers (herein

,

a

ft

er AMMs)have an important role in gathering information of localbottlers andlinking Coca

-

Cola Company's strategyto1ocalbottlers' operations.  The  AMMs,employedby Coca

-

Cola  Japan,visit thelocalbottlers'offices severaltimes for a week.  Inthis process,theysend  thelocalbottlers documentation regarding Coca

-

Cola Company's businessplans,product policies,marketing and sales promo

-

tions,while simultaneously gathering the information regarding businessplans,performances and managerialproblems of  thelocalbottlers.

The information gatheredbythe AMMs is constantly brought back to Coca

-

Cola Japan, and shared and analyzed amongthe departmentsof Coca

-

Cola Japan,such as the technical department(including quality controland production),the marketing department and the support staff (regardinglegaland public relation)3,andthensent to Coca

-

Cola Company's

world headquarters by the useof the internaI globalinformation system.   For example, industrialanalystscommentedonthe information system structured by Roberto Goizueta and Douglas Ivester,who arethe former CEOs of Coca

-

Cola Company,as follow; the company's globalsystem,which gathersbottler data from alloverthe world and is accessible through  the company's  information network.  The company carefully  monitors  what  is happening market  by  market  worldwide.  Any  trendsthat develop  are  picked  up  and projects are monitoredmonthly.  'Having that information system,andseeing from sales data that thingsaren't goingthe waythey should[in a particular market]

-

within week,'

(9)

makes it much easier for the company to jump on a given probIem or opportunity  (Ho11eran,

1996,p.35). Obviously,Coca

-

Cola Company not only utilizes the information for contro11ing bottlers'operations but also uses it in the formation of  ne

vbusiness poIicies.

Economi c F1oulsan d S harin g, of Benefits.  Atleast  four economic flows between Coca-Cola Company and the1ocalbottlers can be confirmed(seefigure4).4

Regarding the wholesale purchase of  concentrate,as referred to above, t h e  bottlers are obligated to purchase concentrate from Coca

-

Cola Company at a certain price Thus,since the dilution rate of  concentrate isfixed,the revenue of Coca-Cola Company rises in propor

-

tion to expansion of  the bottlers'sale volume The price of concentrate islega11y determined by Coca-CoIa Con

pany,

、、

,hiIe it does change due to inflation,currencyfluctuation and other reasonable reasons Although changing the price is a subject of  negotiation between Coca

-

Cola Company and the1ocalbottlers,Coca-Cola Company might hold the stronger negotiat

-

ing position against the1ocalbottIers because of  its monopoly  power as the only se11er  of concentrate.  A  certain  portion of  the concentrate  price, as  a  consideration for  using valuable  brand name  and  trademark, is transmitted to  Coca-Cola's world headquarters through Coca-Cola  Japan.

Regarding tht o l l p r o d u c t (see also  FeIstead,1993), thelocaI bottlers are forced to purchase severalfinished products ca11ed as the to1lproducts,such as So-K e

,

1-B i-C11a ( a Japanese mixed ready

-

to

-

drink t e a ) , Minute Maid and so  forth, from Coca-Cola  Japan.

10

Figure4Economic Flows in Coca-Col a Business

(10)

In this case,thelocalbottlers pay Coca

-

Cola Japan  forthe wholesale price of  the  toll products,and then addthe margin and sellthem to retailers orfinalconsumers.  The pricing processof the product might be similar tothat of  the concentrate.

Regarding the subcontracted products,more complicated than the other deals,Coca

-

Cola Japan subcontracts  the  bottlers,especia1ly  who  own well

-

developed facilities, t o

manufacture certain products,such a s So

-

Ken

-

B i

-

Cha.   Subsequently,Coca

-

Cola Japan

once purchases the productsfrom the bottlersby paying the manufacturing cost,and then wholesales them,as the to1lproducts, t o  the bottlers again.  Also,Coca

-

Cola Japan and the bottlers sometimes jointly invested  in  the new production facilitiesfor the subcontracted products.  Needless  to  say,the differentialbetween  the manufacturing cost paid  to  the bottlers and the wholesale price of the tollproducts paid by the bottlersbecomesgross profits of the subcontracted products for Coca

-

Cola Company and Coca

-

Cola Japan.

Regarding the sharing of expendituresfor marketing and sales promotions,while Coca

-

Cola Company and Coca

-

Cola Japan arelogically obligatedto fund the nationwide advertise

-

ments and sales promotions for enhancing the value of the Coca

-

Cola'brands themselves, thelocalbottlers basically supply  the  funds for regional

-

based advertisements and sales promotions.  The regionaI  marketing  and  salespromotion  expenditures  funded  by  the bottlers are included in the price of the concentrate,and thus,as the bottlers purchasethe concentrate,the expendituresare once collectedby Coca

-

Cola Japan.  Subsequently, t h e localbottlers are requiredto formulate annuallocalmarketing and salespromotion plansfor their territories and to budget for thoseplans.  Eventually,Coca

-

Cola Company and Coca

-

Cola Japan reallocate funds to each bottler's plan through cost and benefit analysis although some discretion in thesedecisions might be involved.  This means that,even if  the expendi

-

ture is shared by Coca

-

Cola Company and the1ocalbottlers,Coca

-

Cola Company might have the greater influence on how to useit.

Discussion and Implications

Mechan i8m of Contr o l

Felstead (l993,p.203),by investigating Coca

-

Cola's fran

-

chisebusinessin Germany,remarkedthat inthe case of  franchising,economic power is exercisednot by directly owing and controlling the physicalassets of doing business,but by controlling the useto which the intangible assets,such as the trade mark/idea/format,are put.   In addition,this paper attempted to clarify the detailof Coca

-

Cola's internalcontrol mechanism.  As summarizedinfigure5,Coca

-

CoIa Company directs Coca

-

Cola Japan to monitor tightly the behaviors of thelocalbottlers.  Coca

-

Cola Japan might take responsibil

(11)

ities for contro11ing  the aspects of  techno1ogy  and  product quality, a n d  sharing of  benefits while Coca

-

Cola Companymight be obIigated to influence the process of sharing benefits just by changing the wholesale price of  concentrate.

In the internationalfranchise,since the headcluarters islimited to approach1ocalfran

-

chisees because of  physicaland psycho1ogicaldistance, t h e  majority

-

owned foreign subsidi

-

ary,such as Coca-Cola Japan,should play vitalroles to controlthe foreignlocalfranchisees through closely  monitoring instead Although  the controlmechanism, named here as in

-

d i r e c t (=non

-

e(1uity)controlcombined with d i r e c t ( =equity)controI, differs  from  that based on FDI, it is stilI confirmed that the franchisor(Coca

-

Cola Company)can effectiveIy controlthe foreign franchisees(foreign1ocalbottlers)there.

Moreover, it should be emphasized that the wel1

-

established information system might constitute the essentials to make the controI mechanism effective In the case of Coca

-

Cola business in Japan,the AMMs hired by Coca

-

Cola Japan convey the information regarding the Coca

-

Cola's business policies and thelocalbottlers'operations from Coca

-

Cola Company to the bottlers and11'1ceυe;sa Such human networking based on the AMMs'activites,compar

-

ed to the computer

-

based networl

.ing, holds an advantage to gain verbaland non-verbal information deeply embedded in the decentralized1ocalbusiness context in which the1ocaI bottlers operate Clearly,those kinds of  1ocaI  information system are indispensable tolink the Coca

-

Cola's strategy to the1ocalbottlers'implementation,especia1ly in the high

-

context

.12

Figure5.  Mechanism of Controlof Coca-Cola Company in Japan

(12)

society,such as J a p a n (I-la1land Hall,1987;0gawa,1999).

As the practicaland managerialimplications for successfu11y controlling of  the interna

-

tionalfranchise chain,this article might underline that franchisors should organize the

、、

.,e11- operated and majority-o

、、

ned foreign subsidiaries,as1ocalfranchisors,and then establish the human-based netvl,orking, 1ed by the1ocalfranchisors, t o  gain the1ocalinformation.

Delining t he B o u n daries of MNC As mentioned  above, franchising  might allo

、、

,

Coca

-

Cola  Compan

、 

to controlthe1ocalbottlers effectively In  particular, monitoring (samplinginspection and approved1ocalprocurement)and the information system(work of AMMs)through Coca-Cola Japan  become key  tools  of  control In  addition, Coca

-

Cola Company has an influence on how benefits are shared with thelocalbottlers Such indirect,

but tight,controlthrough franchising raises a  theoretica1(luestion:whether this entity that controls foreign business operations through a non

-

equity mode would be recognized as an MNC

Under the conventionaltheory,such as advocated by Hymer(1960), this entity would never be recognized as an MiN'C The con

,entionaI theory

、、

,ouldlead to the interpretation that Coca

-

Cola Japan, as whol]y-o

、、

,ned  subsidiary, is included  in the boundaries of the MNC, b u t  thelocalbottlers (franchisees) are excluded because  of thelack of o

vnership

(FDI)linkage Mean

、、

,hile, if the element of controlis emphasized, one isled to different conclusion.  In fact,an effective management cycle of  planning,doing and monitoring (see fig u r e 6 ) h a s  been established bet

、、

,een Coca-Cola Compan

、 

and  thelocalbottlers.  If  one accepts the premise that the  notion of  controlis the key  in defining  what constitutes an

Figure6Management C

cle and Controlin Coc a-Cola  Company  in Jap an

Standardization of product Localism

Manufacturing.

distributjng and marketing ofCoca

-

Cola'brands

m

1 S eApproving et inspsystem 的ion of llprocurement

RolofAMMs to gatherlocalinlormation

(13)

Figure.7Bound aries of MNCs Based on Two Different Perspectives

HQs Ooca

-

Cola  Japan

(100%owned)

LocalBottlers (Franchisees) Conventional

Perspective 0wnership

一  - 

̲

. 、 

Internal

- - - --- - - -

Internal 

- - - 一 ̲ 一 j

External

New Perspective

0ontrol

一 ̲ -

, -

Internal

、 一 - - ̲ - - - - -- ---

lnternal

-- - -- - - - - - ̲ ー、

lnternal 

̲

lll'

- --

interna1organization,it follow that even the Japanese bottlers,as franchisees,are within the boundaries of  the  MNC known  as Coca

-

Cola Company(seefigure7).  Eventually, it is implied that the concept of  contro1, especially  in the internationalbusiness study, h a v e  to detach from thef1o

、、

,・of  FDI,and then it bring internationalbusinessscholars more compre

-

hensive interpretation regarding the nature of  po

、、

er and contro1of MIN'Cs.

Conclusion

Globalservice  industries, some  of  them utilizing franchise system  to expand  their businesses, are rapidly growing with power and controlin recent years Not surprisingly, this movement wi11gradua11ylead to modification of  the conventionaldefinition of MNCs.

For instanceJones (1996,p.6 ) h a s  already pointed out that the existence of  intermedi

-

ate modes bet

、 、

een e1porting and

、、

'holly

-

o

、、

'ned FDI re-inforces the criticalpoint  that  the realsignificanceof MNEs is not as an institutionalvehicle for  foreign investment.   Also,

Buckley and Casson(1998) have emphasized  that  new  models of the MNC should take account of  the 'flexible boundaries of the firm and their competitive advantages Some other researchers ha

,e alread

,begun the empiricalstudies to investigate effectiveness and advantages of non-e(luity modes,such as franchising,management contracts andlicensing,as foreign entry strategies and internationaldistribution channels(Contractor and Kundo,1998;

ErramilIi et a1.2002). and  the dynamic  nature of po

、 、

,er and controlin the  international franchise business(Quinn and Doherty.2000).

This article suggests expanding the organizationalboundaries of MNCs to include non

-

e(luity relationships as we11as equity  relationships is becoming essentialto understand  the

1

(14)

TM;faya

,

na/C

:

ontfo la

,

ldBloundariesof the'n n

realsignificance of MNCs.  For  instance,the conservativenessof  Japanesemarket  for foreignMNCs is sometime critiqued by foreigngovemments mainly based on the statistics of FDI.  However,if the argument had taken account of thepenetration of foreign franchise businessowned by Japanesefranchisees,such as in fast food and cafe businesses,in Japan (Hibbert,2003),it mightlead to the opposite conclusion;that is,the opennessof Japanese market.

Notes

However

.

the officialcompany name imprintedin the annualreport is The Coca

-

Cola Company

.

not

Coca

-

Cola Company.

Obviously

.

Coca

-

Cola Company doesnot disclosethe fulltext of franchiseagreement for outsiders.  A fewscrapsof  the agreement,however

.

were referredin the interviews withseveral Japaneselocal bottlers.  The interviews were conductedas follows:Chukyo Coca

-

Cola Bottling (March26

.

1996)

.

Coca

-

Cola Japan Company(March27,l997),Coca

-

Cola NationalSalesCompany (March26,l997;

July22

.

l999),Hokuriku Coca

-

Cola Bottling (June4

.

l999),Kinki Coca

-

Cola Bottling(September8, l999)

.

Kitakyushu Coca

-

Cola Bottling(March28

-

29

.

1999) andSendai Coca

-

Cola  Bottling ( M a y 2

.

l996).

Coca

-

Cola Japan has never disclosed outsiders its organizationalchart.  The organizationalstructure of Coca

-

Cola Japan described here is basedon interviews with Coca

-

Cola NationalSalesCompany (CCNSC) t h a t  is asalesagent foundedinl995tosellCoca

-

Cola's products toseveralbig nationwide retailchain stores.

Based on annualfinancialstatements ofsomelistedIocalbottlers

.

Chukyo Coca

-

Cola Bottling

.

Fuji

Coca

-

Cola Bottling,Hokkaido Coca

-

Cola Bottling,Kinki Coca

-

Cola Bottling

.

Kitakyushu Coca

-

Cola

Bottling,MikasaCoca

-

Cola Bottling

.

Mikuni Coca

-

Cola  Bottling

.

Sanyo Coca

-

Cola Bottling,are referenced.

References

Bartlett,Christopher  A.and Sumantra Ghoshal(l989), Managing Across Border.'T heT m n snationa1 Solutio

,

l,Boston:Harvard BusinessSchoolPress.

Buckley,Peter J.and Mark Casson.(l976)

.

TheFt tureof theMultinati,onalEnterl)rise,London:Macmillan.

Buckley,Peter J.and Mark Casson.(l998),Models of the MultinationalEnterprise,J,oltrna1of I

'

tterna

ti'on,alBusm essStudies

.

2 9 ( l ) : 2 l

-

44.

Caves,Richard E.(l996)

.

Multinational E nte

,

pn'se and Economic Analysis (updated ed.)

.

New York:

Cambridge University Press.

Coase,Ronald H.(l937),The Nature of  the Firm,Economica, 4 ( l 6 ) : 3 8 6

-

405.

Coca

-

Cola Japan Company.(l987),TheFirstTlulrtyYes,Tokyo:Coca

-

Cola (Japan)Company Ltd Contractor,Farok J.and Sumit K.Kundu. (l998),Franchising VersusCompany RunOperations:Modal

Choice in the GlobalHotelSector,J'io u r n a ! o f 1

'

tternational M a

'

itetiug

.

6 ( 2 ) : 2 8

-

53.

(15)

:

:

Murlalyama/Controtand Bloundariesof theFim

Dunning, John H. (1988),.Exl

,

1,a'm'ngInternationalProduction,London: Unwin Hyman.

Emerson,Robert W.(1998),FranchiseTermination:LegalRights and PracticalEffect When Franchisees Claim the Franchisor Discriminates.Amen'can BusmessLau

,

Jlournat, 3 5 ( 4 ) : 5 5 9

-

645.

Erramilli

.

Krishna M.,Sanjeev Agarwaland Chekitan S.Dev.(2002),Choicebetween Non

-

Equity Entry Modes:AnOrganizationalCapability Perspective,Jliotrnatoflnternati1onalBusinessStudies,33(2):

223

-

242.

F:elstead

.

Alan. (1993),T heCo

,

l)omtelRa

,

adox.' Pou;erand ControlintheBusinessFranchise,London:

Routledge.

Hall,Edward T.and MildredR.Hall.(l987),H

u

denDilferences.Doing Businessu

,

iththeJapanese,New York:Anchor Book.

Holleran

Joan.(1996),The King of Coca

-

Cola:Roberto Goizueta,Beverage Industry's l996Executive of the Year,Bel

,

emge lndustry

.

Nov.1996:pp.34

-

40.

Hibbert,Edgar.(2003),The New Framework  for GlobalTrade i n Service:Allabout GATS, S e r t

,

ice 1ndustriesJliournal, 2 3 ( 2 ) : 6 7

-

78.

Hymer,Stephen H.(l960),T he1

,

ttemationa1〇pemtionsof NationalFirms. AStudyof F:,oret'g nDirect 1m;estm ent, P h.D.dissertation in MIT,published by MIT Pressunder the same title in1976.

Jones,Geoffrey.(1996),T h e Et

,

otut,onof Internatt'ona1Business. An lntroducfi,1on,London:Routledge.

Kindleberger,CharlesP. (1969),Ame n'can Busines,s Abroad. Six Lectnreson D irectl nt;estment, N e w Haven:Yale University Press.

Kohno,Shouzou and  Takatoshi Murayama. (1998),Shimoa

,

to Manalgement.Coca

-

Cota no K,ei,eishi

(Managementof M y t h

.

ABusinessHistoryofTheCoca

-

CotaCompany),Yokohama:Mahoroba Shobou.

Murayama,Takatoshi.(l999),Non Ekuiti Ni Yoru Zaigaijigyou no Kontororu:Koka Kola No Jirei Wo Chushin To Shite(Controlof ForeignBusinessby Non

-

Equity Mode:A Caseof Coca

-

Cola) , i n

Nihon Keiei G a k k a i (ed),2 1 S;eiki

,

toK,lgyouKeiei (Business M a

,

lagem ent the

n

l1enty

-

F irst

Clenttry.' TheProceedingof 6 9aConferenceofJ'iapa n S oaletyofBusinessAdministmtion),Tokyo:

Chikura Shoubou.

Murayama,Takatoshi.(2003),Gendai VV4gahtm i n oSei

,

:yo l n r y o Bizinesum'KanstruKenkyl l

u

)yna

,

m'cs

? t he ModernS( )f t D r i:n k Btsiness i nJapan),Ph.D.dissertation in Tohoku University.

Ogawa,Susumu. (l998),DoesSticky Information Affect theLocus of  lnnovation?:Evidence from JapaneseConvenience

-

Store Industry, ResearchPo llicy,26:777

-

790.

Paswan

.

AudheshK. (2002),Franchising:Some Insights

.

Jl,otmatof Marketing Channels

.

1 0 ( 2 ) : l

-

2.

Pendergrast,Mark.(1993),F'orGod,Cotntry,j andCoca

-

Co1la.An Unauthonzed Historyof theGreat Am e ncanSoft D r ili;k a n d t heCompany ThatMake

n

,New York:Macmillan.

Porter,MichealE.(ed.)(1986),C1ompetitiottm G1lobalIndustries,Boston:Harvard BusinessSchoolPress.

Quinn

.

Barryand Doherty Marie.(2000),Power and ControlinlnternationalRetailFranchising:Evidence from Theory and Practice

.

internationalMarketil,tgRetlieto , 1 7 ( 5 ) : 3 5 4

-

372.

ReutersNews Service

.

Samsung's  Brand Value Gains Most

-

BusinessWeek

.

F

,

orbes.com (http://www.

forbes.com/newswire/2003/07/24/rtrl037278.html),July24,2003.

The Coca

-

Cola Company.(l998)

.

AnnuatReport1998,Atlanta:The Coca

-

Cola Company.

The Coca

-

Cola Company.(2001)

.

AnnualReport200 1,Atlanta:The Coca

-

Cola Company.

Williamson,0liver E.(l975),Market and H11emrlchies.Analysisand Anti

-

Trustlmp

n

lcations

.

New York:

FreePress.

46

Figure . 7 .  Bound aries of  MNCs  Based on Two Different Perspectives

参照

関連したドキュメント

We present sufficient conditions for the existence of solutions to Neu- mann and periodic boundary-value problems for some class of quasilinear ordinary differential equations.. We

Analogs of this theorem were proved by Roitberg for nonregular elliptic boundary- value problems and for general elliptic systems of differential equations, the mod- ified scale of

Then it follows immediately from a suitable version of “Hensel’s Lemma” [cf., e.g., the argument of [4], Lemma 2.1] that S may be obtained, as the notation suggests, as the m A

Definition An embeddable tiled surface is a tiled surface which is actually achieved as the graph of singular leaves of some embedded orientable surface with closed braid

Correspondingly, the limiting sequence of metric spaces has a surpris- ingly simple description as a collection of random real trees (given below) in which certain pairs of

[Mag3] , Painlev´ e-type differential equations for the recurrence coefficients of semi- classical orthogonal polynomials, J. Zaslavsky , Asymptotic expansions of ratios of

“Indian Camp” has been generally sought in the author’s experience in the Greco- Turkish War: Nick Adams, the implied author and the semi-autobiographical pro- tagonist of the series

[r]