Title
BIO-REFOR(熱帯林再生研究者連合)の始動
Author(s)
村上, 公久Citation
聖学院大学論叢, 8(2): 223-248URL
http://serve.seigakuin-univ.ac.jp/reps/modules/xoonips/detail.php?item_i d=656Rights
聖学院学術情報発信システム : SERVE
SEigakuin Repository for academic archiVE
Research Needs and Achievements o f T r o p i c a l F o r e s t r y i n Asia P a c i f i c Region
一 一
‑Stateo f the Art and BIO‑REFOR Trial‑
一 一Kimihisa MURAKAMI
アジア・太平洋地域における,熱帯林研究の必要性と実績 一一現状と
BIO‑REFOR
(熱帯林再生研究者連合)の始動一一村 上 公 久
序言および.謝辞
アジア・太平洋地域の熱帯で暮らすおびただしい数の人々が熱帯林に頼って生活しているが,こ の地域の熱帯林の減少・劣化の現状は深刻であり,先進各国の公的(政府開発援助
ODAO f f i c i a l Development A s s i s t a n c e )
また私的(NGONon‑Governmental O r g a n i z a t i o n s )
な植林・森林保全 などの活動は必ずしも元の森林状態を回復させる努力につながるとは限らず,場合によっては単一 の早成樹種による原植生の破壊をもたらすことも少なくない。1 9 9 1
年に,著者はNGO
であるBIO‑REFOR
(熱帯林再生研究者連合B I O t e c h ‑ n o l o g ya s s i s t e d REFORestation p r o j e c t )
を各国 の研究者の協力を得て創設したが帥,この組織の目的は森林の再生に土着の樹種を用いることにあ る。その際,各地の固有の造林技術を尊重することが肝要であるが,開花・結実の周期の不安定性,種子採取および種子保存の困難性,などによる造林材料の確保の困難があるO そしてこれらの問題 が,従来の植林活動が単一の早成樹種によらざるを得ない理由でもあった。
BIO‑REFOR
は既存 の各地の伝統的な土着の造林技術を尊重しつつ,科学的で適正な方法を最新の研究技術を援用する ことにより確立することを強く望んでいる。この報告は,当該地域の熱帯林再生のために必要な研 究課題を特定すると共に,研究技術の現状を把握することを意図している。この報告のためには,優れた研究者でありまた世界的な貢献を果たしてきた研究行政の管理者で もある二人の科学者の協力を得た。一人は,元アメリカ合衆国農務省森林庁次官,
IUFRO
(国際 森林研究機関連合I n t e r n a t i o n a lUnion o f F o r e s t r y R e s e a r c h O r g a n i z a t i o n s )
前会長,現オレゴン 州立大学森林学部教授のD
r.R o b e r t E . Buckman
,もう一人は,前回連FAO
のアジア・太平洋地Key w o r d s ; T r o p i c a l F o r e s t r y
,A s i a P a c i f i c Region
,R e f o r e s t a t i o n
,R e s e a r c h Needs
,NGO.
域森林資源局長,故
D
r.Y.S . Rao
であるo D
r.Rao
は,BIO‑REFOR
の本格的な設立の機会とな ったわが国のつくば市で1 9 9 2
年5
月に開催された国際集会同に参加し基調講演などによってこのNGO
の基本路線の設定を指導したが,その直後インドでテロリストによって爆殺された。同博士 の多大の貢献と惜しみない支援を想起し深甚なる感謝を捧げると共に,謹んで哀悼の意を表するOF o r e w o r d a n d A c k n o w l e d g m e n t s
I m p e l l e d by p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e and s h o r t a g e o f f o o d
,p e o p l e ' s demand f o r l a n d u s e e x t e n d s r a p i d l y
,t h i s s t r e s s a c c e l e r a t e s d e f o r e s t a t i o n o r d e g r a d a t i o n o f f o r e s t r e s o u r c e s i n Asia
句P a c i f i c r e g i o n and c a u s e s e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o b l e m s s u c h a s s h o r t a g e o f f u e l wood
,s o i l e r o s i o n
,d r a u g h t
,f r e q u e n t f l o o d s
,c l i m a t e change
,d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n
,e t c . S u i t a b l e m e a s u r e s s h o u l d b e t a k e n a t a n e a r l i e s t p o s s i b l e t i m e and t h e f o r e s t r y s c i e n t i s t s i n t h e r e g i o n a r e c a l l e d f o r t h e m .
IUFRO ( I n t e r n a t i o n a l Union o f F o r e s t r y R e s e a r c h O r g a n i z a t i o n s
,e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1892
,700 member b o d i e s
,1 5
,000 s c i e n t i s t s 1 1 2 c o u n t r i e s ) a p p e a l e d D e c l a r a t i o n o f t h e XVII IUFRO World Congress 1 9 8 1 ' a t Kyoto C i t y i n ]apan w i t h t h e World Bank and FAO o f UN f o r a r e a p ‑ p r a i s a l o f f o r e s t r y r e s e a r c h s i t u a t i o n i n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s . IUFRO r e s p o n d e d by c r e a t i n g i t s SPDC ( S p e c i a l Program f o r Developing C o u n t r i e s ) . ] a p a n e s e f o r e s t r y s c i e n t i s t s have been p r e ‑ p a r i n g a r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t f o r R e h a b i l i t a t i o n o f Degraded T r o p i c a l F o r e s t Land i n Developing C o u n t r i e s i n A s i a ‑ P a c i f i c R e g i o n ' . The a u t h o r e s t a b l i s h e d a NGO (Non Governmental O r g a n i z a ‑ t i o n ) t i t l e d BIO‑REFOR (BIOtechnology a s s i s t e d REFORestation p r o j e c t ) i n 1 9 9 1 a s a m a j o r a c t i o n o f SPDC o f IUFRO w i t h t h e c o l l e a g u e s o f t h i r t e e n c o u n t r i e s i n t h e r e g i o n . This r e p o r t d e a l s w i t h t h e r e g i o n a l r e s e a r c h n e e d s and a c h i e v e m e n t s s o f a r i n t h e f i e l d o f t r o p i c a l f o r e s t r y t o c l a r i f y t h e o b j e c t o f o u r t r i a
l.I n p r e p a r i n g t h i s r e p o r t
,t h e a u t h o r had k i n d c o o p e r a t i o n s o f h i s c o l l e a g u e s
,D
r.Robert E .
( 3 )
同Buckman\~' , t h e f o r m e r P r e s i d e n t o f IUFRO and t h e l a t e D
r.Y . S . Rao
,'L‑¥t h e f o r m e r D i r e c t o r o f
F o r e s t r y
,R e g i o n a l O f f i c e o f Asia P a c i f i c
,FAO o f UN. T h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h i s r e p o r t have
been g r e a t and 1 t a k e p l e a s u r e i n acknowledging t h e i m p o r t a n t and e s s e n t i a l p a r t p l a y e d by
t h e m . A f t e r D
r.Rao p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e second I n t e r n a t i o n a l Workshop o f BIO‑REFOR h e l d a t
Tsukuba C i t y
,]apan h e p a s s e d away by a t e r r o r i s t bomb t r a g e d y . The a u t h o r would l i k e t o e x ‑
p r e s s h i s d e e p e s t c o n d o l e n c e s w i t h h i s a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r D
r.R a o ' s k i n d c o n t r i b u t i o n and s u p p o r t
t o BIO‑REFO
R.R e s e a r c h Needs a n d A c h i e v e m e n t s o f T r o p i c a l F o r e s t r y i n A s i a P a c i f i c Region
( 8 )
,(13),( 1
5),(16),(20)I n t r o d u c t i o n
T r o p i c a l f o r e s t s ( i n c l u d i n g c l o s e d b r o a d l e a v e d f o r e s t s
,f a l l o w a r e a s
,open and savannah wood‑
l a n d s
,and f o r e s t p l a n t a t i o n s ) occupy a b o u t 1
,937million h e c t a r e s
,s l i g h t l y more a r e a ( 5 3 p e r ‑ c e n t ) t h a n t h e combined t o t a l a r e a o f t e m p e r a t e and b o r e a l f o r e s t s o f t h e world ( A l l a n and Lan
幽l y
,1 9 9 1 ) . L a t i n America h a s more t h a n h a l f t h e w o r l d ' s t r o p i c a l r a i n f o r e s t s
,A f r i c a more t h a n
( 1 ) ,
(4),
(5)h a l f t h e w o r l d ' s open and savannah woodlands
F o r e s t r y i n Asia i s i n c r i s i s . D e f o r e s t a t i o n i s a c c e l e r a t i n g a s r i s i n g p o p u l a t i o n s and incomes i n c r e a s e t h e demand f o r l a n d and wood p r o d u c t s and a s a new a w a r e n e s s o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f f o r e s t e c o s y s t e m s i s sweeping t h e r e g i o n and t h e w o r l d . This l o s s o f f o r e s t p o s e s a l a r m i n g e c o ‑ nomic and e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o s t s .
O n e ‑ t h i r d o f Asia i s c o v e r e d w i t h f o r e s t s . That p r o p o r t i o n i s s h r i n k i n g f a s
t.On t h e b a s i s o f c u r r e n t t r e n d s
,h a l f t h e o r i g i n a l 725 m i l l i o n h e c t a r e s w i l l be gone by t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y . By 1980 t h e y had a l r e a d y dwindled t o a b o u t 460 m i l l i o n h e c t a r e s . Between 1981 and 1985
,f o r e s t s v a n i s h e d a t t h e r a t e o f a b o u t 2 m i l l i o n h e c t a r e s a y e a r
,w i t h t h e most d r a m a t i c d e c l i n e s i n l n d i a
,Nepal
,t h e P h i l i p p i n e s
,S r i Lanka and T h a i l a n d . P r e l i m i n a r y FAO e s t i m a t e s f o r 1 5 c o u n t r i e s s u g g e s t t h a t
,o v e r t h e decade o f t h e 1 9 8 0 ' s f o r e s t s may have d i s a p p e a r e d a t a r a t e o f 3.5 m i l l i o n h e c t a r e s a yea
r.Area
,though
,i s o n l y a c r u d e i n d i c a t o r o f l o s s
,s i n c e
、muchmore may have been d e g r a d e d . The s t a t u s o f Asian f o r e s t s i s o u t l i n e d i n ( T a b l e 1 ) .
l n t h e p a s t
,development p o l i c i e s encouraged o r condoned d e f o r e s t a t i o n . F o r e s t s were s e e n a s c o n t r i b u t i n g t o economic growth mainly t h r o u g h t h e s a l e o f t i m b e r and a s a s o u r c e o f l a n d f o r c o n v e r s i o n t o o t h e r p r o d u c t i v e u s e s . That view h a s been changing i n t h e p a s t 1 5 y e a r s
,i n i t i a l l y due t o a w a r e n e s s o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f fuelwood a s a s o u r c e o f e n e r g y
,and more r e c e n t l y from g r e a t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f nonwood f o r e s t p r o d u c t s and s e r v i c e s
,such a s f r u i t
,game
,and m e d i c i n a l p l a n t s . Even i n commercial f o r e s t r y
,t h e l o s s o f t r e e s i s s t a r t i n g t o g e n e r a t e more i n t e r e s t i n s u s t a i n a b l e managemen
t.Some o f t h e economic c o s t s o f d e f o r e s t a t i o n a r e o b v i o u s . Timber h a s l o n g been an i m p o r t a n t
e x p o r t f o r s e v e r a l Asian c o u n t r i e s . F o r e s t p r o d u c t s g e n e r a t e d e x p o r t r e v e n u e s o f $8.25 b i l l i o n
i n 1 9 8 8 . But Asia i s i n c r e a s i n g l y becoming a w o o d ‑ d e f i c i t r e g i o n . Based on c u r r e n t t r e n d s
,i m ‑
p o r t s o f t i m b e r and f o r e s t p r o d u c t s w i l l c o s t t h e r e g i o n n e a r l y $20 b i l l i o n a y e a r by 2 0 0 0 . The
t h r e e c o u n t r i e s which have a c c o u n t e d f o r n i n e
ぺe n t h so f t h e r e g i o n ' s l o g e x p o r t s and r e v e n u e s
,l n d o n e s i a
,Malaysia
,and t h e P h i l i p p i n e s and Thailand a r e v i r t u a l l y e x h a u s t e d . l n d i a
,h i s t o r i c a l
困Table 1 : Areas o f N a t u r a l F o r e s t and P l a n t a t i o n s
,and Rates o f D e f o r e s t a t i o n i n A s i a ( 0 0 0 ' h a )
G r o s s N a t u r a l F o r e s t P l a n t a t i o n A r e a s D e f o r e s t a t i o
匁Land A r e a s C l o s e d 1980 e s t . 1990 r a t e
,1971‑1980 a v e r a g e a n n u a l % South A s i a
Bangladesh 1 3
,390 927 338 0.9 Bhutan 4
,700 2
,300 1 7 0 . 1 I n d i a 297
,320 5 1
,841 3
,798 2.5 1 Nepal 1 3
,680 1
,940 69 4.3 P a k i s t a n 72
,830 2
,185 106 0
.4S r i Lanka 6
,470 1
,659 272 3.5 E a s t A s i a
China 932
,640 97
,847 58.253 0.6 2 ]apan 37
,643 1 0
,800 n . a . Korea R e p . 9
,820 4
,887 2
,468 n . a . 6 Mongolia 156
,500 9
,528 n . a . C o n t i n e n t a l
South E a s t A s i a
Kampuchea 1 7
,550 7
,548 0.3 Lao PDR 23
,080 8
,410 3 1
1.3 Myanmar 65
,770 3 1
,941 0.3 T h a i l a n d 5 1
,180 9
,235 424 2.8 V i e t Nam 32
,540 8.770 564 5.0 I n s u l a r
South B a s t A s i a
B r u n e i 590 323 n . a .
I n d o n e s i a 1 8 1
,160 113
,895 3
,558 0.9 3 Malaysia 7 32
,860 1 8
,500 276
1.2 P h i l i p p i n e s 8 29
,860 6
,710 930 2.7 4 P a c i f i c I s l a n d s
F u j i 1
,930 811 130 0.2
PNG 45
,170 34
,230 42 0.5 5 Solomon I s l a n d s 2.750 2
,423 27 n . a .
T o t a l 2
,029
,433 415
,910 82
,103
D e f o r e s t a t i o n f i g u r e s c a l c u l a t e d d a t a i n F AO r e p o r t s
,1 9 8 0 o r 1 9 8 7 i n t e r i m r e p o r t i f n o t o t h e r w i s e i n ‑ d i c a t e d .
1 . L a t e s t d e f o r e s t a t i o n f i g u r e f r o m ] . B . L a l I n d i a ' s F o r e s t Myth o r R e a l i t y . Based on new s u r v e y s u s i n g r e m o t e s e n s i n g
,e t c . T h i s f i g u r e t a k e n a s a p e r c e n t a g e o f r e m a i n i n g f o r e s t a r e a
2 . S . D . R i c h a r d s o n F o r e s t s a n d F o r e s t r y i n C h i n a : C h a n g i n g P a t t e r n s o f R e s o u r c e D e v e l o p m e n t
,1 9 9 0 .
3 . S o u r c e : I n d o n e s i a ; F o r e s t
,Land a n d W a t e r : ' I s s u e s i n S u s t a i n a b l e D e v e l o p m e n t "
,W o r l d Bank
,1 9 8 9 .
4 . S o u r c e : DENR
,RP‑German F o r e s t R e s o u r c e s I n v e n t o r y ( 1 9 8 7 ) .
5 . S o u r c e : S . M . S a u l e i
,1 9 9 0 : F o r e s t R e s e a r c h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t i n PNG
,Ambio V o l 1 9
,N o . 8 . 6 . S o u r c e : Timber f r o m t h e S o u t h S e a s ' ; F . Nectoux a n d Y . Kuroda
,1 9 8 9 .
7 . S o u r c e : M a l a y s i a : F o r e s t r y S u b s e c t o r Review
,G r e e n C o v e r
,S e p t e m b e r 1 9 9
1.8 . S o u r c e : P h i l i p p i n e s E n v i r o n m e n t a n d N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e Management S t u d y
,World Bank
,1 9 9
1.R e s e a r c h Needs a n d A c h i e v e m e n t s o f T r o p i c a l F o r e s t r y i n A s i a P a c i f i c Region l y s e l f ‑ s u f f i c i e n t i n wood p r o d u c t s
,h a s become a l a r g e i m p o r t e
r.O t h e r c o s t s a r e h a r d e r t o m e a s u r e . Many o f t h e b e n e f i t s t h a t t r e e s and f o r e s t s p r o v i d e a r e n o t c a p t u r e d by t h e marke
t.These i n c l u d e t h e i r r o l e a s a s o u r c e o f fuelwood
,which a c c o u n t s f o r f o u r ‑ f i f t h s o f A s i a ' s t i m b e r demand
,and o f t h e nonwood p r o d u c t s which a r e f r e q u e n t l y i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e s o f p r o t e i n and s h e l t e r f o r t h e poo
r.F o r e s t s p r o v i d e goods
,incomes
,s e r v i c e s and homes t o l o c a l p o p u l a t i o n s . The nonmarketed b e n e f i t s o f t r e e s a l s o i n c l u d e t h e p r e v e n t i o n o f s o i l e r o ‑ s i o n and m o d e r a t i o n o f s t r e a m f l o w s .
Some o f t h e l o s s e s from d e f o r e s t a t i o n a r e o f c o n c e r n t o p e o p l e o u t s i d e t h e r e g i o n . Four o f t h e 1 2 m e g a ‑ d i v e r s i t y " c o u n t r i e s o f t h e world
,i n which h a l f t h e e a r t h ' s p l a n t and a n i m a l s p e c i e s a r e found
,l i e i n Asia ー China
,l n d i a
,l n d o n e s i a
,M a l a y s i a . l n a d d i t i o n
,P apua N ew Guinea and t h e P h i l i p p i n e s a r e among t h e c o u n t r i e s w i t h t h e h i g h e s t number o f endemic s p e c i e s . Much o f t h i s b i o l o g i c a l w e a l t h i s found i n t h e r e g i o n ' s g r e a t e s t v a r i e t y o f a n i m a l s . F i n a l l y
,t h e d e s t r u c ‑ t i o n o f f o r e s t s u n l o c k s c a r b o n d i o x i d e whose r e l e a s e i n t o t h e atmosphere c o n t r i b u t e s t o g l o b a l warming. Asian d e f o r e s t a t i o n i s e s t i m a t e d t o a c c o u n t f o r o v e r 6% o f r e c e n t i n c r e a s e s i n t h e a t m o s p h e r i c c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f c a rb o n d i o x i d e .
Causes o f D e f o r e s t a t i o n 倒
The immediate c a u s e s o f d e f o r e s t a t i o n a r e t h e c l e a r i n g o f l a n d f o r f a r m i n g
,t h e demand f o r f i r e w o o d and f o d d e r
,and e x c e s s i v e commercial l o g g i n g . These a r e a g g r a v a t e d by p o p u l a t i o n and income g r o w t h . A l l a r e l i k e l y t o c o n t i n u e f o r t h e f o r e s e e a b l e f u t u r e . A s i a ' s f o r e s t s a r e u n i ‑ que i n t h e i r p r o x i m i t y t o a r e a s o f r a p i d p o p u l a t i o n and economic growth
,which makes them p a r ‑ t i c u l a r l y v u l n e r a b l e t o e x p l o i t a t i o n . But o t h e r f o r c e s have h e l p e d t o f o s t e r d e f o r e s t a t i o n . Behind t h e c r i s i s i n Asian f o r e s t r y l i e t h r e e b a s i c and i n t e r ‑ r e l a t e d s e t s o f p r o b l e m s : economic
,i n s t i t u ‑ t i o n a l
,and t e c h n i c a
l.None i s u n iq u e t o Asia
,b u t some a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y a c u t e .
At t h e c o r e o f t h e economic problem l i e s t h e d i v e r g e n c e
,t y p i c a l o f many e n v i r o n m e n t a l
i s s u e s
,between p r i v a t e and s o c i a l c o s t s . Those who d e s t r o y f o r e s t s
,whether f o r a g r i c u l t u r e
,f u e l
o r l o g g i n g
,e n j o y p r i v a t e b e n e f i t s b u t do n o t c a r r y t h e f u l l c o s t s o f t h e i r a c t i o n s
,whether s o i l
e r o s i o n
,l o s s e s o f b i o d i v e r s i t y
,o r r e l e a s e o f c a r b o n d i o x i d e from f o r e s t f i r e s . O f t e n
,t h e problem
i s a g g r a v a t e d by p o o r l y d e f i n e d p r o p e r t y r i g h t s .
Ift h e f o r e s t i s open t o a l l o r b e l o n g s t o t h e
s t a t e
,i t i s n o t l i k e l y t o b e a s w e l l p r o t e c t e d o r a s s u s t a i n a b l y managed a s i f i t h a s c l e a r p r i v a t e
o r c o l l e c t i v e o w n e r s h i p . Open a c c e s s t o f o r e s t s a l l o w s fuelwood and o t h e r p r o d u c t s t o be
g a t h e r e d a t z e r o c o s t
,t h e r e b y u n d e r v a l u i n g t h e r e s o u r c e and p e r p e t u a t i n g i t s l o s s . Although t h i s
b e n e f i t s some o f t o d a y ' s consumers
,t h e i n c e n t i v e t o r e p l a n t t r e e s i s r e d u c e d
,u l t i m a t e l y i m p o s ‑ i n g a heavy c o s t on f u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n s " "
間" .
Equally t y p i c a l a r e i n s t i t u t i o n a l p r o b l e m s . A f t e r independence
,Asian f o r e s t s a l m o s t i n v a r i ‑ a b l y came under s t a t e ownership and c o n t r o
l.F o r e s t
帽managementi n s t i t u t i o n s were o r i g i n a l l y d e s i g n e d t o e n f o r c e t e c h n i c a l r e g u l a t i o n s on l o g g e r s
,c o l l e c t l i c e n s i n g f e e s and r o y a l t i e s
,and p r e v e n t p e o p l e from t r e s p a s s i n g . With t h e i r r o o t s i n c o l o n i a l f o r e s t r y
,t h e y developed a c e n t r a l ‑ i z e d and b u r e a u c r a t i c a p p r o a c h . Trying t o a d m i n i s t e r t h e i r l a r g e e s t a t e s a s a s o u r c e o f raw m a t e ‑ r i a l f o r l a r g e i n d u s t r i e s
,t h i s h e r i t a g e h a s f r e q u e n t l y a g e n c i e s u n s k i l l e d i n managing t h e e x t e r n a l c o s t s which s h o u l d be among t h e i r main c o n c e r n s . I t h a s n o t t r a i n e d them t o i n v o l v e l o c a l peo
・p l e i n t h e management o f f o r e s t s
,o r t o m e d i a t e among t h e many
,o f t e n ‑ c o n f l i c t i n g demands from a g r i c u l t u r e
,i n d u s t r y and now environmenta 1 i s t s . The a c c o u n t i n g s y s t e m s and p r o c e d u r e s t h e y have developed a r e
,i n g e n e r a l
,n o t a p p r o p r i a t e f o r managing f o r e s t s a s economic a s s e t s
,p r o d u c ‑ i n g and m a r k e t i n g o u t p u t
,u n d e r t a k i n g i n v e s t m e n t s o r i n t r o d u c i n g t e c h n i c a l i n n o v a t i o n s .
As t h e f o r e s t s have s h r u n k
,t h e number o f c i v i l s e r v a n t s s u p p o s e d l y managing them h a s grown c o n t i n u o u s l y w i t h no improvement i n t h e s e c t o r ' s p e r f o r m a n c e . I n many c o u n t r i e s
,t h e i r work h a s been expanded by t h e p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f l e g i s l a t i o n i s o f t e n c o u n t e r p r o d u c t i v e . I n t r u s i v e r e g ‑ u l a t i o n s on t h e f e l l i n g o f p r i v a t e l y owned t r e e s
,on t h e t r a n s p o r t o f l o g s and on l a n d ownership p u t u n i n t e n d e d o b s t a c l e s i n t h e way o f r e s p o n s i b l e p r i v a t e i n v e s t m e n t . Laws meant t o p r o t e c t t h e r i g h t s o f l o c a l p e o p l e and f o r e s t d w e l l e r s a r e o f t e n i n a d e q u a t e and o v e r r i d d e n by c o n t r a d i c
幽t o r y r e g u l a t i o n s . Legal o b s t a c l e s t o t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f nongovernmental o r g a n i z a t i o n s a r e a l s o common.
Some o f t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s o f f o r e s t management a r e t e c h n i c a
l.Research i n f o r e s t r y h a s l a g g e d b e h i n d t h a t i n a g r i c u l t u r e ; s o h a s t h e a d o p t i o n o f new t e c h n o l o g i e s . One e s t i m a t e i s t h a t i n Asia
,n o t i n c l u d i n g China
,f e w e r t h e n 1
,000 s c i e n t i s t s c o n d u c t f o r e s t r y r e s e a r c h . I n I n d i a
,f o r e s t r y r e ‑ s e a r c h e x p e n d i t u r e s a r e l e s s t h a n 0.01 % o f t h e v a l u e o f f o r e s t p r o d u c t s consumed each yea
r.As a r e s u l t
,s c i e n t i s t s a r e o n l y b e g i n n i n g t o u n d e r s t a n d how t o manage t r o p i c a l f o r e s t s
,and p o l i c y i s o f t e n based on an i n a d e q u a t e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e b i o l o g i c a l and p h y s i c a l consequences o f d i f f e r e n t a p p r o a c h e s .
Improvements i n t e c h n o l o g y
,q u i c k l y a d o p t e d i n f a r m i n g
,a r e i n t r o d u c e d much more s l o w l y i n
f o r e s t r y . The r e a s o n may be p a r t l y t h a t f o r e s t r y ' s l o n g t i m e h o r i z o n i n c r e a s e s t h e risk‑a new
p l a n t i n g p r a c t i c e f o r a t r e e
,u n l i k e one f o r an a n n u a l c r o p
,may t a k e a t l e a s t a decade t o p r o v e
i t s v a l u e . Another o b s t a c l e may be t h e predominance o f s t a t e o w n e r s h i p . O f f i c i a l s
,a l r e a d y u n ‑
nerved by t h e mu
1ti p l i c i t y o f new o b j e c t i v e s f o r f o r e s t r y
,a r e n o t rewarded f o r t h e r i s k s t a k e n e x ‑
R e s e a r c h N e e d s a n d A c h i e v e m e n t s o f T r o p i c a l F o r e s t r y i n A s i a P a c i f i c Region p e r i m e n t i n g w i t h new m e t h o d s .
Asia and t h e P a c i f i c I s l a n d s have o n l y a b o u t 1 8 p e r c e n t o f t h e t r o p i c a l f o r e s t s o f t h e world
,b u t t h e i r l o w l a n d D i p t e r o c a r p f o r e s t s
,on a p e r h e c t a r e b a s i s
,a r e t h e most v a l u a b l e n a t u r a l f o r e s t s anywhere i n t h e t r o p i c s f o r commercial and i n d u s t r i a l p u r p o s e s . This
,combined w i t h h i g h p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e s and expanding a g r i c u l t u r e
,p u t t h e s e f o r e s t s under r e l a t i v e l y g r e a t e r t h r e a t t h a n any o f t h e c l o s e d o r r a i n f o r e s t s o f t h e w o r l d .
Open o r savannah woodlands occupy 720 m i l l i o n h e c t a r e s ( a b o u t 37 p e r c e n t ) o f t h e w o r l d ' s t r o p i c a l f o r e s t s
,o n l y a b o u t 3 1 m i l l i o n h e c t a r e s o f which a r e i n t h e A s i a / P a c i f i c r e g i o n . S t i l l
,t h e s e a r e t h e l a n d s where human n e e d s f o r t r e e s and f o r e s t s a r e h i g h
,and y e t t h e y t e n d t o b e o v e r l o o k e d by p e o p l e o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d w o r l d . S h o r t l y t h e a u t h o r w i l l comment on s t i l l o t h e r f o r e s t l a n d s ( i . e .
,f a l l o w and p l a n t a t i o n s ) o f t h e t r o p i c s .
S e v e r a l o b s e r v a t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g r e s e a r c h and development r e l a t e d t o n a t u r a l f o r e s t s :
‑Following f o r e s t c l e a r i n g
,b o t h c l o s e d and open f o r e s t s o f t e n r e v e r t t o u n d e s i r a b l e v e g e t a ‑ t i o n ( i . e . I m p e r a ω
平ψinA s i a ) . These d i s t u r b e d and d e g r a d e d l a n d s a r e a t t r a c t i v e t a r g e t s f o r a c c e l e r a t e d r e f o r e s t a t i o n programs t h e w o r l d o v e r
,a f a c t f u l l y r e c o g n i z e d by BIO‑REFOR.
‑While t h e r e have been many e x p e r i m e n t s and t r i a l s t o d e v e l o p s u i t a b l e s i l v i c u l t u r a l s y s t e m s f o r c l o s e d t r o p i c a l r a i n f o r e s t s
,i t i s e s t i m a t e d t h a t l e s s t h a n one p e r c e n t o f t h e s e n a t u r a l f o r e s t s a r e u n d e r s u s t a i n e d management ( P o o r e
,1 9 8 9 ) . This i s due i n p a r t t o t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e f o r e s t s t h e m s e l v e s
,and i n p a r t b e c a u s e once opened t o e n t r y
,t h e l a n d i s a v a i l a b l e t o a g r i c u l t u r e
,r a n c h i n g
,mining
,r e p e a t e d l o g g i n g and o t h e r u s e s . N e v e r t h e l e s s
,r e s e a r c h must c o n t i n u e on s u s t a i n a b l e s i l v i c u l t u r a l s y s t e m s f o r c l o s e d t r o p i c a l f o r e s t s .
‑Silvicu
1tu r a l s y s t e m s f o r open o r savannah woodlands i s a woefu
l1y n e g l e c t e d a r e a o f f o r e ‑ s t r y r e s e a r c h . T h i s r e s e a r c h
,f o r example
,was a c c o r d e d h i g h p r i o r i t y f o r S a h e l i e n A f r i c a by a 1985 IUFRO workshop aimed a t i d e n t i f y i n g f o r e s t r y n e e d s f o r t h a t r e g i o n .
‑ Fallow a r e a s
,g e n e r a l l y r e s u l t i n g from s h i f t i n g a g r i c u l t u r e
,occupy 228 m i l l i o n h e c t a r e s o f
a b o u t 20 p e r c e n t o f t h e a r e a o f c l o s e d t r o p i c a l f o r e s t s ( A l l a n and Lanly
,1 9 9 1 ) . Of t h i s a b o u t
30 p e r c e n t i s i n Asia
,20 p e r c e n
t'A f r i c a and 1 5 p e r c e n t i n L a t i n A m e r i c a . R e h a b i l i t a t i o n o f
t h e s e a r e a s and o f s e c o n d a r y f o r e s t s r e s u l t i n g from o t h e r d i s t u r b a n c e s
These o b s e r v a t i o n s a r e b u t a sample o f t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r r e s e a r c h c o n c e r n i n g n a t u r a l f o r e s t s i n t h e t r o p i c s . I n t h e end many o b s e r v e r s
,i
Iic l u d i n g t h e a u t h o r
,c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e most e f f e c t i v e s t r a t e g y i s t o s e t a s i d e a s much l a n d a s i s p o l i t i c a l l y and e c o n o m i c a l l y p o s s i b l e i n p a r k s
,w i l d l i f e r e f u g e s and o t h e r p r o t e c t e d a r e a s . I n o r d e r t o do s o
,however
,we must f i n d a l t e r n a t i v e s e l s e w h e r e t o s a t i s f y t h e n e e d s o f p e o p l e and o t h e r w i s e r e d u c e t h e need t o e x p l o i t u n d i s t u r b e d f o r e s t s . What f o l l o w s a r e s e v e r a l a r e a s f o r which f o r e s t r y r e s e a r c h can make a sub
司s t a n t i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n .
F o r e s t r y i n Areas 0 1 High Human Use
Where human dependence on f o r e s t s and t r e e s i s high‑in r u r a l v i l l a g e s
,on f a r m i n g and g r a z ‑ i n g l a n d s
,on w a t e r and w i n d ‑ e r o s i o n p r o n e areas‑new a r e a s o f r e s e a r c h s p e c i a l i z a t i o n a r e d e ‑ v e l o p i n g . These i n c l u d e a g r o f o r e s t r y
,community and s o c i a l f o r e s t r y
,and a v a r i e t y o f s p e c i a l t i e s t o r e d u c e t h e i m p a c t o f such n a t u r a l d i s a s t e r s a s f l o o d s
,wind e r o s i o n and c o n f l a g r a t i o n s .
So i m p o r t a n t a r e t h e s e p e o p l e ‑ r e l a t e d f o r e s t r y problems t h a t a number o f s p e c i a l i z e d r e s e a r c h a g e n c i e s have been c r e a t e d t o d e a l w i t h t h e m . These i n c l u d e t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C e n t e r f o r Re‑
s e a r c h i n A g r o f o r e s t r y (ICRAF) i n N a i r o b i
,t h e S o c i a l F o r e s t r y Network i n London; t h e Forestry/Fuelwood Research and Development P r o j e c t h e a d q u a r t e r e d i n Bangkok; and t h e Re‑
g i o n a l Community F o r e s t r y T r a i n i n g C e n t e r
,a l s o i n Bangko
k.We a r e l i k e l y t o s e e e n l a r g e m e n t o f some o f t h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s and c r e a t i o n o f new ones t o a d d r e s s t h i s c r i t i c a l f a m i l y o f f o r e s t r y c o n c e r n s . E s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t h e r e a r e t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o be made by t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s
,i n
幽c l u d i n g s o c i o l o g y
,a n t h r o p o l o g y
,and e t h n o l o g y .
I n t e n s i v e Forest Management
I n t e n s i v e f o r e s t r y
,g e n e r a l l y w i t h p l a n t a t i o n s o f n a t i v e o r i n t r o d u c e d s p e c i e s
,o f f e r s an impor
幽t a n t s t r a t e g y t o s a t i s f y l o c a l needs f o r e ne r g y and c o n s t r u c t i o n m a t e r i a l s
,t o p r o v i d e raw m a t e ‑ r i a l f o r i n d u s t r i a l development
,and o t h e r w i s e t o r e d u c e i m p a c t s on n a t u r a l f o r e s t s . P l a n t a t i o n f o r e s t r y i s an e s p e c i a l l y a t t r a c t i v e u s e f o r a l r e a d y f a l l o w and degraded l a n d s . Today p l a n t a t i o n s occupy l e s s t h a n one p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l f o r e s t l a n d o f t h e t r o p i c s .
North America and A u s t r a l i a have been e s p e c i a l l y r i c h s o u r c e s f o r woody p l a n t germplasm f o r
u s e e l s e w h e r e i n t h e w o r l d . From North America t h e s e i n c l u d e s e v e r a l s p e c i e s o f p i n e s and
o t h e r c o n i f e r s
,and a number o f b r o a d l e a f t r e e s . From A u s t r a l i a a r e many s p e c i e s o f E u c a l y p t u s
,R e s e a r c h Needs a n d A c h i e v e m e n t s o f T r o p i c a l F o r e s t r y i n A s i a P a c i f i c Region
A c a c i a
,and C a u s a r i n a . P r o d u c t i v i t y g a i n s o f t e n have been s p e c t a c u l a r f o l l o w i n g a p p r o p r i a t e s p e ‑ c i e s s e l e c t i o n
,t r e e b r e e d i n g
,and improved n u r s e r y
,p l a n t i n g
,and s t a n d i n g ‑ t e n d i n g t e c h n i q u e s . Volume growth g a i n s o f 10 t o 15 f o l d have been r e p o r t e d a s compared t o n a t i v e f o r e s t s . I n manu r e s p e c t s
,t h e f o r e s t r y t e c h n o l o g i e s h e r e a r e t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f t h e g r e e n r e v o l u t i o n " i n a g r i c u l ‑ t u r e .
P l a n t a t i o n management o f n a t i v e t r e e s
,t o o
,d e s e r v e s more a t t e n t i o n . Some s u c c e s s h a s been d e m o n s t r a t e d f o r p l a n t a t i o n management o f Teak ( T e c t o n a g r a n d i s )
,Mahogany ( S w i e t e n i a m a c ‑ r o p h y l l a )
,T e r m i n a l i a s p p .
,T r i p l o c h i t o n s c l e r o .
め,zon
,and s e v e r a l s p e c i e s o f A c a c i a . M uch more needs t o be done t o s p e e d t h e growth and qua 1 i t y o f t h e s e t r e e s
,i n p a r t b e c a u s e n a t i v e t r e e s o f t e n p e r ‑ form b e t t e r t h a n i n t r o d u c e d s p e c i e s i n a r e a s o f low s o i l f e r t i l i t y and r a i n f a l l
,and may be l e s s p r o n e t o p e s t r i s k s .
P l a n t a t i o n management b o t h o f i n t r o d u c e d and n a t i v e t r e e s and s h r u b s (
fo r a r i d r e g i o n s ) i s a r e s e a r c h and development s t r a t e g y t h a t d e s e r v e s f u r t h e r s u p p o r t ; i n f a c t
,i t i s l i k e l y t o be an im
p o r t a n t s t r a t e g y f o r t h e f o r e s t r y r e s e a r c h c e n t e r s (ICRAF and The I n t e r n a t i o n a l C e n t e r f o r F o r e ‑ s t r y Research ‑CIFOR) i n t h e newly e n l a r g e d s y s t e m o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l A g r i c u l t u r a l Research C e n t e r s . We need t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t p l a n t a t i o n management must be used w i t h c a u t i o n : some p l a n t a t i o n s on e r o s i o n ‑ p r o n e s l o p e s f a i l t o p r o t e c t w a t e r s h e d s ; some p l a n t a t i o n s p e c i e s s u p p r e s s g r a s s e s and f o r b e s u s e f u l t o l i v e s t o c k ; and most p l a n t a t i o n s p e c i e s a r e heavy u s e r s o f groundwa‑
t e
r.However
,i n t h e a b s e n c e o f l a n d ‑ c o n s e r v i n g p l a n t a t i o n p r a c t i c e s
,p e o p l e i n many p a r t s o f t h e t r o p i c s w i l l b e f o r c e d t o e x p l o i t h e r e ‑ t o ‑ f o r e u n d i s t u r b e d f o r e s t l a n d s .
Improved U t i l i z a t i o n 0 1 Timber and Nor
トtimberProducts
Fuelwood and c h a r c o a l consume more t h a n h a l f o f t h e w o r l d ' s t o t a l wood p r o d u c t i o n
,more t h a n 80% o f t h i s i n t h e d e v e l o p i n g world (WRI 1 9 9 0 ) . Hundreds o f d e s i g n s f o r improved c o o k ‑ i n g s t o v e s
,c h a r c o a l k i l n s
,and s o l a r cooking and d r y i n g d e v i c e s a r e a v a i l a b l e . The p r i n c i p a l o b s t a c l e s a r e n o t t h e l a c k o f t e c h n o l o g y f o r improved e f f i c i e n c y and c o n s e r v a t i o n o f wood f o r e n e r g y
,b u t t h e c u l t u r a l and economic b a r r i e r s t o o w i d e s p r e a d a d o p t i o n . S t i l l
,b e c a u s e t h e c o n ‑ sumption o f wood f o r e n er g y looms s o l a r g e i n t r o p i c a l r e g i o n s
,i t d e s e r v e s more a t t e n t i o n from f o r e s t r y s c i e n c e s " " M " .
Beyond wood f o r e n erg y
,one i s al w ay s i m p r e s s e d i n t h e d e v e l o p i n g world by o p p o r t u n i t i e s
f o r b e t t e r c o n s e r v a t i o n o f wood from improved h a r v e s t i n g and t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s
,more e f f i c i e n t
wood p r o c e s s i n g t o i n c r e a s e y i e l d s and q u a l i t y o f sawnwood and plywood
,and i n c r e a s e d s e r v i c e
l i f e o f wood t h r o u g h b e t t e r c o n s t r u c t i o n p r a c t i c e s and wood p r e s e r v a t i o n m e t h o d s . Many o f t h e s e g a i n s can be a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h t r a i n i n g and r e l a t i v e l y modest c a p i t a l i n v e s t m e n t s . This i s a l s o an a r e a l i k e l y t o p r o v i d e r a p i d p a y ‑ o f f b e c a u s e t h e t e c h n o l o g i e s a r e a l r e a d y a v a i l a b l e and need o n l y t o be a d o p t e d t o l o c a l s I t u a t i o n s .
Non‑timber and n o n ‑ t r a d i t i o n a l f o r e s t p r o d u c t s a l s o o f f e r p r o m i s e
,such a s r a t t a n s
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,and o t h e r f o r e s t ‑ d e r i v e d p r o ‑ d u c t s
,many o f which a r e y e t be d i s c o v e r e d . U t i l i z a t i o n o f t h e s e p r o d u c t s p r o v i d e s o u r c e s o f i n ‑ come f o r r u r a l p e o p l e w h i l e l e a v i n g t h e o v e r s t o r y f o r e s t l a r g e l y i n t a c
t.A c a u t i o n : w h i l e t h e s e u s e s can p r o v i d e a l i v e l i h o o d f o r t h e some r u r a l poor
,i t i s o f t e n o n l y a m a r g i n a l e x i s t e n c e and
( 3 )
one h i g h l y v u l n e r a b l e t o f l u c t u a t i n g market demand
Improved h o u s i n g f o r u r b a n and r u r a l dwellers‑and t h e u s e o f wood therein‑is a c c o r d e d h i g h p r i o o r i t y i n many development p r o g r a m s . Here a g a i n
,improved c o n s t r u c t i o n p r a c t i c e s
,u s e o f l e s s e r 主 nowns p e c i e s
,and s i m p l e b u t e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y a c c e p t a b l e wood p r e s e r v a t i o n t e c h n i ‑ ques c o u l d r a p i d l y i n c r e a s e t h e s u p p l y and q u a l i t y o f h o u s i n g
,a l l a t r e l a t i v e l y low c o s
t.I n s t i t u t i o n B u i l d i n g and R e s o l u t i o n o f P o l i c y Impediments
I n s t i t u t i o n a l and p o l i c y i s s u e s o f t e n l i e o u t s i d e t h e f o r e s t r y s e c t o r i t s e H
,b u t must be a d d r e s ‑ s e d c o n c u r r e n
t1y w i t h o t h e r r e s e a r c h and development e f f o r t s i f f o r e s t s a r e t o c o n t r i b u t e f u l l y t o t h e economic
,s o c i a l and e n v i r o n m e n t a l w e l l ‑ b e i n g c o u n t r i e s . Indeed
,r e s o l u t i o n o f some o f t h e s e q u e s t i o n s w i l l do a s much o r more t o enhance t h e p r o t e c t i o n and s u s t a i n a b i l i t y o f t r o p i c a l f o r e s t a s w i l l f o r e s t r y t e c h n o l o g i e s t h e m s e l v e s .
I n s t i t u t i o n a l c h a l l e n g e s a r e many. Few d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s have t r a i n e d and r e l i a b l e F o r e s t S e r v i c e s . C o r r u p t i o n t e n d s t o be h i g h among a g e n c i e s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r f o r e s t r y . E d u c a t i o n a l and s c i e n c e c a p a c i t y i s w o e f u l l y l a c k i n g . F a c i l i t i e s
,t r a n s p o r t a t i o n
,and o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n a l q u e s t i o n s must be a d d r e s s e d c o n c u r r e n
t1y w i t h a c c e l e r a t e d r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m s . J apan
,t o i t s c r e d i t
,h a s been and c o n t i n u e s t o be a s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t o r t o f a c i l i t i e s and i n f r a s t r u c t u r e development r e l a t e d t o f o r e s t r y .
Among p o l i c y i s s u e s a f f e c t i n g t h e w e l l b e i n g o f f o r e s t s ( a n d a l m o s t e v e r y a s p e c t o f l i f e i n d e ‑
v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s ) none 100m l a r g e r t h e n p o p u l a t i o n q u e s t i o n s . The d e v e l o p i n g world
,much o f
i t synonymous w i t h c o u n t r i e s c o n t a i n i n g t r o p i c a l f o r e s t
,c o n t a i n s 80 p e r c e n t o f t h e w o r l d ' s
p o p u l a t i o n
,and an a n n u a l p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e o f 3.00 p e r c e n t i n A f r i c a
,2.07 p e r c e n t i n L a t i n
America and
1.85 p e r c e n t i n Asia (WRI 1 9 9 0 ) . This com p a r e s t o c o n s i d e r a b l y l e s s t h a n 1 p e r
・R e s e a r c h Needs a n d A c h i e v e m e n t s o f T r o p i c a l F o r e s t r y i n A s i a P a c i f i c Region
c e n t p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e i n t h e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s . F o r e s t s and n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s o f t h e d e ‑ v e l o p i n g world s i m p l y c a n n o t s t a n d up t o t h e s e growing p o p u l a t i o n s p r e s s u r e s .
O t h e r p o l i c y i s s u e s a f f e c t t h e w e l l ‑ b e i n g o f n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s and many o t h e r a s p e c t s o f l i f e . Harmful economic p o l i c i e s i n c l u d e a r t i f i c i a l c u r r e n c y exchange r a t e s and p r o t e c t i o n i s t t r a d e p o l i c i e s b o t h by t h e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s and d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s . Sugar and p e a n u t q u o t a s i n t h e U . S . and s u b s i d i z e d f o o d and c h a r c o a l p r i c e s t o m o l l i f y urban d w e l l e r s a r e e x a m p l e s . Un‑
w i s e economic development p o l i c i e s ( i . e . s u b s i d i z e d l a n d c l e a r i n g i n t r o p i c a l f o r e s t s o f B r a z i l ) and l a c k o f sound p r i c i n g f o r t i m b e r and o t h e r n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s a r e o t h e r f a i l u r e s which c o u l d b e c o r r e c t e d by open market mechanisms. S o c i a l and government p o l i c y ‑ i n d u c e d d i s t o r t i o n s i n ‑ c l u d e b l o a t e d government b u r e a u c r a c i e s
,a b s e n c e o f l a n d t e n u r e and p r o p e r t y r i g h t s
,l a c k o f o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r women
,and many o t h e r s . F o r e s t r y h a s t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o borrow from a g r i ‑ c u l t u r a l r e s e a r c h
,where s i m i l a r p o l i c y q u e s t i o n s have been under i n v e s t i g a t i o n f o r a l o n g e r t i m e t h a n i n f o r e s t r y . The p a y o f f s f o r t h i s k i n d o f r e s e a r c h c o u l d be h i g h .
Asia
圃P a c i f i cRegion: t h e S e t t i n g
The A s i a ‑ P a c i f i c Region
,w i t h 2
,800 m i l l i o n p e o p l e
,i s t h e home f o r h a l f t h e w o r l d ' s p o p u l a ‑ t i o n . The l a n d a r e a o f t h e r e g i o n i s c l o s e t o 3000 m i l l i o n h a . and c o m p r i s e s a mosaic o f e c o s y ‑ s t e m s r a n g i n g from t h e Himalayas which s t r a d d l e t h e main l a n d o f Asia
,t o t h e f l o o d p l a i n s washed by t h e r i v e r s y s t e m s and t h e i s l a n d e c o s y s t e m s i n t h e l n d i a n Ocean and t h e South P a c i ‑ f i c . A g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d a c c o u n t s f o r a b o u t 500 m i l l i o n h a .
,which i s 30 p e r c e n t o f t h e w o r l d ' s a r ‑ a b l e l a n d . Permanent p a s t u r e s occupy 963 m i l l i o n h a .
,o f which 90 p e r c e n t o c c u r i n t h r e e c o u r ト
t r i e s : A u s t r a l i a
,China
,and Mongolia. F o r e s t s and woodlands o c c u r on some 650 m i l l i o n h a . and r e p r e s e n t 1 6 p e r c e n t o f w o r l d ' s t o t a l i n t h i s c a t e g o r y . l n t r o p i c a l f o r e s t r y
,t h e Region com‑
mands a s p e c i a l s t a t u s : e x t e n d i n g o v e r 445 m i l l i o n h a . t r o p i c a l f o r e s t s c o n s t i t u t e a q u a r t e r o f t h e
(6)
w o r l d ' s r e s o u r c e s o f t h i s k i n d
During t h e p a s t two d e c a d e s t h e r e s p o n s e o f t h e governments o f d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s i n t h i s r e g i o n t o t h e problem o f f e e d i n g t h e growing p o p u l a t i o n h a s been t o i n t e n s i f y a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o
・d u c t i o n on a more o r l e s s f i x e d l a n d r e s o u r c e b a s e . The i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r a l produc
幽t i o n h a s i t s e l f l e d t o many problems and w i d e s p r e a d l a n d d e g r a d a t i o n and l o s s o f s o i l f e r t i l i t y .
Only 14%‑18% o f t h e r e g i o n ' s s o i l s have no s e r i o u s l i m i t a t i o n s and a r e s u i t a b l e f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l
p r o d u c t i o n on a s u s t a i n e d b a s i s . More t h a n 80% o f t h e l a n d i n t h e r e g i o n i s a f f e c t e d i n v a r y i n g
d e g r e e s by such f a c t o r s a s : s t e e p s l o p e s
,d r o u g h t
,s e v e r e n u t r i t i o n d e f i c i e n c i e s
,s h a l l o w d e p t h
,w a t e r l o g g i n g and s e c o n d a r y s a l i n i z a t i o n . l n e f f i c i e n t w a t e r management and o v e r
開e x p l o it a t i o n o f w a t e r r e s o u r c e s a r e p r o v i n g t o be i n t r a c t a b l e p r o b l e m s .
As t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y draws t o a c l o s e
,d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s o f t h e A s i a ‑ P a c i f i c Region f a c e an u n p r e c e d e n t e d e n v i r o n m e n t a l c r i s i s i n t h e s h a p e o f f o r e s t d e s t r u c t i o n . l n t h e l a s t decade
,t h e r a t e o f d e f o r e s t a t i o n more t h a n d o u b l e d . About 4.7 m i l l i o n h e c t a r e s o f f o r e s t a r e s t r i p p e d o f v e g e t a t i o n e v e r y y e a r t o make way f o r s p o n t a n e o u s and unplanned human s e t t l e m e n t s and m a r ‑ g i n a l a g r i c u l t u r e .
l n s e v e r a l c o u n t r i e s o f t h e r e g i o n
,e r o d e d w a t e r c a t c h m e n t s a r e c a u s i n g w i d e s p r e a d a d v e r s e downstream e f f e c t s
,damaging a r a b l e l a n d s and i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s . Fuelwood s h o r t a g e s a r e c a u s i n g u n t o l d h a r d s h i p t o t h e r u r a l poor
,w h i l e t h e r a p i d d e c l i n e i n i n d u s t r i a l wood s u p p l i e s a r e c r i p ‑ p l i n g wood‑based i n d u s t r i e s .
Although 80% o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s i n t h e r e g i o n work and s u r v i v e i n t h e v i l l a g e s
,t h e development s t r a t e g i e s i n t h e p a s t t h r e e d e c a d e s were f o c u s s e d on l a r g e ‑ s c a l e i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n
,u r b a n i z a t i o n
,b i g dams
,hydro p r o j e c t s and i r r i g a t i o n n e t w o r k s . C a p i t a l i n t e n ‑ s i v e s t r a t e g i e s and e n e r g y i n t e n s i v e t e c h n o l o g i e s which p o l l u t e d t h e environment
,endangered t h e e c o l o g y and u p r o o t e d t h e p e o p l e were t h e o r d e r o f t h e d a y . And a l t h o u g h economic d e v e l o p ‑ ment d i d t a k e p l a c e
,t h e gap between t h e r i c h and t h e poor
,t h e r u r a l and t h e urban
,g r e w . V i l ‑ l a g e development
,v i l l a g e i n d u s t r i e s
,v i l l a g e h e a l t h and s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f v i l l a g e i n s t i t u t i o n s r e ‑ c e i v e d s c a n t a t t e n t i o n . R u r a l poor have been pushed i n t o m a r g i n a l l a n d s and l a n d l e s s n e s s f o r c e d them t o o v e r u s e t h e r e s o u r c e s t o s u r v i v e .
Given t h e above c o n t e x t
,t h e r e g i o n can move t o w a r d s s u s t a i n a b l e f o r e s t r y development o n l y by r e c o g n i z i n g t h e r e a l i t i e s o f l a n d u s e . F o r e s t r y development s u p p o r t e d by f o r e s t r y r e s e a r c h and r e s e a r c h e x t e n s i o n s h o u l d a d d r e s s t h e problems a t t h e l e v e l o f m i c r o w a t e r s h e d s
,e r o d i n g h i l l s l o p e s
,m i s s ‑ u s e d a r i d and s e m i ‑ a r i d l a n d s and s o i l s d r a i n e d o f n u t r i e n t s .
Since t h e nexus
,f o o d ‑ e n e r g y
幽environment
,d e t e r m i n e s and i m p a c t s t h e s u r v i v a l s t r a t e g i e s o f house
胃h o l d sand t h e i r a s p i r a t i o n s
,s o l u t i o n s s h o u l d b e s o c i o e c o n o m i c a l l y c o m p a t i b l e
,economi‑
c a l l y v i a b l e and e c o l o g i c a l l y s o u n d .
F o r e s t r y Research Needs
l n r e s p o n s e t o t h e growing e n v i r o n m e n t a l c r i s i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d e f o r e s t a t i o n and t h e
socioeconomic d i s r u p t i o n s
,Governments i n t h e r e g i o n a r e i n c r e a s i n g t h e i r commitment t o f o r e
司s t r y s e c t o r developmen
t.F o r e s t r y programs i n many Asia P a c i f i c c o u n t r i e s have undergone a
R e s e a r c h Needs a n d A c h i e v e m e n t s o f T r o p i c a l F o r e s t r y i n A s i a P a c i f i c Region
r a d i c a l s h i f
t:t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o t e c t i o n
,r e h a b i l i t a t i o n o f degraded f o r e s t s
,a t t a i n i n g s e l f ‑ s u f f i ‑ c i e n c y o f fuelwood and f o r e s t i n d u s t r i a l raw m a t e r i a l s u p p l i e s a r e now a c c o r d e d h i g h e r s t r a t e g i c i m p o r t a n c e . Many c o u n t r i e s have embarked on l a r g e s c a l e h i g h y i e l d i n g p l a n t a t i o n s
,communal
( 9 )
t r e e p l a n t i n g and g r e e n i n g programmes w i t h t h e a c t i v e involvement o f l o c a l p o p u l a t i o n s
There h a s been a s u b s t a n t i a l and s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e i n t h e r e f o r e s t a t i o n e f f o r t s by t h e d e ‑ velopment c o u n t r i e s o f t h i s r e g i o n i n r e c e n t y e a r s . According one e s t i m a t e
,c u r r e n t e f f o r t s e x ‑ ceed 3 m i l l i o n ha p e r y e a r and t h e i n v e s t m e n t s u r p a s s e s US $ 1
,000 m i l l i o n a yea
r.However
,t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f s u r v i v a l s and t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y o f p l a n t a t i o n s need t o b e i m p r o v e d . F o r t h e s e programmes t o s u c c e e d a c o r r e s p o n d i n g c o n c e r t e d i n c r e a s e i n r e s e a r c h i n p u t s
,t e c h n o l o g i c a l b a c k ‑ u p and e x t e n s i o n a t t h e g r a s s r o o t l e v e l a r e o f p i v o t a l i m p o r t a n c e .
Although development a s s i s t a n c e i n t h e f o r e s t r y s e c t o r h a s expanded r a p i d l y i n t h e p a s t few y e a r s
,t h e t o t a l f u n d i n g f o r f o r e s t r y r e s e a r c h i n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s i s o n l y 5 p e r c e n
t.By com‑
p a r i s o n
,t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f a s s i s t a n c e a l l o c a t e d f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l r e s e a r c h r o s e from around 4 p e r ‑ c e n t d u r i n g t h e 7 0 ' s t o a b o u t 10 p e r c e n t i n t h e 8 0 ' s .
F o r e s t r y r e s e a r c h needs a r e o f t e n n o t f u l f i l l e d b e c a u s e o f t h e many c o n s t r a i n t s f a c e d by n a t i o n a l f o r e s t r e s e a r c h o r g a n i z a t i o n s . Among them a r e :
( a ) L i t t l e o r no p o l i t i c a l s u p p o r t f o r f o r e s t r y r e s e a r c h w i t h i n c o u n t r y ;
(b)Lack o f f u n d i n g s t a b i l i t y from y e a r t o y e a r ;
( c ) N e g l i g i b l e i n t e r a c t i o n among r e s e a r c h e r s / u s e r s and p o t e n t i a l u s e r s o f r e s e a r c h r e s u l t s ;
(d)Lack o f r e s e a r c h e x t e n s i o n " and t r a n s f e r o f r e s e a r c h r e s u l t s t o t h e f i e l d ;
( e ) Low l e v e l o f r e s e a r c h e r t r a i n i n g ;
(f)Poor l i b r a r y and i n f o r m a t i o n s e r v i c e s ;
(g)