Strategic Improvement with Sustainable
Multi-habitation in Asian Mega-cities
著者
Toshinobu FUJII
journal or
publication title
Journal of regional development studies
number
6
page range
277-299
year
2003-03
URL
http://id.nii.ac.jp/1060/00003843/
Creative Commons : 表示 - 非営利 - 改変禁止 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/deed.jaStrategicImprovementwithSustainable
Multi-habitationinAsian
】Mega-cities
ToshinobuFUJII ＊ 1.Introduction InmanyAsianmetropolises.regionaltransformationsaretakingplaceinquite diversifiedwaysinitsprocessanditsspatialrelationshipwithlocalcommunities,to copewiththesocio-economicchangesthatare:i)advancementsinmotorization, industrializationandinformation,ii)establishmentsofpublicgovernancesforthe progressofmassandcivilsocieties,iii)alleviationsofpoverty.Fordevelopments ofurbanareasincludingtheseproblems.adynamicpro-compositionof “autono-mousregionalunits ＋communitynetwork(localcooperation)"shouldbethoughtabout 。 “Multi-habitations"willbecomeakeywordtoestablishadomiciliationenvironmentfromaplanningviewpoint.ExcessiveconcentrationofpopulationsinMega-citieshasresultedinthedisorderlyproliferationofslumareasandgrowthoflow-incomepeoples.Communitiesandurbanspacesareunderpressurestoabsorbarapidlyincreasingpopulation,inparticularlow-incomegroups.Intheurbanareas,adensityinpopulationisrapidlyincreasingtoanunbearablelevel,wherelivingconditionsaredeterioratingandtheoutcometothecommunitiesisseriouslyuncertain.Suchareasneedtobepreventedfromfurtherdeteriorationsinpragmaticways,andappropriatemeansneedtobeworkedouttoalleviatethecurrentconditions.Upuntilnow.manyregionalprojectshavebeenundertaken,wheresocio-economicdevelopmentofthesocietyconcernedhasbeenachievedmainlythroughtheprocessofindustrializationandconstructingphysicalinfrastructures 。Lookingattheseprocesses,however,approacheshavebeenfoundinadequateinmeetingtheessentialneedsofdevelopment.whichhavebeentransferredwiththeregionaldynamicsinAsianMega-cities.Experiencesofpastregionalprojects ＊Professor,FacultyofRegionalDevelopmentStudies,ToyoUniversity278 JournalofRegionalDevelopmentStudies(2003) implementedinurbanareasbyofficial/publicagenciesdemonstratethatthepast approachofa “top-down"stylehasfailedincopingwiththesituation.ThatapproachallowsinevitablytheuncontrollableflowofcapitalintoMega-citiesandledtoanurbanexplosionwithrapidpopulationincrease,ashortageofsocialinfrastructures,povertystrickenpopulationgrowth,unfairincomedistribution.anditalsoaggravatedconflictsbetweenmultitribal/racialgroups.Atthesametime,sinceinnovationsofregionalpolicieshavestartedtobeimplementedindevelopingcountries,regionaldevelopmenthasbeguntofindnewwaysintheconsiderationofdecentralizationinadministration,participatoryplanningforimprovementandconservationofresources.Otherapproacheshavetobefoundforcomprehensiveregionaldevelopment,especiallyforaimingatalleviatingpovertyproblems,preservingenvironmentalconditionsandpreparingsocialwelfaresystemstoareasonablelevelincommu-nities.Thesewillleadsubstantiallytostruggleforanotherdevelopmentofhumansettlement,wherepeoplearewellprovidedfor,withsafetyandsecuritysupportedbybuilt-insystemsofdiversifiedculturalbackgrounds,toestablishwellintegratedlifestylesofmultitribal/racialcommunities,sinceitinevitablycorrespondtoexcessive “homogeneity"bytheprocessofglobalization.DevelopmentofhumansettlementsprovidedwithsustainableenvironmentsshouldbeencouragedalsoinAsiancities,whereurbanandruralareaswillbehopefullyorganizedthroughcommunity-networksystems.Furthermore,publicpolicieswillbeworkedoutwithdueconsiderationincontainingcommunitygrowthtoamanageablelevel,maintainingecologicalcyclingsystemsandoptimizinghumandevelopmentpossibilities. 2.PlanningforMulti-habitation 2-1.Anotherway Inasearchforanotherwayofdevelopmentforhumansettlements,itmaybe advocatedtoworkoutsustainablemulti-habitationbasedontheactivitiesofboth acommunityandacommunitynetwork.Thoughamodernzoningforlanduse hasbeeneffectivetosomeextentinestablishing “amassproduction/consumptionsystem"throughplanninginAsianMega-cities,wehavetotakeintoconsiderationotherfactorssuchasregionaldynamics.Influencedbysocio-economicchangethedynamicsofthesecitiesareshowninspontaneousspatialexpansionsofsettlements
inurbanareas,andthatchangeshavenotbeenwelle χplainedinwesternways.Urbansprawl,physicallybasedondivisionsofagriculturalland,hasuncertainboundariesbetweencitiesandvillagesandlooksdisorderlyspreadataglance.Lackofinfrastructure,rapidincreaseinpopulationandratherloosecontroloflandusemaybeonlyapartexplanationontheselivelyareas.Alsoculturalpeculiaritiesarefoundinthesespatialcompositionsofcommunities,whichhavepluggedintomoderninnercities,asmultiracialhabitations
。Toawesternperson,AsiancitiesincludingJapanonesoftenappeartobeincompletedisorder,differentfromwhathemighthaveimagined(YannNussaume2002).ButthelessononAsiancitiesisnotnecessarilyunscientific.Itsimplyshowsnewpathsandnewthemestobeacceptedanddeveloped
・Westernplanningways.onwhichdichotomiesbetweenacityandavillagehavebeensetforthasapremise,hadheldaparticularpositioninthesecondhalfofthe20thcentury.Mixedlanduseareaswithmulti-habitationwhichhadbeenusedtotypicallyintraditionalcommercialcities,hasbeentransformedtospecifiedlandzoningssuchascommercial,residenceandindustriesbothinacenterareaandinsuburbsofAsianMega-citiesintheprocessofmodernplanning.AsJeanJacobs(1977)pointedout,thesafeandlivelyurbancommunitywithmultihabitationshouldformacomplex-ityofregionalcultureandresources.whichresidentskeepbythemselvesindailylives,beyondtheassumptionthatmodernplanningshouldpromiseafunctionalcommunityandformconformityofcity.Simultaneously,itshouldbetakenintoconsiderationthatslumcommunitiesininformalsectorarenottheproblembutthesolution(Turner),andalsotheyaredefinedasdevelopingvillages(Johnson).Thisnewdirectioncannotbeperceivedasarbitrary.butratherbepursuedonadesireforconstantenrichmentgiventhevisionofnewmodelsofAsiancities.Finally,thefollowingtwocontrastingwaysofplanningneedtobeconsideredtoworkoutsustainablemixed-usedevelopmentforhumansettlementsinMega-cities.Oneistomaintainacertainqualityofenvironmentbyenforcingrationalzoningoflanduse.Theotheristoimplementappropriatemixedlandusewitharealizationofasociallymixedbuilt-inareasthroughprocess-orientedplanningbasedonahumanscale.
2-2.Participatoryprocess-orientedplanning(PPP)
280 JournalofReeionalDevelopmentStudies(2003) improveacommunity,sinceabureaucraticplanninghasinclinedtobeinthe so-called “top-down"wayandrevealedacertainlimittoreflectonpeople'sinitia-tives.Thesearethecurrenciesshownbelow.a ）Fromatypicaldevelopmentbasedonagoal-orientedplanningtoasustainabledevelopmentbasedonaprocessplanningb ）Fromapackage-typeprojecttoanalternativeandprocess-orientedprojectc ）Fromapolicyofconstructingfacilitiesandinfrastructuretoapolicyofempowerment/enablingofhumanresourcesonapartnershipwithNGO/NPOItissuggestivetoseetheyhaveasametendencyinadoptingthesewaystosteponthebottom-upprocessthroughouttheworld,especiallyinMega-cities ・ThereasonswhytheyhavearethefoUowings.a ）Developmentsincities,haveimplementedusuallywithoutanyadministra-tiveinterventions.b ）Developmentpolicieshavebeguntofocusonrebuildingcompactcities ・c)Community-baseddevelopmentshavebeenshowneffectiveinsocio-economicimprovementforboththepublicandtheprivatesectors ・d ）Decentralizationintheadministrationhasmadealocalgovernmenttakeintoconsiderationwiththeactivitiesofcommunity.Sincepursuingthedevelopmentforsustainablemulti-habitationisnothingbutadoptingtheprocess-orientedplanningforcommunitybasedimprovement,pppwouldbetheefficientwaytorealizeit. 3.Typeofmulti-habitationsinAsianMega-cities Inasearchforanotherwayofplanning,thelessononAsiancitiesisnot necessarilyunscientific,becauseurbangrowthofthesecitieshaveshownpossibil-itiestoconstructmulti-habitationsystemsasstrategicdevelopments.Sincetheway ofzoningsoflanduse,whichhavebeguninus1909,hasappliedtoavoid environmentalproblemsbetweenworkplacesandresidencesandtolinkeachother withmasstransportationandroadsconstructed,ithascausedfirsttoleadurban livesnottobelively.forithastendedtodefinefunctionsofareastoamonopoly purpose.andsecondtoinducetrafficcongestionswithalongdistanceofcommut-mg.
Beingaffectedfromeconomicneedsforbothefficientlanduseandenlarging distribution,moderncitieshavebeguntorevealexcessivenessofexpandedurban areas.Sincetheglobalizationhaspushedonrestructuringofindustriesandzoning oflanduse,whichhasbroughtconsequentlytheeconomicgrowthinAsian Mega-cities,urbanproblemssuchasdisparitiesbetweenresidents.wasteofnatural resourcesandsubdivisionofcommunitieshaveaccelerated,andtheregionalism standingtoglobalizationhasgatheredstrengthtoreevaluatecommunityactivities ・TomakeavisionhowMega-cityshouldtobeplannedn:)rasustainable,safetyandlivelyenvironmenthasbecomeaseriousissue 。UrbanareasinAsianMega-citiesa 「eclassifiedusuallyinto3districts ；thecentraldistrictwherebusiness/commercialoffices.surroundingthem,high-riseapartmentsandhigh-qualityshopsarelocated,theinnerdistrictwheresmallsizebusinessandhousesarelocatedincongestion,andtheoutskirtdistrictofresidentialareasspreadintoruralareas.Thoughthedivisionoftheseconcentriccirclesinurbanareasissimilartoonesofdevelopedcountries,thefollowingpointsaredifferentcharacteris-ticsinAsiancities.First,ratherspontaneousdevelopmentsareimplementingandthesprawlingistobewatchedforplanningregulationiscomparativelyloose.Second,CBDareasaredispersedasurbancoresinrelationwithhinterlands.Third,so-calledinnercityproblemsarenottobewatchedinthecongestiondistrict.Fourth,slumsettlementsbelongingtotheinformalsectoraredispersedinthewholeurbanareas.Inparticular,therearemixedlanduse(MLU)areasexpandedmainlyininnercitybetweenCBDandresidentialsuburbs.MLUaccompaniesusuallywithdiver-sifiedwayoflivingsasonetypeofmulti-habitation.Ithadbeenusedtooccupyingmostareasintraditionalcommercialcities.Intheprocessofspatiale χpansioninurbanareas,theformerMLUareashasbeentransformedtospecifiedlandzoningssuchascommercial,residenceandindustriesbothinacenterareaandinsuburbsofAsianMega-cities.Thebothe χpandedareashavebeentakenusuallyasobjectivesforplanningandimplementingprojectsbecauseenvironmentsoftheseareashavechangedrapidly.Consequently,thegreaterpartofMLUareashavebeenleftsustainablewithoutanyspecialplanning.orhavechangedautonomouslybeinginfluencedbythesocio-economicchangeofawholecity.OnceconsideringthequalityofurbanlifeformedhistoricallyintheMLUarea,andrealizingtheseareasareleftlargelyinthebuilt-upareasinAsian-cities,thenewconceptofmulti-habitationhavetobe
282 JournalofRegionalDevelopmentStudies(2003 ） establishedasastrategicplanning 。SincethecurrencyofglobalizationhasmadeeconomicgrowthtoAsianMega-cities,disparitiesbetweenrichandpoorhavebecomewiden,subdividedcommunitieshasweakentraditionalwelfaresystemtoleaveindividualactivities,andnaturalresourceshavebeenconsumedtobringoutpollutions.Tocopewiththesituations,rebuildingcommunityworksbasedonregionalismshouldbeattempted.Multi-habitationwouldakeywordtoplansustainablephysicalenvi-ronmentsonhumanscale.Thestrategicthemestobestudiedareshownbelow,whichhavethreeregionalstages −Mega-city,urbanarea,andcommunity/district. （Figurel ） Figure1 ；typeofmulti-habitationinthethreeregionalstages Region Typeofmulti-habitation Mega-Mega-City Linkagebetweencitiesandvillagestoformadiscontinuousunity UrbanArea RebuildingMLUareas Networkingofcommunities Community Networkingofcommunities Communitydevelopment 4.Mega-city ；linkagebetweencitiesandvillagestoformadiscontinuousunityReevaluationoftheexpandedurbanareasshouldbecarriedout,wherebuilt-incommunities,industrialestatesandcommercialdistrictshavebeenscatteredwithoutclearboundariesandrelatedwitheachotherinacertainorderlymosaicpatterns.Sincetheurbanareasseemstobeformeddisorderlyataglance,theprocesscouldbeexplainedwithacertainrationalityornecessityintheconte χtofsocio-economicandculturalrelationship.Thoughtheproposalofcompactcityadvocatedbyspecialistsappearstobestrategicforthenewurbanization,italsorevealsacertainlimitationintermsofsubstantialcostsforcontroloflanduseandadifficultyofestablishingconsensusbetweentheplanningsectorandthefundingagenciesinAsianMega-cities.Itshouldbeplannedwithothermeasurestorebuilddiversifiedcommercialcoresconnectedwithcommunitynetworksinurbanareas.Decentralizationofcity-corefunctionsmaycreateconcentratednodespaceswherehouses,offices.
factories,farmsandperipheryvillagesareadjacentlylocatedforming “GardenCity"or
“EdgeCity"inanewversionofurbanization.Theintroductionofdiversemeasureswillleadalsotoencouragebusiness,commerceandculturetowardthecreationofautonomouscommunities,whereresidentsareabletoliveinacertainbalanceandcloserproximitybetweenworkplaceandhousing.Inthelightofplanningforasustainablehumansettlementandsettingupautonomousgovernance,socio-economiclinkagesbetweencitiesandvillagestowardaformationofdiscontinuousunityshouldbestudied.Adiscontinuousunity,thoughitisahypothesisforaregionalplanningadvocatedbyYoshizaka
（1960 ）,meansanassemblyofconcentratedcorecommunitiesnetworkedincitiesandvillages.whichhavebeendevelopedontheirownwaysandhelpedeachotherthroughcommunalsocio-economicandenvironmentalactivitieswithorganizingaregionalnetwork.Itisalsoanissuetoconductcomparativestudiesofhumansettlementsandcity-villagerelationships,whichproposedintheComprehensiveNationalDevelop-mentPlanofJapan,withaviewtolearningfromthepastplanningways,whereefficiencyandprecedenceofeconomicdevelopmentinprojectshadbeenexcessivelypursued.EspeciallyamongtheprojectsoriginatedfromtheComprehensiveNationalDevelopmentPlans,thesustainablehumansettlementasproposedin1976shouldbestudiedmoreindetailwithitssocio-economicbackground.ItisbecausetheplanhadadvocatedtheautonomousregionalspheresbasedonthenaturalandecologicalgeographyintheerasofhigheconomicdevelopmentinJapan.Oncealivingstyleof
284 JournalofRegionalDevelopmentStudies(2003) 5.UrbanArea 5-1.RebuildingMixedLandUse(MLU)area Intheprocessofurbanexplosion,MLUareaslocatedmainlyininnercity,have transferredtoreduceitsproportioninawholecity.Spatiale χpansionofurbanareashasenlargedtobothsidesofCBDandsuburbsfromtheMLUareas,whichhadonceoccupiedmostareasintraditionalcommercialcities.(Figure2)Modernplanninghasbeentakeninthebothsidesbecausethesedynamicshasinfluenceddirectlyonbothsocio-economicandphysicalenvironmentswhencitieshaveincreasedinpopulationandexpandedindimensions.Upuntilnow,theMLUareahasbeenleftsustainablewithaspontaneous improvementthatresidentshavetookontheirinitiatives,usuallyincooperation withahistoricalandculturalcontextofthedistrict.Sincerapidurbanexplosions Figure2:expansionofurbanareasandMLUareas transitionsoflanduseincity 1ststage;traditionalcommercialcity 2ndstage:industrialcity 。 ≒areasofmixedlanduse 3rd5ta8e:mega-cityinurbane χplosion CBD
L_
二
areasofmixedlanduse miχedlanduseareas suburbshavebeencriticizedfore χcessiveaccumulations.whichhavecausedtrafficjams,degradedlivingenvironmentsandgeneratedmonotonousresidentialsuburbs,thequalityofcitylifeinMLUareasshouldbereevaluated.TheseareasarepluggedinMega-cities,whereimprovementsforon-siteredevelopmenthavebeentakeninanotherwayofplanningratherthanoff-siteredevelopment 。TheformationofappropriateMLUareawillbepromotedbyencouragingthedispersingofbusinessfacilitiestoresidentialareasespeciallyalongroadsides,orconstructinghousingsintoCBD,makinguseofcharacteristicofthebuilt-inMLUareas.Multi-habitationallowsresidentsfirsttohavebetteropportunitiestoobtainjobsinnearbyareas,andsecondtokeepcommunitieswithsustainabilitybasedontheircooperativerelationship.Italsocouldmakeitpossibleforpeopletocommu-nicatewitheachotherandgetinformationdirectly,sinceithasformedacertainorderofurbanactivitiesforresidentstolivetogetherinalongtime 。Inotherpointpfview,multihabitationhaspossibilitiesalsoforestablishingnewurbanlifestyles.Thoughthecurrenttrendsoftakinginmotorizationandinnovativeinformationtechnologyhavecausedconcentrationsinbothpopulationandcapitalintotheprimatecity,theymighthaveanotherpossibilitytobeusedastechnologyofdiversifyingurbanactivitiessuchasthecaseofthenewurbanizationasEdgecitiesinus.Furthermoremiddleclasspeopleincreasinginmega-citiesmaytrytochangetheirlifestylesfornewwaysofSOHOinMLUareas. 5-2.MLUareasinTokyoMetropolitan UrbanareasinTokyoMetropolitanhavespreadovermorethan40kmin dimensions,fromthebusinesscentertoresidentialareaslargelyconsistedoflow-rise housing ・Intheearlystageofurbanizingsociety,therapidconcentrationofpopulationsandindustrieshadresultedinadisorderlymixed-useoflandwhichcausedconges-tions,environmentalpollutions,andshadowobstaclesofsunshineinanadjacent.Thesehavebeentheenvironmentalproblemstobesolvedbybothsides,whichoneisthedemocraticlocaladministrationsupportedbyresidentsandtheotheristheprivatesectoraimingattheeconomicefficiencyinlanduse ・Inthelaterprogressofeconomicgrowthtowardtheurbanizedsociety.theconcentrationofthecapitalandtheexpansionofpopulationhavemadeTokyoMetropolitanfaceotherenvironmentalissuesasfoUowings.a)Thecentralareahasbeenconvertedintothecommercialandbusiness
286 JournalofRegionalDevelopmentStudies(2003) districtandbroughtinadeclineoffamiliarshops. b ）Thehomogeneousresidentialareashavebeenexpandedinsuburbsalongwithalongdistancecommuting.ashortageofwelfarefacilitiesandalackofculturalenvironment.c ）Thepollutionscausedbytrafficcongestionhavebeenstillseriousproblemstobesolved.d ）Theincreasingrateofedgingpopulationhasrevealedashortageofwelfarefacilities.Betweenthecentralareaandtheresidentialsuburbs,themostofinnerareasofMLUhavebeenleft,sincethedemandforredevelopmentshaspresentedintheseareasandsomeofthemhadalreadyimplementedtoconstructhigh-heighthousingsformainlyhigh-incomeclass.MLUareashavebeenlocatedusuallyinadensity-inhabitedandbuilt-uparea,wheretheconditionofphysicalenvironmentiswithnotsomuchasarecommendedlevel.Residentslivinginratherashabbyenvironment.haveorganizedcommitteesforsocialactivities,andhumanrelationshipsamongresidentshavekeptonwellfortheyhavelivedinlongtime.Theseareasareso-calledinner-cityareas.whichhasbeendefinedbywesternsociologistsasthetransitionzone(Burgess1935 ）wheresocio-economicandenvironmentalproblemsarepointedoutintensivelyandtobechangedtospecificlanduseareasbyimplementingdevelopment.LookinginTokyo,theseareasseemtobedifferentfromtheonesofthewesterncitiesbecausemanyoftheresidentshavejobsindiversifiedworkplacesadjacenttotheirhome.andsomeautonomoussocialsystemsarecarriedoutintheareas,whicharethesameasoftheAsianMega-cities ・Residentsintheseareas,havewantedtostaylongandhaveconcernedabouttheimprovementsofphysicalenvironment.thatarerebuildingofdilapidatedhousingandconstructionofcommunityfacilitiesforkeepingonsafeandlivelylives.Toconstructcooperativehousingandcommunityfacilities.demolitionofdilapidatedhousingaregoingtoimplementinppp. （Figure3 ） 6.CommunityNetwork 6-1.ActivitiesofCommunityNetwork Organizingcommunity-networkisoneofthewaytoimprovecommunitieswith multi-habitation.Activitiesofthecommunitynetworkhavebeenanalyzedfrom
Figure3:landuseofinnerareasinTokyo (Source:TokyoMetropolitanGovernment) thetwopoints.Oneisitsautonomousandregionalcharactersbecauseeachsaving grouporganizingthenetworkhaselectedmembersfromtheircommunityandtook apartoftheactivitiesofcommunity,theotherisitstheme-orientedcharacter becausemembershascoordinatedwitheachothertoorganizecommitteeand implementspecifiedprojectssuchassaving,eviction,housingimprovementand generalincome,whichareneededsomecollaborationintheiractivitiesandarealso abletobetakeninascomplicatedurbanproblems 。Communitynetworkthathasorganizedmainlyininformalsectors,shouldbetakenupasactivitiestomakeabreakthroughinregionalplanning.SuchanetworkbeingacharacteristicintheAsianMega-citiessuchasBangkok,wouldbenotedformakingsureofsustainablemulti-habitation,becauseitconnectswitheachcommunity,whichhasdifferentenvironmentalissuesandlivingstyles,tosupportmembers'liveswithmutualinterchangesofinformationandsavingactivities.Sincedecision-makingwaysinanetworkhavebeenoftenvoluntarily,pppwouldbeimplementedtentativelytomeetissuesbytheinitiativeofgroupswithanestablishingpartnershipbetweenagencies.Oncebeingbasedontheinitiativesofgroup/community.anetworkwouldbeorganizedtomeettherequirements.whicheachcommunityshouldtakeforitsown
288 JournalofRegionalDevelopmentStudies(2003) livingenvironmentleavingtheresidentstotaketheirownlives ・Insearchforsustainablemulti-habitation,anapproachshouldbetakenwithavisioninthetwocompositionalspatiallayers.Theoneisidentifyingautonomousregionalcommunitiesforanempowermentandtheotherismakingcooperativenetworksamongthesecommunitiesforcopingwithurbanenvironmentalproblems ・Suchaprocessisplannedunderconditionsthatresidentswillorganizeacommunitynetworkkeepingonapartnershipwithregionalagencies.toestablishacertainwayofendogenousdevelopmentandpreparecomprehensiveregionalpoliciesforsus-tainabledailylivingwithpublicsector ・Activitiesofnetwork.savinggroupandcommunityetc,areshowninthefigurebelow.(Figure4)Figure4:activitiesofsavinggroupandcommunitynetwork'ipre Forsquatterslivingininformalsector.theactivitiesofagrouporganizedina communityareveryimportanttosupporttheirlivesandengageincommunity works.Theyhaveusuallymanagedtoself-helphousingsystemsandautonomous distributiveconsumptionsystemswithinthecommunity.Sincethelowlaborcost inmarketsbringsdownthecostofreproductionsimultaneously.andit'sconnection tendstoclosethewayfortheinformalsectortostepintheformallevelinthe economicverticalstructure,theactivitiesofmicrocreditorganizedbysavinggroups areabletoprovideslowincomepeoplewithmeansthattheycanselectandactivate forimprovementofslumsquatters.Moreover,extendedgroupsavingssupported
bynetworkcouldgetacertainsecurityonamicrocreditsystem.Takingafund
withanaverageinterestrateinthemarket,thatincludesaddinginterestf) 「communityactivities,squatterscanalsotakepartinformalsector.Acommunitynetworkplaysarolelikeaconveyoraswellwithsupportingtheactivitiesofslumcommunities,aswithbeingabletotakepartinthesocietybyorganizingamasstocopewiththeformalsector.Advantagesofnetworkingonimprovingprojectareasfollows:a)Organizingcommunitiestogetmoreloans,otherwisethatwouldberiskyfortheIndividualcommunity,b)Negotiatingwiththirdpartiesbecomeseasierbeinginrelatedwithothercommunitiesandnetworks,c)Sharingbothinformationandwaysoflivingequallywithholdinginitia-tivesandcharacteristicsofeachcommunityunliketheconventional
“topdown"way.SinceMr.Pornchokchai(1993)explainedmultilayersofcommunitythatresidentsbelongedwithdiversifiedclasseswerelivingtogetherinaslumcommunityandengagingindifferentjobseachother,thecommunityhasbeenorganizedessentiallyinasocialcomplexity.Multi-habitationthatmighthavebeenanintrinsicnatureofcommunityinAsiancities,hastobeattainedwithacceptinginitiativesofeachotherandbeabletokeeponwithimprovementsoflivingenvironmentsbyorganizingnetwork.Tokeepontheactivitiesofnetworks,someconsiderationsshouldbetakenbelow.First,asavinggroupisacknowledgedgenerallyasapartofacommunity,notalwaysrepresentingawholecommunity.Therefore,howtobringmoreresidentsintothegroupwouldbeacrucialissue.Second,networkactivitiesmeanoften-dynamicorganizationalmovementbeinganalogoustotemporaryassociationsthatusuallysetatermonhandlingofproject.So,communitynetworkshavetokeeponwithpayingattentiontothetrendsofcomplicatedurbanproblems.Ms.Somsook,theDirectorofCODI(CommunityOrganizationDevelopmentInstitute)explainedactivitiesofcommunitynetworkasfollowings
；
290 JournalofRegionalDevelopmentStudies(2003) strengthentheorganizationgraduallyandexpandittothecooperativemovement. Especiallyforthepoorpeople,organizinganetworkisessentialtocopewithsocial structuralissuessuchasbasicpermanentresidentialright.expansionofincome disparityandforcedeviction.sinceactivitiesofindividualshasusuallylimited." CODIhassupportedestablishmentsofsavinggroups/networksinmorethan 1200communitiesthroughoutthecountry.withfundfc:)rloans,andofferedneces-saryinformationtogroups/communities. 6-2.CommunityNetworkinAyuthaya Acommunitywouldbeabletogetitsautonomyforsocio-economicpolicies whenitisinvolvedinorganizednetworkkeepingmutualrelationshipsbetween communities. Takingtheimprovementsincommunitynetwork,thecaseofAyuthayaCityis worthyofremark. InAyuthayaCity,onecommunitynetworkhasbeenorganizedwithsaving groups.In1998,thefirstsavinggrouphasbeenestablishedintheArkarnSongkro community.TheyhavestartedsavingactivitieswiththesupportfromCODl,and theactivitieshaveexpandedtoorganize13savinggroupsincommunities,with650 householdmembersandtotalsavingamountof1 ，64millionBaht.When4savinggroupsweresetup,theybeguntosharecommonactivitiesandlinktogethertoorganizethenetwork.Sincethenetworkhadbeenorganizedforsavingactivities.eachgrouprecognizedapossibilityofnetworkbyworkingtogetherinenvironmen-talprojectssuchasconstructingconcretewalkwayinSalaPooncommunitygrantedfromUCEA.Thenetworkactivitieshavebroughttogroupsandcommunitiesaviewthattheyhavebeenabletomakedecisionsbythemselvesandgetpowerbyworkingtogether.Theactivitiesofthenetworkarethefollowings ・a ）Exchangingandsharinginformationforincomegeneration,managementofwelfareprogramandlivingenvironmentb ）SolvingprivatedebtbyusingrevolvingloanfromCODIoranotherpublicfunds.c ）Supportingpppforimprovementofhousingandenvironmentinthecommunities.Thecommitteeofthecommunitynetworkhasheldmeetingeverymonth.plannedstudytoursandseminarsforlearningfromothernetwork.
6-3.CommunityNetworkfordevelopment SincewaysofcommunitynetworkssupportedbyNGO ／NPOhastendedtobeinpopularespeciallyamonglowincomepeopleindevelopingcountries.theyseemtohaveapossibilitytobeadaptedindevelopedcountries.Thoughanycommunitydevelopmentbeingrelatedasawholeorganicbodyofurbanareas,influencesinevitablyonthecityactivities,landuseandexistinginfrastructure,itisnecessaryforanappropriatecontrolofdevelopmenttomakeapracticalmasterplan.Todelineateamasterplanforacitydevelopingrapidly,activitiesofexistingorganizednetworkswouldplayaroleofpipethatlinks “bottom-up"(participatinggroup)and “top-down"(administrativeplanning).InJapan,communitydevelopmenthasbeenadoptedinparticipatorywaysbytherevisedlawssuchastheCityPlanningLaw,theenforcementofNPOLaw,theFreeAccesstoInformationActs,andadministrativereformsfordecentralizationaswellinmanycountries.Sinceasuccessfulandcomprehensivedevelopmenthastotakeaconsiderationinprogressingeconomy.improvingenvironmentandkeepingequityforaccesstoresources,thepppwayisusuallyadoptedtomakeapracticalmasterplan.However,specificcharacteristicsoftraditionalandculturalsocietyoftentendstorefrainonsuchanopennessofsocialactivities,itwouldtakeacertaintimetogetanewpartnershipbetweenpeopleandadministrationbecauseofashorthistoryofNGO,NPOandexistingexclusivecontrolofpublic(administrative)sector.TheactivitiesofanetworkbyCODIwouldbeeffectivecaseforothercountriestochangethebureaucratizationgraduallyandleadtoaparticipatorycommunitybaseddevelopment.becausehavingfund,CODIisapartofgovernmentandisalsoindependentofofficialorganizationindecision-making. 7.CommunityDevelopment 7-1.SustainableMulti-habitation Vastaccumulationsandbuilt-instocksofinnercitywillbecomealsoamain issueforimprovement.Rapidurbanrenovationforcestheseareastochangetheir functionsandthespatialstructure.Theytendtocausedisordersandconfusionsto communitieseitherforgoodorill.Simultaneouslyestablishingawelfareand recyclesystemmaybecomesoonanurgentissueintheMega-cities,sincethecoming edging-societyandthereducinginpollutionhavebeenseriousproblemstobe
292 JournalofRegionalDevelopmentStudies(2003) solvedindevelopedcountries 。Inabroadsense,theconceptofsustainablemulti-habitationshouldbepursuedtomakeacomplexdynamicmodelofcommunity.integratingallthephysicalchangesoccurredinmodernresidentialdistricts.historicalmixed-livingdistrictsandslumareas,onassumptionthathumanhabitationiscloselyassociatedwithcommu-nityrelationship.Multi-habitationincommunities,thoughitmaybeeasilyfoundininnercitieswouldbeakeyconceptforrealizingasustainablelivingenvironment.Becauseithasapossibilitytoabsorbinadevelopmentimpactwithinitscapacity,small-scaleindustries,people'sincentiveandprocess-orientedwaysoflivingarefoundinthecommunities. 7-2.CaseofKyojima Congestedareashavesuchenvironmentalproblemsasnarrowlots,inadequate accesstoroadsandcomplieatedtitletoestates.whichhascauseddilapidationsof housestotransferyouthoutsideleavingaged.Consequentlyactivitiesofcommu-nityhavedeclinedinthesechainedreactions. -Figure5:landuseinKyojima
1976 1981 1986 1991 1995 3.5 3.4 3.9 3.6 3.7 photo ；townscapeofKyojima Figure6:therateoflanduse(Source:SutnidaWard) 4.6 ㎜MM5.o 三 二 箭笏咳 丿勿 箭. ニ ヘS ＼ ■^^ 皿 心 皿 ヨ5 ￡ 勿 劉 箭 勿, ト ＼11 溺 卿 箭 ＼§A^^^ 勿 ト ｜ ／ ㎜ 娩(^1;;Q ■'"■■-rrrnnmiT 皿^6.0 乙 ぶ///^.12.'^y/////A EJX ￣ ＿ ￣ ＿ 皿 皿 皿 四 三 吻 ％ 笏 ％ ぶ勿 li O％ ㎜public 20 ％ 四 commercial 40 ％ 携 爵畷 housing 60 ％ 80 ％ 100% F≡1 ロコ 囮industryopenspacetraffic InKyojimatheeasternareasofinnerTokyo,congestions(309persons/ha ）,dilapidatedhousingsandshortageofcommunityfacilitieshavebeenoneofsubjectstobesolvedunderthepressureofrelocationandredevelopmentforbuildingbusinessofficesorhigh-risehousingstocatchupwiththerisinglandpricesowingtoeconomicgrowth.(Figure5 ）SinceKyojimahasalonghistorymorethan100years,andpopulationaredecreasingin10127 （1980 ）to7493 （1996 ）,residentshaskeptonintimatehumanrelationshipslivingintheMLUareas.TherateoflanduseshowsthecharacteristicofMLU,andhasunchangedforyears.(Figure6 ）Theyhavewantedtostayhomewithacceptancesofimprovementsandrehabilitations.Theorganizedcommitteehasstartedtoimplementtheprojecthowtheylivesafetyintheareas.Theimprovementprojecthasbeenunderwaywithacooperativerelationshipbetweenthelocalgovernmentandtheorganizedcommittee,underappropriatepolicyumbrellas.TheorganizedcommitteehadletresidentsknowtheconditionsofMLU,densityofhouseholdsandlocationoffacilities.andculturalcharacteristicoftheareas.Andwithagreementofthem,thecommitteedecidedthegoalsoftheprojectin1982 ；
294 JournalofRegionalDevel ）pmenlStudies （2003) a ）Establishingahealthyandcomfc: ）rtablelivingenvironment,b ）Keepingacertainbalanceandcloserproximitybetweenworkplaceandhousing.c ）Securingasafetyenvironmentfromdisasters.Theycarriedthestrategiessupportedbytheconsultantasfollows ；a ）Planningthedistrictinto5zonesconsideringimprovementoflanduse,b ）Reconstructingcommunityroadsbasedontheformerutilization.c ）Rebuildingdilapidatedhousingsandunifyingnarrowlotstobuildcoopera-tivehousings,d ）Buildingcommunityfacilities.Toimplementtheproject,thelocalgovernmenthasorganizedboththepubliccooperationandtheinstituteofcentern: ）rcommunitydevelopment,andalsohaspreparedthesubsidysystemforsupportingthemovement.ThefundhasaccountedFigure7:theplanofKyojima(Source:SumidaWard) photo ；extensionofroad(left),cooperativehousingforrent(right) 一 一
about200millionBathparayear.Upuntilnow,81housingsweredemolished,10 cooperativecommunityhousings,49fireproofhousingswerebuiltand6community roads{116m)wereconstructed.(Figure7) Aftertheburstofso-calledbubbleeconomy,thelocalgovernmentremainsto beatastandstillwithholdingtheseriousissueshowtodealwithbank'snon-performingloansandtorenovatethefiscalstructure.Changesinsocio-economic conditionsthatshouldbegivenheedsforpromotingdevelopmentareshownbelow ；a)Furtheradvancementofoveralldwindlingnumberofchildrenandagingpopulation,b)Changesanddiversificationofpeople'svaluesandlifestyles,c)Increasinginconcernwithenvironmentalproblems,d)Improvementofinformalsociety.Thepolicyofdevelopmenthaschangedobviouslytofocusonredevelopmentsininner-cityareas.Populationhasbeenincreasinggraduallyintheareas.wherehigh-risehousingsanddailyservicefacilitieshavebeguntolocateonthesiteoflocalindustries.Thesetransformationsofphysicalenvironmentsininner-cityareasmeanthatresidentshavelittlechancetoplantheircommunity,althoughthelocalgovernmenthasbeguntoadvocatetheparticipatorycommunitydevelopment ・TheKyojimastorysuggeststhattheparticipatoryimprovementonthepartner-shipbetweenanadministrationandacommunitycanrebuildtheirphysicalenviron-mentandkeepontheirliveswithmulti-habitation. 7-3.CaseofArkarnSongkroinAyuthaya ArkarnSongkroisthecommunitylocatedonpublicland.Theadministration built40unitsofpublicrowhouses43yearsago.Aspopulationhadincreased. Photos:modelofformerArkanSongkro(left),themodelplanofArkan Songkro(center),landscapeofopenspaceandhousings(left)
296 JournalofRegionalDevelopmentStudies(2003) residentsbuiltmorehousesintheopenspace.Thecommunitybecamecongested withdilapidatedhouses,unpavedwalkwaysanddamageddrainagepipes.The administrationstoppedcollectrentfeefromthem.Withthesupportofarchitects sentbyCODI,theyhadmeetingstodiscusshowtheycouldlivetogetherintheir communityandhavesecurehousings.Theyagreedtoimprovetheirhousesand physicalenvironmentbyreconstructiontheirhouses.Planningofland/houses, walkways.selectionsofbuildingmaterialswerediscussedinmeeting.Therewere differentopinionsamongtheresidentsfirst,however.theycouldreachanaccordant inthecommunity.Architectshelpedthemsketchouttheirideas.Thesewerethe followings: a ）Tohavebasicfacilitiessuchaswalkwaysandamelioratedseweragesthatcanclearthestandardssetbyadministration,b ）Torebuildlowhousingsthataccommodate66housesofconcrete,retainingtheopenspaceinthecenterofcommunity 。Thecommunityhasbeensavingtogethertoreceivehousingfunds.Theamountofsavingmadeitpossibletoreceivetheloanthathadenabledthelaunchoftheproject.NHAcoveredthecostforinfrastructure.Asanon-siteproject,residentshadsettledintemporaryhousepreparedbytheadministrationbySep.2002.Twofactorsarepointedtomaketheprojectsuccess-ful.First,therewasastrongleadershipinthecommunitytoleadpeopleforthefirstpilotproject.Theleaderhadbeenamemberofadministrativecommitteeaswellasamemberofthenetworkandparticipatedincommunityactivities.Theactivitiesofcommitteeshadbeenmanagedwellbytheresidents.Second,residentshadkeptontheintimaterelationship,fortheyhadbeenlivedinthecommunityforalongtime.Moreover,thesiteofcommunitylocatingin-betweenthemainroadmadeitpossibletohavetheplanofon-sitereconstruction. 8.Conclusion Changesanddiversificationofurbanlives,increasingintheconcernwith environmentalresourcesanddisparitiesincitizenswouldleadthewayofdevelop- menttointroducingthepppwithreconsiderationbothofcommunitybasedactiv-itiesandtheexistingvastexpansionofbuilt-inurbanareasinAsian-cities.A conceptofmulti-habitationproposedasastrategicurbanlivingstylehastobe searchedforimprovingasustainablecommunity.organizingcommunitynetwork,
Figure8 ；typeofmulti-habitation&developmentpoliciesinthethreeregionalstages
Region Typeofmulti-habitation DevelopmentPolicies
Mega-City Linkagebetweencitiesandvil-lagestoformadiscontinuous unity Decentralization Comprehensivecontrol Conservationofnaturalsources Utilizationofurbanstocks UrbanArea RebuildingMLUareas Networkingofcommunities Sustainableandendogenousdevelopment Socio-economicdevelopmentinvolvinginfor-malsector Formationofethnicsociety Community Networkingofcommunities Communitydevelopment ParticipatoryProcess-oriented Planning CommunityBasedDevelopment rebuildingMLUareasandformingadiscontinuousunityineachregionallevel, sincetheglobalizationineconomyseemstosetforwardtodisorganizationofurban areas.Thevisionofappropriatemulti-habitationwouldhavetochangewiththe locationofareaswherelivesofcitizenshavebeeninfluencedbycitymovement,and
bepursuedeffectivelywiththedevelopmentpoliciesbelow. （Figure8 ）Copingwithadisadvantageofthicknessandshortageofsocialinfrastructure.andestablishingasustainableandautonomousregionalmanagement,planningthelivingwayofmulti-habitationbasedonbothacommunityandacommunitynetwork,thataimsatreconstructingaproximitytodiversifiedworkspaces,develop-ingofsmallscaleindustries,holdingaculturalcomplexityandsecuringenviron-mentforhumandevelopment.shouldbepluggedinthelayerofbuilt-inurbanareas.andwouldbeabletokeepcommunityliveswiththeirinitiatives.Theconceptonmulti-habitationwouldbepursuedintheprocessofdevelop-mentbecauseitisnotafl
χedandexclusiveideabutafluidandinclusiveone.Thisisalsorelatedtohowresidentsincityshouldlivetheirownliveswiththeirinitiatives.Noteandreferences1
）YapKioeShengetal:Low-incomehousinginBangkok,AIT,19922 ）UCDO:BroadingAccessforMoreAffordableHousing19993 ）UCDO:UpdateOct20004
298 JournalofRegionalDevelopmentStudies （2003 ） 5 ）PanthipPetchmark ；City-wideUrbanPoorHousingDevelopmentasBasisforCollaborativeHealthyandSustainableCityDevelopmentintheAyutth-aya ，ThailandCODI20016 ）TokyoLife,TokyoMetropolitanGovernment,Vol.30,19967 ）HousinginJapan,TheBuildingCenterofJapan,19988 ）UrbanWhitePaperonTokyoMetropolis1998,BureauofCityPlanning,TokyoMetropolitanGovernment,19989 ）ReportofKyojimaImprovementProject,SumidaWard199610 ）SoponPornchokchai:BangkokSlums,1993 ＊thepaperisbasedonthespeechinthejointseminarToyoUniversity-AITheldatgthDec.2002,Thailand. 要 約 混 住 環 境 形 成 に む け た 計 画 論 的 考 察 − ア ジ ア 大 都 市 圏 を 対 象 に 「 定 住 環 境 の 形 成 」 とし て イ メ ー ジ さ れ る の は 、 ま ず そ れ ぞ れ の 地 域 で 安 心 ・ 安 定 し て 住 み 続 け ら れ る よ う な 地 域 づ く り で あ る 。 ア ジ ア の 大 都 市 圏 で は 、 ① 進 展 す る 車 社 会 、 情 報 化 社 会 高 度 工 業 化 社 会 へ の 対 応 、 ② 急 速 な 大 衆 社 会 化 、 市 民 社 会 化 に お け る ガ バ ナ ン ス の 確 立 、 ③ グ ロ ー バ リ ズ ム と ロ ー カ リ ズ ム の 相 克 や 貧 困 の 克 服 、 な ど 困 難 な 課 題 が 散 見 し て い る が 、 最 終 的 に は 、 こ う し た 課 題 を 包 含 し つ つ 動 的 に 展 開 す る 「 地 域 単 位 （自 立 型 ）十 ネ ッ ト ワ ー ク 型 （ 地 域 連 携 ）」 の 複 合 系 の 都 市 圏 構 築 が 基 本 構 想 と し て 考 え ら れ る 。 定 住 環 境 形 成 を 計 画 的 な 視 点 か ら 捉 え る と 「混 住 」 が キ ー ワ ー ド に な る。 ア ジ ア 大 都 市 圏 に お け る 都 市 農 村 の 関 係 性 や 、 そ れ ぞ れ の 地 域 的 特 性 は 従 来 の 「 西 欧 型 」 理 論 で は 包 含 で き な い 。 耕 地 の 区 画 割 が 都 市 空 間 を 基 底 し 、 境 界 域 が 不 明 確 な ス プ ロ ー ル 状 況 は 、 基 盤 整 備 が 追 い つ か な い 急 速 な 人 口 増 加 や 計 画 規 制力 の 不 十 分 さ な ど に よ る部 分 も 大 き い が 、 そ れ だ け で は 説 明 が で き な い 。 一 方 で 近 代 的 な 都 市 更 新 が 急 速 に 進 め ら れ て い るが 、 そ の 中 に埋 め 込 ま れ た 市 街 地 内 部 で の 混 住 （ 職 住 近 接 、 民 族 住 み 分 け 、 用 途 混 合 ） 型 市 街 地 空 間 の 構 成 も 固 有 の も の で あ る 。 近 代 化 に よ る ゾ ー ニ ン グ の一 方 で 、 適 切 な 用 途 の 混 在 も 同 時 的 に 発 生 す る 動 的 な 地 域 の 捉 え 方 が 必 要 で あ る 。20 世 紀 の 後 半 で み る と 、 西 欧 の 都 市 と 農 村 と を 明 確 に 区 分 す る 概 念 は む し ろ 特 殊 解 で は な い か 。 ジ ェ イ コ プ ス の 指 摘 を 待 つ ま で も な く 、 い わ ゆ る 近 代 化 に よ る 効 率 的 、 画 一 的 な 都 市 環 境 の 形 成 を 超 え た 、 地 域 の 特 性 、 資 源 に 依 拠 し た 構 想 が 求 め ら れ て い る 。 ま た 同 時 に 、 た と え ば ス ラ ム は 「 問 題 で は な く 解 決 （ タ ー ナ ー ）」、「developingvillages(Johnson ）」 と 提 起 さ れ る よ う に 、 持 続 的 な 発 展 形 の プ ロ セ ス （ 生 生 流 転 ） の 中 で 捉 え る こ と も求 め ら れ よう 。 当 面 検 討 す べ き地 域 課 題 を 以 下 に 示 す 。1 ）「 定 住 圏 」 概 念 の 検 討 （ 日 本 の 全 国 総 合 計 画 な ど の 事 例 研 究 よ り ）
日本 にお け る開発 経験 を比 較 検証 する こ と も、 従来 の効 率 優先 、 経 済開 発先 行型 の 事業 展開 の課 題 を明 ら かに する 意味 で重 要で あ る。 中 で も、定 住圏 構 想が 提案 さ れた背 景 （流域 圏、 生 態圏 地 方 分 権、地 域主義 ） と その展 開 をフ ォロ ーす る必 要があ る。2 ） 都市 と農 村 の関 係性 を重 視 す る定 住環 境形 成 につ い て 都市 と農 村 の区分 が 不明瞭 な今 日 の拡 大型 都 市的環 境 の見直 し が 求 めら れ てい る。 現実 の アジ ア 大 都市 圏 の市街 地形 成 を みる と き、 計 画 理念 とし てのコ ンパ クト な市街 地形 成 の考 え 方 につい て一 定 の評 価 はで きる が、費 用 、規 制、 合 意 等で 明 ら かに限 界が あ る。 むし ろ現 在の スト ッ クの修 復 を 主 とし た戦 略 を展 開す る中 で、 日本 や ア ジ アの 都市 に典 型的 に み ら れる混 住型 を積 極 的 に評価 し て い く必 要 があ る。 モ ータリ ゼ ーシ ョ ンの 発 展、 情報化 の 進 展を考 慮 する と、首 都 への 集中 を緩 和 す る こ と も含 めて、 既 存 集落 周辺 や 農地 緑 地 に近 接し、 工 場 等の 職場 が整 備 さ れた適 切 な市 街地 の分 散的 展 開 （田 園都市 的、 エ ッ ジシ テ ィ的 発想 ） に可能 性 を求 める こ とが望 まし い ので は ないか。 大 都 市圏 の中 で の適切 な 「住 み分 け 」 の可 能性 を 追究 する こ と、 現在 の開発 エ ネル ギ ーを地 域主 体 の イ ンセ ン ティブ を活 かし つつ 適 切 な方 向 に向 け る こと、 が求 めら れ る。 た とえ ば、 定 住圏 を各 地 域 間 のモ ザ イ ク状 の地 域単 位 と そ のネ ット ワ ー ク的連携 の な かで 捉 え、 各地 域 の イン セン ティブ を生 か すこ とで 、「 な るよ うに なる （今 西 錦司 ）」 世 界 の構築 が構 想 さ れ る。3 ） 市街 地内部 での定 住 環境 形成 につ い て 急 速 な都 市更新 と スラム の拡 大 はい ずれ停 滞 期 を迎 える。 都 市内 に埋 め込 ま れたイ ンフ ォーマ ル セ クタ ー はアジ ア大 都市 の 空間 を特 徴 づ け てい る が、 こ の動 向 に着 目 す る必 要があ る。 同 時的 に 福 祉 社会、 環 境循 環型 社会 へ の模 索 も開 始 さ れて い るが、 ハ ード面 で はこ れら を反映 し た近 代的 な 市 街地（ オフ ィ ス群 、 マ ンショ ン、 団 地 ）、 歴史 的 な混 住市 街地 、 スラ ム の今 後 の空 間的 変化 を動 的 に とら え、 人 間居 住 の もつ本 来的 な 社会 性 と地 域 との関係 を見 直 す中 で 、広 い 意味 で の混 住型 環 境 の あ り方 を追 究 する と共 に、 各地 域 （地 区 ）単 位 の自立 的 な活 動 と、 ネット ワ ー クを通じ た都市 全 体 との相対 的 関係 性 も視野 に い れた 複雑 系 の モデ ル を構 築 す る必 要が あ る。
