Trends and Forms of Timber Production Dealing
in Okukuji Area, Fukushima Prefecture, Japan
著者
SEKINE Ryohei, MIROKUJI Kouta
雑誌名
The science reports of the Tohoku University.
7th series, Geography
巻
54
号
1/2
ページ
1-23
発行年
2005
URL
http://hdl.handle.net/10097/45265
in Okukuji Area, Fukushima
Prefecture,
JapanRyohei SEKINE* and Kouta MIROKUJI**
Abstract We undertake this study to (i) investigate trends in Japanese for-estry, (ii) investigate changes in forestry policy considered in the Okukuji area and related regional action, (iii) investigate changes in the distribution of logs and timber, and (iv) document the current situation regarding log production dealers and sawing dealers. Log production dealers in the Okukuji area are divided into those with a business focus on national forests and those with a focus on private forests. Many dealers changed the forest to aim at it, and have changed their business objectives. While this has involved decreasing deal with national forests as other opportunities arose, different dealers reacted differently to new situations. When resources are rare in the Okukuji area, a dealer must be active outside the Okukuji area, but there are many dealers who market logs to the Okukuji area. Many sawing dealers source logs from the binary log market (OTDC, HSLM) in the Okukuji area, while, some dealers source logs without a clear market channel. Such dealers fulfill a customer order by direct and flexible log purchases. The themes of the Okukuji area are the monogenesis administration from the production to sales that "Valley Control System" aims at on the one hand, and the consistency with original corporate activity of dealers on the other. In addition, as the Government and the private forest owners are owners of the forest, the decline in timber serviceability in privately owned forests, in particular, creates a serious bottle-neck in the forestry sector.
Key words : forestry, Valley Control System, log production dealer, sawing dealer, Okukuji area
1. Introduction
Japanese forestry is currently in decline. The importation of
creased since 1961, and domestic forestry has declined due to a slump
timber since the second half of the 1990s. In addition, degradation of
timber has in demand forests due in-for to
* Institute of Urban Environment and Environmental Geography , Graduate School of mental Studies, Tohoku University
** Aizu Agriculture and Forestry Office, Fukushima Prefectural Government Science Reports of Tohoku University, 7th Series (Geography)
2 Ryohei SEKINE and Kouta MIROKUJI
the aging and decreasing number of foresters is of concern. Although approximately
40% of Japanese forests are plantations intended for economic use, these forests are
currently commonly neglected. The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries
of Japan (2000) identifies the following reasons for the generally poor advancement of
forestry in Japan :
1) forest owners developed an attachment to the forest.
2) forest does not require frequent work like farmland.
3) forest does not require prompt harvesting.
4) In forestry, the merits of scale are not immediately obvious.
5) The profitability of forestry has declined, and enthusiasm for forestry has
dropped.
Forestry in Japan is commonly viewed in terms of land conservation and
contribu-tion to the regional economy, however, forestry requires a long period of time from
planting to felling, and most forests are operated on a small scale. Such small forests
have low productivity, and may have a variety of business structures. In such cases,
it is difficult to increase the interest of investors in an area, increase cooperation
between dealers, and construct an effective production system.
The history of forestry studies in Japan can be classified into three periods. Early
studies were of individual forest owners ; the second period involved studies of the
function and characteristics of the forestry owners association, while the third period
involved studies of log production dealers and sawing dealers. The studies of
individ-ual forest owners were published in the first halt of the 1960s when family forest
management, which was active in increasing afforestation, was investigated. Kamino
(1962), Akabane (1978), Funakoshi (1993) examined individual forest owners within the
context of the 'polarization of farmers' theory, and discussed the merits and pitfalls of
capitalistic development. In addition, the study that examined characters and
prob-lems looked into family operation and their combination of agriculture and forestry
was performed. For example, Kira (1989) documented that the survival of family
forestry operations was supported by capital improvements achieved by diversifying
into both agriculture and forestry, and forest road maintenance and processing of
small volumes of logs by the forest owner's association. In addition, Kooroki (1996)
demonstrated that individual forest owners with forests of 50-100 ha were able to
survive with reinvestment from the outside of the forestry itself.
However, such areas are few in Japan, and in terms of forest administration, a
working party of the forest owner's association is the principal manager in many areas
(Takano and Arai, 2002). Prior to World War II the forest owners association was
controlled by the national government. Early studies were therefore interested in the
ideal organization of the forest owners association, while, an increasing number of
association, and attach great importance to this role in rural areas. For example,
Shiga (1995) compared a Japanese forestry owners association with a European
forestry owners association, and noted that the former forest owners association is
primarily a caretaker of forest policy, but does not have a background in the
produc-tion and marketing of timber as is the case in North Europe. The Japanese
associa-tions also do not have policy in terms of the collegial organization of forest owners ;
forests are generally small-scale and based on family labor, as also appears to be the
case in Europe. Shiga (1995) concluded that the Japanese forest owners association is
a "forestry contract capital", intermediate in character between the systems of West
Europe and North Europe. Takano and Arai (2002) emphasize that forest owner's
associations can progress significantly by diversifying contracts between forestry and
public service, participating in tourism organizations and other modernizing
initia-tives. Although, such characteristics are considered to be similar for log production
dealers') and sawing dealers2), there are few studies on log production dealers and
sawing dealers. Ando (1978) documented the progress of a large-scale dealer in
pulpwood production in Hokkaido and a small-scale dealer in Gifu prefecture.
Kitagawa (1984) noted that except for dealers in Hokkaido, log production dealers are
unable to become independent companies.
Many studies of individual forest owners, forest owner's associations, log
produc-tion dealers and sawing dealers emphasize that until now, Japanese forestry policy has
not considered regional differences, and timber imports have rapidly increased. In
terms of the individual forest owner, the position as land holder is strong in areas other
than South-Kyushu District, although the forest owners association has failed to meet
the expectations in terms of environment and industry. The capitalist development of
log production dealers is difficult in all areas except for those that contain many
national forests. However, as with the "Valley Control System" that the Forestry
Agency started to promote in 1992, the systematization of forestry remains a problem.
Meanwhile, individual forest owners, forest owner's associations, and log production
dealers have been examined separately, in a conventional way. In addition, there are
few studies on sawing dealers. Therefore little is known on the reality of
relation-ships among different actors on which to form a basis for systematization.
To address this problem, in this study we clarify changes in the current
organiza-tion of forestry businesses, log producorganiza-tion dealers, sawing dealers who are the initial
wood consumer, and regional forestry production systems. This report is based on the
data from the Okukuji area of Fukushima prefecture, Tohoku district, Japan (Figure
1). We selected this area because it has experienced production center formation
since the 1970s, and has seen increasing numbers of lumber markets, sawing dealers,
and log production dealers. The area is small in terms of the size of the area assigned
4 Ryohei SEKINE and Kouta MIROKUJI
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To Iwaki 0Km , Fig. 1 To Mito Location of Okukuji areabetween private and national forests because the proportion of national and private
forest in most areas resembles that of the Tohoku District. That is to say, this study
can address these subjects collectively. We undertake this study to (i) investigate
trends in Japanese forestry, (ii) investigate changes in forestry policy considered in the
Okukuji area and related regional action, (iii) investigate changes in the distribution of
logs and timber, and (iv) document the current situation regarding log production
dealers and sawing dealers.
2. Changes in postwar forestry and its characteristics in the Tohoku district
Prior to World War II, forests in Japan were used for mowing and fuel collection3).
The main purpose of forest policy was the sustainable use of the forest. Destructive
tree felling began following World War II. Wood was required for use as mine timber
and for reconstruction following war damage. In response to this demand, the
Forestry Planning System was introduced in 1951 to ensure sound forestry practices.
The Forest Law was enforced in the same year, and was concerned with cooperative
organization of the forest owners associations.
From the early 1970s, rapid economic growth saw the advent of expansive
afforestation to meet high demand for quality timber. In Japan, the price of Japanese
while the volume of domestic log production decreased from 43,250,000 m3 in 1960 to
42,990,000 m3 in 1970 because many logs reached maturity at this time. Augmentation
of timber serviceability became an urgent policy agenda, and a nationwide change
occurred from natural forest to plantation plantings of Japanese Cedar, Hinoki
Cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa) and Japanese larch (Larix leptolepis). At that time,
individual small to medium sized family forest owners led the forestry sector. The
First Forestry Structure Improvement Project (1964-1971) started with the Basic Law
of Forestry promulgation of 1964, promoting expansion of the management foundation
of individually owners of small to medium sized forests, income gap correction among
industries, modernization of the forest and field of physical structure, maintenance of
forest roads, and the mechanization of forestry. Management of the national forests,
which provided the base funding for these projects, was of a high standard at this time.
Therefore a large amount of surplus funds were allotted to the construction of forest
roads and the substantiality of machinery and equipment. From 1959 to 1968, the
national general account allocated a total of 42 billions yen to such projects.
Meanwhile, imported logs increased to 43,030,000 m3 in 1970, slightly more than the
volume of domestic log production. Problems in the industry began to surface at this
time, including rapidly increasing labor costs for afforestation projects.
From the 1970s, Japanese forestry followed a course of decline with the slowed
growth of the Japanese economy. Until 1990 and the height of the bubble economy,
demand for logs changed at around 100,000,000 m3 per year, but this demand was
mainly for pulp tip material. Demand for sawed timber decreased, and the volume of
domestic timber production fell by large quantities in the face of imports of cheap
foreign timber products. In addition, afforestation rates of 350,000 ha in 1970
de-creased to 60,000 ha by 1990 due to a decrease in the availability of suitable land and
rapid rises in expenses. The forestry sector thus failed to become more responsive to
change after the 1970s oil crisis. Furthermore, for individual forest owners officially
defined as the leaders of forestry during the 1960s, the availability of affordable labor
decreased throughout the country due to income gap and aging.
The forestry industry was reconsidered in the Second Forestry Structure
Improve-ment Project (from 1972 to 1979), and this placed the forest owners association as a
new leader in forest management under the terms of a joint enterprise. Programs
were undertaken to integrate log production, milling and the sale of timber. Such
projects included the Second Forestry Structure Improvement Project, the Third
Forestry Structure Improvement Project (from 1980 to 1990), and the Fourth Forestry
Structure Improvement Project (from 1990 to 1995). These projects were designed to
counter the mass importation of foreign timber products. The 1980s saw the
estab-lishment of a log market and saw mills by the forest owners associations, the abolition
6 Ryohei SEKINE and Kouta MIROKUJI
place. Meanwhile, afforestation continued, and at the end of 1989, the national forest
project had outstanding obligations of 2 trillions yen, with an accumulated deficit of 850
billions yen.
A remarkable fall in demand for timber accompanied the economic recession
following the bubble economy of the 1990s. The price of timber, which had been
maintained during prosperity, fell dramatically, especially for sawed timber. In
addition, the importing of raw timber was replaced by the importation of
manufactur-ed timber products such as laminatmanufactur-ed wood. The price of Japanese Cedar halved from
14,595 yen/m3 in 1990 to 7,794 yen/m3 in 1999, a remarkable decline. In reaction to
this situation, The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries of Japan (2001)
pointed out that "It is the situation that we can not expect that maintenance of the
forest advances by proprietary initiative of the forest".
Facing such an impending crisis for the Japanese forestry, the Valley Control
System (VCS) was promoted to stimulate the formation of production centers for
domestic lumber in 1992. VCS is based on Forest Law revised in 1991. VCS
nation-wide defined 158 forest planning areas as Valleys, and organized to realize forest
maintenance and low cost stability of domestic lumber within a local government.
This policy changed the operational unit of the policy to a wide Valley from
conven-tional local governments, at various levels. The VCS aims to manage the distribution
of timber and establish unity in the leadership of different localities. The VCS
achieved the above goals within its first ten years of existence. The forest policy
involved a shift in emphasis from the expansion of timber production to the significant
concerns of common welfare. A reality of the situation was more accumulated debt
of the national forest project of 3.8 trillions yen (1998).
The recent state of forests and leaders of forestry in the Tohoku District,
northeastern Japan, are as follows (Table 1). In 2000, Tohoku District contains 19%
of the forested areas in the entire country. Artificial plantations comprise 38% of
these forests, of which 65% are covered with Japanese Cedar. Meanwhile, 43% are
national forests, and 46% are private forests. The Tohoku District is characterized
by large areas of natural forests, and large amount of Japanese Cedar in plantation
forests. Table 2 shows the number of the log production dealers, volume of
produc-tion/marketing per dealer, number of employees per dealer, and the nationwide share
of ownership of high-performance forestry machinery. A high proportion of
individ-ual forest owners in the District, carry out their own weeding and brushing, cleaning
cutting, climber cutting, and pruning. Afforestation work is relatively active in the
District. In contrast, forestry in Hokkaido is characterized by log production by a
small number of large-scale operators. Meanwhile, the Tohoku and Kyushu are
leaders in terms of the number of log production dealers with high-performance
Table 1 Changes of a quantity of timber production share in Japan
District Hokkaido Tohoku Hokuriku Kanto/Tozan Tokai Kinki Chugoku Shikoku Kyushu Japan Year 1960 18.2 14.4 3.8 12.4 10.5 8.9 10.3 7.1 14.6 100 (0.3) (22.2) (7.1) (12.1) (13.3) (12.5) (6.7) (8.1) (17.7) (100) 1970 23.5 (0.4) 18.7 (27.0) 3.1 (6.8) 11.4 (12.3) 8.8 (11.8) 6.3 (9.5) 7.7 (5.8) 6.1 (7.3) 14.4 (19.0) 100 (100) 1980 24.9 20.5 2.8 9.7 7.6 6.0 7.9 6.4 14.2 100 (0.2) (27.3) (5.3) (10.8) (11.0) (9.4) (5.8) (7.5) (22.6) (100) 1990 23.0 (0.4) 21.6 (27.4) 2.6 (4.1) 8.1 (9.6) 7.9 (9.4) 5.3 (6.9) 8.3 (4.7) 6.9 (8.7) 16.3 (28.8) 100 (100) 1999 20.2 21.9 2.9 8.0 8.2 5.4 7.8 6.4 19.2 100 (0.5) (24.6) (4.0) (9.4) (8.2) (5.8) (4.5) (8.8) (34.0) (100) Unit :
Parenthesized figures show a share of Japanese Cedar
Source : Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries "Timber Supply and Demand Report"
Table 2 General condition of log production dealer according to a district in Japan (2001)
District Hokkaido Tohoku Hokuriku Kanto/Tozan Tokai Kinki Chugokuinki Shikoku Kyushu Japan Number of Dealers 429 1,166 300 647 535 555 652 318 1,135 5,738 Volume per Dealer (m3) 6,402 2,722 1,092 1,886 1,549 1,115 1,354 2,336 2,528 2,338 Volume per Day(m3) 5.2 3.4 2.6 3.0 2.2 2.4 2.3 2.7 3.3 3.2 Member of Employee per Dealer Regular Employment 7.8 5.1 3.3 3.9 4.9 2.6 3.2 3.1 2.4 3.8 Temporary Employment 5.8 3.6 2.3 3.5 2.3 3.2 5.2 3.1 3.1 3.6 Share of Possession of a High-performance Machine* 12.5 18.3 8.3 8.3 6.7 9.2 11.7 3.3 21.7 100.0
*Share that assumed possession number of the whole country 100.
Source : Department of Statistical Information, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries
share in log volume, especially handling a lot of Japanese Cedar, although rates of
growth are small because of decreased felling within national forests (see Table 1). In
conclusion, Hokkaido has many national forests, although its pine volume has
8 Ryohei SEKINE and Kouta MIROKU JI
national forestry, mainly Japanese Cedar, and in the 1990s overtook Tohoku District
as the leading forestry area in Japan. Tohoku District remains the national leader,
but its production continues to stagnate.
3. Profile of the Okukuji area
The Okukuji area is located in Higashishirakawa Gun at the southern margin of
Fukushima Prefecture, and comprises Tanagura-Machi, Yamatsuri-Machi,
Hanawa-Machi, and Samegawa-Mura (Figure 1), as defined by the VCS. The Abukuma
Mountains rise in the eastern part of the area, and Yamizo Mountains rise in the
western part ; the Kuji River flows southward through the center of the area. The
population of the Okukuji area was 53,587 in 1960, but decreased markedly by the first
halt of the 1970s, with a population of 39,341 in 2000. The Primary industry was the
largest employer until 1980, but by 1985 more people were employed in secondary and
tertiary industries. The numbers of those employed in forestry has changed over time
in the following trend : 991 (1960), 520 (1965), 403 (1970), 376 (1975), 414 (1980), 357 (1985),
312 (1995), 324 (2000)4). The numbers, as a percentage of the labor force, fell from 4%
in 1960 to 2% in 1995. Forests make up 78% of total land area in the Okukuji area,
with plantation forests 66% (1995). The dominant timbers are Japanese Cedar, with
51%, Hinoki Cypress with 10%, and Japanese Red Pine (Pinus densiflora) and Japanese
black pine (Pinus thunbergii) with 5%. National forests make up 43% of the forests,
while 55% are in private ownership. The national forests are distributed largely in
areas of higher elevation, while forest under private ownership is generally located
close to settlements (Figure 2). Forests under individual ownership in the Okukuji
area average 6 ha in size, which is small-scale. Forestry production has stagnated in
recent years. In 2000, the number of individual forest owners holding forests of more
than 1 ha in area was 2,627. Of these forests, 66% were less than 5 ha in area. For
individual forest owners with more than 3 ha of forest, only 8% sold timber, which is
an extremely small proportion.
Afforestation of the Okukuji area began during the Edo era, but, full-scale
afforestation only took hold following World War II. The Okukuji area is
tradition-ally a leading production area of Japanese Cedar, and generally has a short rotation
of 30-35 years. Forests in the Okukuji area are mainly distributed over the Yamizo
and Abukuma mountains. Afforestation was intense in the Yamizo Mountains, where
growth conditions are good, and the Okukuji Forestry Promotion Task Force was
established in 1969 with the aim of producing high quality timber products in response
to increased competition from imported timber. This organization enforced pruning
and thinning on individual forest owners, established the sawmill that promoted the use
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Fig. 2 Distribution of a national forest and a private forest in Okukuji area
products.
In addition, the Okukuji Timber Distribution Center (OTDC) was established as a
log market in 1984, with a goal of the stable marketing of timber (Figure 3). The
OTDC has the greatest share of the log market in the area. In the Okukuji area, the
Higashi Shirakawa Sawing Cooperative (HSSC) formed from an existing sawing
dealer cooperative. HSSC has a commercial function, and traded in surplus wood,
although there trading volume was small. Before establishment of the OTDC, direct
dealing with log production dealers and sawing dealers was common. Sawing dealers
were affiliated to log production dealers ; sawing dealers purchased logs, and log
production dealers undertook the sawing. The timber produced by sawing dealers
was sent to retail stores in Fukushima prefecture and Kanto district via wholesalers.
In the golden age of the 1960s, approximately 60 sawing dealers were established in the
area. However, the industry was transformed by the circulation system and the
slump in demand for domestic lumber from the 1970s. The sawing dealers that had
sawed all available logs changed to sawing logs on demand, and sawing dealers
specialized in the production of component materials such a pillar and an board. For
specialized sawing dealers, direct dealing with log production dealers became a
problem. Sawing dealers had to buy unnecessary logs, and the sale of surplus logs was
difficult. In addition, thinning of Japanese Cedar trees planted in the 1950s was
necessary in the Okukuji area, and the use of thinning materials became stagnant.
The Okukuji Valley Forestry Activation Center was established in 1991 by the
VCS, and further expansion of market functions was planned. In addition, the log
10 Ryohei SEKINE and Kouta MIROKUJI
Before Establishment of OTDC/HSLM National/Private Forest
Log Production Dealer
Sawing Dealer
After Establishment of OTDC/HSLM National/Private Forest
Log Production Dealer
OTDC/HSLM
Sawing Dealer Okukuji Area
Wholesaler
J
Product
Market
OkukujiOutside
of
AreaRetailer Retailer
Fig. 3 Systems from production to destination of timber in Okukuji area Source : field study in 2001
(HSLM) in 1985. Log sales of the OTDC and HSLM established by the processes
outlined above show consistent increases. As evident in Table 3, log sales of the
OTDC rose from 23,928 m3 in 1988 to 51,984 m3 in 1999. Log sales dropped to 41,901 m3 in 2000, but, according to the hearing for OTDC, increased again in 2001. The log
Table 3 Volumes of log in OTDC, HSLM
OTDC Year Volume (m3) 1988 23,928 1989 32,569 1990 36,382 1991 36,382 1992 41,194 HSLM 1993 43,280 1994 42,760 Year Volume (m3) 1995 41,260 1995 13,523 1996 47,789 1996 13,756 1997 47,539 1997 13,334 1998 51,488 1998 9,881 1999 51,984 1999 14,145 2000 41,901 2000 15,800
Count period of OTDC ; from April to March of the next year Count period of HSLM ; from October to September of the next year
OTDC (Destination)
OTDC (Supply)
HSLM (Destination) HSLM (Supply) 0 10 20 30 40^ Okukuji area
Fukushima Prefecture except Okukuji area
^ Outside of Fukushima Prefecture
Fig. 4 Volume of transactions in OTDC, HSLM
The data of OTDC is in 2000
The data of HSLM is in 1999 Source : OTDC, HSLM
sales of HSLM decreased from October 1997 to September 1998, bi
increased since 1995. The main log handled by OTDC and HSLM jE and as with most Japanese Cedar, logs are received by local log pr
Figure 4 shows the supply and destination of logs of the OTDC a
OTDC handles 86% Japanese Cedar, 10% Hinoki Cypress, and 3% ja Logs supplied to the OTDC are 79% from within the Okukuji area,
areas within Fukushin prefecture, and 9% from outside of the
destinations of OTDC logs are 33% to the Okukuji area, 28% t^
Fukushima prefecture, 28% to Tochigi prefecture, and 10% to Ib
Logs supplied to HSLM are dominantly from the Okukuji area (859
other parts of Fukushima prefecture and 13% outside of Fukushim
terms of the destination of HSLM logs, 70% go to the Okukuji area, 1,
within Fukushima prefecture, and 17% outside of Fukushima pr(
ships more logs than OTDC within the Okukuji area. That is to sa
ability to distribute logsoutsideofthearea,whileHSLMdistribute:
5033 1 0Ill
sedfromOctober1997toSeptember1998,but have generally
ThemainloghandledbyOTDCandHSLMisJapanese Cedar,
.neseCedar,logsarereceivedbylocallog production dealers.
pplyanddestinationoflogsoftheOTDC and HSLM. The
paneseCedar,10%HinokiCypress,and3% Japanese Red Pine.
1TDCare79%fromwithintheOkukujiarea, 12% from other
naprefecture,and9%fromoutsideoftheprefecture. The
logsare33%totheOkukujiarea,28%toother areas of
28%toTochigiprefecture,and10%to Ibaraki prefecture.
VIaredominantlyfromtheOkukujiarea (85%), with 2% from
maprefectureand13%outsideof Fukushima prefecture. In
ofHSLMlogs,70%gototheOkukujiarea, 4% to other areas
lecture,and17%outsideofFukushima prefecture. HSLM
1TDCwithintheOkukujiarea.Thatisto say, OTDC has the
log outside of the area, while HSLM distributes log to precincts.
4. Current forms of log production dealers
12 Ryohei SEKINE and Kouta MIROKUJI
standing crop and work on pruning, bucking and yarding. Figure 5 shows a system of
log production common in the Okukuji area. Standing crop is sent to the wood yard
after being felled, and branching limbing5' and buckine are undertaken. A chainsaw
is used for cutting. Logs are taken to the wood yard by ground skidding by a
forwarder or mono-cable tower yarder. Branching limbing and bucking are usually
performed with a chainsaw, but in recent years a processor is also used. Log
produc-tion dealers who own harvesters undertake those processes at the site of felling. Logs
are then forwarded to the wood yard. Collected logs are carried to market or sawmill
by grapple track crane.
In 2000, there were 61 log production dealers in the Okukuji area, mostly private
enterprises. Many were family businesses, and many stopped operating by 2001.
There were currently 23 dealer companies active in 2001. In this study we
investigat-ed 19 of these 23 cases (Table 4). Dealers with large numbers of employees are
generally unionized. Thirteen of the 19 dealers employ less than nine people staff.
Most dealers handle wood seed of Japanese Cedar.
We first describe the log production dealers who work largely with national
forests. National forests in the Okukuji area are under the jurisdiction of the
Tanagura District Forest Office. Silviculture of national forests is enforced by
con-tract, and cutting is allocated with the sale of standing crop. Since 1990, the District
Forest Office ceased organizing cutting, and the Okukuji Forestry Cooperative (OFC)
undertakes all silviculture and cutting. In 2001, the District Forest Office carried out
the following work : planting of 30 ha, weeding and brushing of 277 ha, climber cutting
of 141 ha, cleaning cutting of 31 ha, regeneration cutting of 15,672 ha, and thinning of
267 ha. Some of the logs produced by regeneration cutting and thinning are sold at
auction by the sawing dealer after drying the stem without limbing ;8' remaining logs
are shipped by the OTDC. In addition, there is a negotiated contract termed
system-atic sales, and one dealer in the Okukuji area negotiated a contract for five years from
a cutting chain saw •^1 yarding tractor mono-cable tower yarder branching limbing/bucking chain saw processor •^). b shipping/logging
grapple track crane
cutting/branching limbing/bucking harvester yarding forwarder mono-cable tower yarder shipping/logging
grapple track crane
Fig. 5 Operation sequence of log production in Okukuji area "a" does not use harvester
, "b" use harvester. Source : field study in 2001, 2004
Table 4 Profile of log production dealers a a a C a co co 0 a a C • *C-7, a
Dealer No. HSFC No.
1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 No. 5 No. 6 No. 7 No. 8 No. 9 No. 10 HFOA HSSC No. 11 No. 12 No. 13 No. 14 No. 15 No. 16 Participate in OFC 0 0 C C C Traffic of log (m3) 7,000 13,000 10,000 10,000 6,000 5,000 3,500 2,000 1,700 0 N.A 6,000 5,000 36,000 5,000 2,500 1,500 100 N.A Number of workers Monthly salary plan Number 15 8 18 5 5 7 43 3 6 Average of age 50 40 40 60 50 45 60 50 N.A Day wage plan Number 140 30 5 3 12 60 8 5 Average of age 60 60 50 40 5 60 50 60 60 Supplier of standing crop (%) N(100) N(50), P(50) N(90) N(100) N(50), P(50) N(80), P(50) N(100) N(90) N(80) N(100) N(100) P(100) P(70), N(30) P(75), N(25) P(100) P(I00) P(I00) P(100) P(100) Destination of log (%) M(100) M(60), S(40) M(100) M(100) M(90), S(10) M(50), S(50) 0(100) M(100) OM(100) M(100) M(100) M(100) SS(60), M(40) SS(70), M, S S(100) M(100) M(100) M(100) Year of the establishment 1976 about 1950 about 1980 before WWII 1966 1978 1962 after WWII 1983 1985 1967 1961 1953 1957 1961 1960 1982 1985 Remarks HPM HPM, invole in siviculture IIPM invole in transport invole in sawing HPM, invole in siviculture HPM, invole in siviculture being in a traninig period HPM invole in sawing invole in sawing invole in siviculture produce log shiitake mushroom and charcoal N : national forest P : private forest M : log market in Okukuji area (OTDC, HSLM) OM : Log market out of Okukuji area S : sawing dealer SS : sawing section of own company HPM : dealer equipped with a high-performance machine The number of workers does not include a manager and his family . Source : field study in 2001, 2004
14 Ryohei SEKINE and Kouta MIROKUJI
2001.
The OFC was formed as an organization to undertake projects within intratubal
national forests of the District Forest Office in 2001. The Higashi Shirakawa Forestry
Cooperative (HSFC) and six dealers (No. 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 9) participate in these projects.
The HSFC formed in 1976, and current union membership was 51 in 2001. The
number of workers within HSFC is 140, and working units are organized for each of
the 26 settlements in the Okukuji area. The average age of workers is in the 60s.
The OFC was established to transfer contract labor dealers, with whom the District
Forest Office traditionally worked, to private enterprises. The purpose was to
effectively promote projects within national forests. The OFC now carries out all the
intratubal work of the District Forest Office. Six dealers participating in OFC's own
high-performance equipment, except dealer No. 9. Dealer No. 4 was the first to adopt
high-performance mechanization, and introduced a harvester and a processor in 1993.
Dealer No. 4 was founded in 1966, and became a limited liability company in 1985.
This dealership employs 18 forestry workers, an office worker, and six executives.
The average age of workers is in the 40s, and the youngest worker is 20 years old.
Although Dealer No. 4 has made contract work from the District Forest Office its core
business since it was founded, with decreasing operations of the District Forest Office,
contracts from the District Forest Office now make up just 70% of its business. In
recent years, dealer No. 4 has purchased standing crop of a national forest in
Iwaki-Shi and a private forest in the Okukuji area. The volume of produced logs is
approximately 6,000 m3 per year, and 90% are shipped by OTDC. The
high-perfor-mance mechanization of other dealers occurred during the second half of the 1990s.
Dealer No. 8 is the log production dealer who performs afforestation work within
national forests. The dealership has three family members as managers and five other
employees. The average age of employees is in the 50s. One of the conditions for
joining the OFC is accession to authorize of a prefecture ; Dealer No. 8 introduced
high-performance equipment to satisfy these conditions. Dealer No. 8 buys standing
crop within a national forest to make effective use of their high-performance
equip-ment. Additional logs are gained from private forest. Dealer No. 8 does not ship
logs via OTDC, as it considers that markets except outside the Okukuji area are
advantageous. The characteristics of the four other dealers participating in the OFC
are as follows. Dealers No. 2 and 7 perform afforestation work. The former
receives a contract of the core business, while the latter undertakes the purchase of
standing crop. Dealer No. 7 has always regarded national forests as the core of their
business. In contrast, Dealer No. 2 formerly conducted half of its business in private
forests, currently shifting 90% of its business to national forests. It is currently
difficult to gain stability of log supply solely from private forests. In addition, Dealer
opportu-nity in this area, the dealer can employ persons seeking employment . Dealers No. 2 and 7 ship produced logs via OTDC and HSLM.
Dealer No. 1 manages equal business in both national and private forests , and has a long history in the Okukuji area, having been established in the 1950s. Dealer No.
1 has an authorized customer in Tochigi prefecture , and employs 15 workers. The
average age of workers is in the 50s, and the youngest worker is 35 years old . The
dealer purchases 13,000 m3 of standing crop per year, with 60% of logs going to OTDC
and HSLM, and 40% to a sawing dealer in the Okukuji area. Dealer No . 9 was
established in 2003, having been in a training period until then due to inexperience of
staff.
The four dealers describing next do not participate in the OFC, but purchase
standing crop within national forests as there main activity. Of these four dealers ,
only No. 10 has adopted high-performance mechanization. Dealer No. 10 was
found-ed in 1985, and the manager was a worker at other log production dealers earlier . The
dealer currently employs seven workers, with an average age of 45 years, and the
youngest worker in his 20s. The dealer conducts business in national forests of the
Okukuji area and Iwaki-City, with 80% of produced logs shipped to OTDC and HSLM .
Dealers No. 3, 5, and 6 use subcontracted workers. Dealer No . 3 previously performed
sawing. In the golden age of the second half of the 1980s, log volumes were 50,000 m3,
however, during the 1990s his management declined . Therefore he settled a company
in 1997, and changed management system to private enterprise. Approximately 30
subcontracted workers are registered with the dealer, with an average of 10 people
actively engaged in work. His current specialty is national forests . Dealer No. 5
holds an additional business in transport, while No . 6 has business interests in the
sawing industry. As for the former, the Okukuji area is the main business area . In
terms of log sales, 50% go to sawing dealers in the Okukuji area. In contrast, the
latter mainly treats Hinoki Cypress. He performs business mainly with the Mito
District Forest Office, and all logs are manufactured in the sawing section of the
company.
The following section describes the log production dealers who concentrate in
private forests. Forestry activity during 2000 in private forests of the Okukuji area
is as follows. Area of planting was 25 ha, weeding and brushing 200 ha , cutting 126 ha,
and thinning 105 ha. As for the volume of logs, regeneration cutting was 12,000 m3,
thinning 59,000 m3, thus 71,000 m3 in total. Individual forest owners or the
Higashi-shirakawagun Forest Owners Association (HFOA) carries out afforestation work in
private forests. Individual forest owners entrusts HFOA with cutting work or sell to
log production dealers as standing crop of private forest. The HFOA was established
in 1967. In 2001, union membership of HFOA was 4,042 people. In addition, the
16 Ryohei SEKINE and Kouta MIROKUJI
HFOA organizes 13 working units. Workers are employed according to a day-wage
plan, and the average age of workers is in the 60s, while the youngest worker is in his 30s. There are differences in the number of days worked by employees, ranging from
100-250 days per year. Workers and working units hold forestry equipment such as
chainsaws ; the HFOA does not hold forestry equipment. The salary varies with
working detail and holding of forestry equipment. Annual income varies widely from
1,000,000 to 10,000,000 yen.
As evident in Figure 6, the business income of HFOA rose markedly during the 1970s, and reduced after the 1980s. Of the profit categories of Figure 6, "sale" means sale of logs and profit from the sale of sawing product, while "use" means profit from
contract work of public services such as afforestation, sterilization, and forestry
conservation. The profit ratio of "sale" in 1975 was 70.9%. However, in the 1980s the
value of "use" increased, from 11.9% in 1970 to 54.4% in 2000. This trend arose
because the current price of logs was low, and it was difficult to generate profit even
if an individual forest owner sold logs. Sales of logs in 2000 were approximately 6,000
700000 600000 = a.) ›, a a a st ) E o U C c, a.) C .... v) = 4 500000 400000 300000 200000 100000 0 19711 1975 1981) 1985 Year 1990 1995 2000
I-_-_] Sale . ' Purchase ^ Use ^ Finance/Guidance Fig. 6 Change of business income in HFOA
"Sale" means sales of timber and other products (an edible wild plant
, mushroom, charcoal, etc.)
"Purchase" means group purchase such as a young plant
, a pesticide and manure "Use" means establishment and maintenance of the forest (breeding
, prevention, and forest conservation) by the public works project and rental of machine
"Finance/Guidance" means representation of a loan procedure of public finance corporation fund and technical guidance to members of association
Source HFOA
m3. All logs produced by HFOA are shipped by OTDC. In the Okukuji area, the
Higashi Shirakawa Sawing Cooperative (HSSC) is involved in log production, made up
of 26 sawing dealers within the Okukuji area. The HSSC employs 12 people in the log
production division, with an average age of 60 years. HSSC was established in 1961,
and initially regarded national forest as core business. Since 1984, however, HSSC
undertook log production in private forest, and enlarged the scope of business in
Tochigi and Ibaraki prefectures. Log volume in 2000 was approximately 5,000 m3,
with a market share in the Okukuji area of 20.7%. HSSC purchases logs from
individual forest owners in the Okukuji area and Tochigi and Ibaraki prefectures .
Once the purchase contract is concluded, workers from the log production division
undertake log production.
The description now turns to the log production dealers who deal mainly with
private forest, and are not part of a cooperative (Table 4). Dealer No. 11 employs 60
workers, and in the past has focused on national forests as a business objective.
However, due to the decrease in log resources within national forests, he shifted
business objectives to forest under private ownership. The volume of logs was 36,000
m3 per year, with 25% from national forests and 75% from private forests. The
Okukuji area makes up 10% of log production, with 90% in Ibaraki prefecture. Of
produced logs, 60% are processed in the sawing section of the company. The
remain-ing 40% are shipped to OTDC and HSLM. Dealer No. 12 also has a sawing section,
which was established in 2001. Dealer No. 12 employs eight workers in log
produc-tion, with an average age of 60 years. The scope of business is limited to the Okukuji
area. The dealer uses 70% of its produced logs, with the remainder shipped to OTDC,
HSLM or directly to sawing dealers. Dealer No. 13 works only in private forests, and
is involved in specialized log production. He employs three staff. Ten years ago the
dealer worked with national forests, but switched to private forest as the quality of
timber from national forests declined. He seeks profit by shipping logs directly to
sawing dealers in Tochigi prefecture. In contrast, Dealers No. 14 and 16 work only
with private forest and send logs to OTDC and HSLM. Meanwhile, Dealer No. 15
produces bed logs for growing shiitake mushroom and wood for charcoal production.
His business objective is mainly hardwood, and the volume of logs of Japanese Cedar
is approximately 100 m3 per year.
5. Current form of sawing dealers
This chapter describes sawing dealers in the Okukuji area. Sawing involves
cutting boards and squared lumber from a log. Sawing dealers are equipped with
band saws, circular saws, and gang saws, of which the band saw is most important. In
18 Ryohei SEKINE and Kouta MIROKUJI
As evident in Table 5, 21 dealers, all except dealer V, specialize in domestic
lumber. In addition, 18 dealers specialize in Japanese Cedar. Dealers D and M make
a specialty of Hinoki Cypress, and V makes a specialty of imported lumber. Dealer
A is a sawing dealer of domestic lumber with great volumes on a national scale.
Dealer A employs 60 staff, and log consumption is approximately 60,000 m3 per year.
Dealer A was founded as a log production dealer in 1953, and began sawing Japanese
Red Pine and Hinoki Cypress from 1963. However, Japanese Red Pine suffered
damage from pine bark beetles, and resources of Hinoki Cypress have decreased,
prompting a switch to Japanese Cedar in 1989. Another reason for this change was an
increase in the price of American hemlock (Tsuga sieboldii), which was a rival of a
domestic Japanese Cedar. In addition, most of the Japanese Cedar in the Okukuji
area matured at this time. Dealer A sells 50% of product in the Tohoku region, and
the remainder in the Kanto District : a pre-cut factory is 50%. Dried wood is the
main product of Dealer A. Dried wood involves natural seasoning for a period of two
or three months after drying the stem without limbing. In this way, Dealer A is able
to produce dried wood with less than 25% water content.
Dealers G, I, and J, are also involved in wholesaling. Dealer G initially specialized
in sawing when first established in 1951, Profits in the sawing industry declined in the second half of the 1970s, thus prompting the dealer to become involved in wholesaling.
He employs 23 staff, with 10 working at saw mill. The destination of product is
carpenter shops in the Okukuji area, which number over 300. Dealers G and I initially
specialized in sawing, with the latter established in 1949. Since the second half of the
1960s, Dealer I has been involved in wholesaling. He employs nine staff, with five
working at saw mill, sourcing logs from OTDC and HSLM. The destination of its
products is approximately 100 carpenter shops. Dealer J is also involved in
wholesa-ling, and employs nine staff, of whom three are saw mill workers.
We now pay attention to dealers who specialize in the sawing industry. Dealers
B, C, H, P, Q, T, and U specialize in the product market. Dealers B, C, P, Q, and T
source logs from OTDC and HSLM and outside the local market. Dealers H and S
sources logs from the District Forest Office. Dealers B and C are the two largest of
these sawing dealers. They produce pillars professionally. Dealer B employs nine
staff, while dealer C employs 12. Dealer B sends 70% of its product to Tokyo. The
remainder is sent to carpenters shops in Shirakawa-City and Sukagawa-City. For
Dealer C, 80% of its product market is in Tokyo and Saitama prefecture.
Dealers P, Q, and T are family businesses. The number of employees in Dealer
P is four, with three in Q and two in T. These dealers source logs from OTDC and
HSLM. Dealer P mainly purchases mid-quality logs, while T mainly purchases small
logs. The primary destinations of products from these dealers are Ibaraki and
Table 5 Profile of sawing Dealers A B C D E F G II J K L M N 0 P Q R T U V Volume (m3) 60,000
8,000 5,000 5,000 4,000 3,800 2,200 2,000 1,800 1,200 800 600 600 500 N.A N.A N.A N.A N.A N,A N.A 3,500
Workers of factory Number 40 9 12 4 10 6 10 3 5 3 1 2 2 2 7 4 3 3 2 2 0 26 Average of age 40 50 50 50
50 50 40 50 60 50 N.A 40 40 60 35 N.A N.A N.A N.A 60 N.A 30
Supplier of log (%) L(50), LM(50) LM(80), N(20) LM(100) L(70), LM(30) LM(20), dealer A(80) LM(100) LM(50), D(50) N(90), LM(10) LM(90), N(10) LM(100) LM(100) LM(100) N(50), LM(50) D(90), LM(10) L, LM LM(100) LM(100) LM(100) D(100) LM(100) N(100) trading company(100) Sales of product (%) PM(50), pre-cut factory(50) PM(70), CS(30) PM(80), CS(20) PM(70), CS(20) CS(70), PM(30) CS(80), PM(20) CS(100) PM(80) CS(100) CS(100) CS(80), PM(20) PM(50), CS(50) PM(100) CS(100) wholesaler(90) PM(60), CS(40) PM(100) palette maker(100) CS(100) PM(100) PM(100) CS, wholesaler, PM Year of the establishment 1963 1966 1954 1962 1933 1965 1951 1973 1949 1962 1966 1985 1959 1943 2001 1965 1947 1965 1979 1953 1967 1905 Remarks Hinoki Cypress involve in involve in involve in Hinoki Hinoki wholesaling wholesaling wholesaling
Cypress Cypress speciality of imported lumber L : Log production section of own company LM : log market N : purchase directly from national forest D: purchase directly from log production dealer PM : product market CS : carpenter shop The number of workers does not include a manager and his family . Source : field study in 2001, 2004 H C C
20 Ryohei SEKINE and Kouta MIROKUJI
As for Dealers H and U, the destination of their products is intermediate product
markets, with logs sourced by the purchase of standing crop within national forest. Dealers H and U are also family businesses, and mainly produce timber of a special use
called NONEITA and ROKUSHAKUZAI7). Both dealers source stock by the
pur-chase of standing crop from within national forests. As with dealers E, F, K, L, N,
and S, the destination of final product is carpenter shops. Dealers F, K, and L source
logs from OTDC and HSLM.
Dealers N and S source logs directly from log production dealers, while Dealer E sources logs from Dealer A. Dealers K, L, N, and S have small numbers of staff. Dealer E specializes in ROKUSHAKUZAI , with 70% of final product sent to carpenter
shops, and the remainder to product markets in Kanagawa and Gunma prefectures.
Dealer E ships directly to do-it-yourself stores, while Dealer F mainly produces pillars.
For Dealer F, 80% of final product is sent to carpenter shops, with 20% sent to product
markets in Ibaraki and Tochigi prefectures.
Dealers K, N, and S produce pillars and boards to order from carpenter shops.
These dealers purchase logs according to the demands of carpenter shops, and
pur-chase directly from the log production dealer. Dealer L ships 50% of product to a
single large carpenter shop in Fukushima prefecture. Dealer 0 is a sawing dealer that
began operation in 2001. Dealer 0 was initially a log production dealer, but obtained
the facilities of a sawing dealer who had discontinued its business. Dealer 0 employs
seven staff, with a young average age of 35 years old. Dealer R is a sawing dealer who
specializes in the production of board for palettes. All the products of Dealer R are
shipped to a palette maker.
We now turn to describe dealers who mainly produce Hinoki Cypress products.
Dealer D employs seven staff, while Dealer M employs two. These dealers mainly
handled Japanese Cedar until about 1980, however, they gradually switched to sawing
Hinoki Cypress because of a slump in demand for Japanese Cedar products. The
Okukuji area has only minor stands of Hinoki Cypress. Therefore these dealers
purchase logs from national forests outside of the Okukuji area, from all over the
eastern Japan. During 2000, Dealer M sourced Hinoki Cypress from Iwate and Aichi
prefectures.
Since 1988, Dealer V has mainly handled imported logs. The main business of
Dealer V is assembling timber for houses, and sawing to alter imported board and
pillar. Dealer V mainly handles hemlock produced in the U.S.A. pine and whitewood
(Chamaecyparis pisifera). The dealer employs 38 staff and sources timber from a
trading company in Iwaki-City ; the destination of its product is a major carpenter
6. Discussion
Log production dealers in the Okukuji area are divided into those with a business
focus on national forests and those with a focus on private forests. Log production
dealers who focus on national forests characteristically own high-performance
machines such as harvesters and processors. However, many dealers changed the
forest to aim at it. Both types of dealers have changed their business objectives since
their establishment. This has involved decreasing involvement with national forests
as other opportunities arose, although, different dealers reacted differently to new
situations. The location of forest resources influences management choice of log
production dealers. When resources are rare in the Okukuji area, as is the case for
Dealer No. 6, the dealer must be active outside the Okukuji area, but there are many
dealers who market logs to the Okukuji area. Log production dealers have expanded
their areas of operation to the North Kanto and Tohoku districts, and left the Okukuji
area. This tendency is strong for large-scale dealers with high-performance
machin-ery. Smaller dealers cope by specialization in the production of bed logs to produce
shiitake mushroom and by dealing directly with sawing dealers. As with large-scale
dealers, smaller dealers are active outside the Okukuji area. Dealer cannot be overly
concerned about the territories of the Valley Control System, which the Forestry
Agency established for the maintenance of management, as most seek
high-perfor-mance mechanical operation, and owing to a national budget deficit, the amount of
works in national forests has decreased. Each dealer must develop a business outside
the Okukuji area to raise the proportion of high-performance mechanical operations.
In addition, in private forests of the Okukuji area in particular, the desire of individual forest owners to increase production is reduced, and the Okukuji area has struggled to
supply orders for log production dealers. That is to say, an increase in forest
resources to match the demands of dealers is difficult in the Okukuji area, as is the
commercialization of existing forest resources.
For the HSFC, the aging of employees is remarkable, while log production dealers
seek to employ a young work force. The Okukuji area suffers from an outflow of
youth and a decrease in job opportunities, as with many rural areas in Japan. Log
production dealers provide job opportunities that are important in the Okukuji area.
There also exists the possibility for young workers to gain business promotion to new
log production dealership. It is necessary to maintain a system that supports such a
movement.
Changes have occurred in sawing dealers and log production dealers in response to
changes in the business scene. Until the 1980s, sawing dealers in the Okukuji area
mainly treated Japanese Cedar. However, a slump in demand for domestic lumber
22 Ryohei SEKINE and Kouta MIROKUJI
various actions to address declining returns. For example, dealers undertook
mechan-ical modernization, insured forward sales of a product, and switched from Japanese
Cedar to imported wood and Hinoki Cypress. The sawing dealers came to produce
the building materials which accepted a careful order of a customer. This tendency
is strong among smaller dealers. Many sawing dealers source logs from the binary
log market (OTDC, HSLM) in the Okukuji area, but some dealers source logs without
a predictable market. Such dealers cope with a customer order by direct and flexible
log purchases. They employ many staff in the age range of 20-30 years. Sawing
dealers are important as employers in the Okukuji area, too. However, more sawing
dealers are family businesses than is the case for log production dealers. Sawing
dealerships are an important sector that adds higher value to forestry products of the
Okukuji area. Sustained release insurance of sawing dealers of family-run operations
may be a problem of the Okukuji area. Expansion and reinforcement of the log
market in an area generally results in positive regional activity. However, as for the
dealers, a tendency corresponding to an individual resisted a change of market. The
themes of the Okukuji area are the monogenesis administration from the production
to sales that "Valley Control System" aims at and the consistency with original
corporate activity of dealers. In addition, as the government and the privately forest
owners are owners of the forest, the decline in timber serviceability in privately owned
forests, in particular, creates a serious bottleneck in the forestry sector.
7. Conclusions
This study described trends in forestry in the Okukuji area, as representative of
trends in Japanese forestry. We documented recent characteristic activities in
for-estry within the Okukuji area, and examined the characteristics of log production
dealers and sawing dealers, although we were unable to analyze the workforce of
individual dealers or the management of forestry by individual forest owners. These
issues will be addressed in future studies.
Acknowledgement
We wish to express our gratitude to Professor M. Hino at Tohoku University for making a number of helpful suggestions.
Notes
1) They produce logs on site in forests and yards.
3) This is to trim odd small trees as a source of firewood. 4) The source is World Agricultural and Forestry Census.
5) Branching limbing means to cut a branch from a trunk to finish as a log.
6) Bucking means to cut off a log to constant length based on quality (size, degree of curve, passage and corrosion).
7) NONEIA is timber to use for a ceiling, and ROKUSHAKUZAI is a pillar cut off to length used in a Japanese traditional house.
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