『社会科学ジャーナ J レ 』 3 0 ( 1 ）〔 1 9 9 1 〕 p p . 6 58 6
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ETHICS FOR A SUSTAINABLE 、 l/ORLDORDER A Think P i e c e on P o h t i c s , Development and Environment*‑
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I . What on Earth Are We Doing?
We a r e c h o p p i n g down t h e w o r l ds ram f o r e s t s a t t h e r a t e o f t h r e e S w i t z e r l a n d s p e r y e a r . They c o v e r 7% o f t h e l a n d t e r r i t o r y o f E a r t h b u t h o s t more t h a n 50% o f a l l l i v i n g s p e c i e s I t w i l l n e v e r be r e g e n e r a t e d .
We e x t e r m i n a t e a r o u n d 1 7 , 5 0 0 s p e c i e s from f l o r a and f a u n a p e r y e a r , 2 p e r h o u r . There may b e between 5 and 3 0 m i l l i o n s p e c i e s on E a r t h , b u t s c i e n c e h a s o n l y descnbed l . 4 m i l l i o n
We p o l l u t e t h e 剖 ri n many ways The l a r g e s t s m g l e p o l l u t e r i s c a r d r i v i n g E i g h t p e r c e n t o f t h e w o r l d ' s p o p u l a t i o n own i t s 4 0 0 m i l l i o n c a r s o f which 1 4 0 m 1 l h o n r o l l i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and 6 0 m J a p a n Twenty p e r c e n t o f t h e E a r t hs p o p u l a t i o n l i v e i n a r e a s where t h e air i s n o t f i t t o b r e a t h e . C a r a c c i d e n t s w o r l d w i d e k i l l 2 5 0 , 0 0 0 p e o p l e a n n u a l l y and i n j u r e many more
We e m i t 5 . 7 b i l l i o n t o n s o f c a r b o n p e r y e a r f r o m f o s s i l f u e l s and a n o t h e r I 0 ‑2 . 6 b i l l i o n t o n s f r o m t h e b u r n i n g o f f o r e s t s , t h e f i g u r e s i n c r e a s e d 3.7% i n 1 9 8 8 . The l a r g e s t p o l l u t e r s a r e t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , t h e S o v i e t Umon, C h i n a , J a p a n , B r a z i l and Germany, b u t most T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s a r e w e l l b e l o w I / 1 0 o f t h e m d u s t n a l 田 d c o u n t r i e s i n p e r c a p i t a e m i s s i o n s and none o f t h e s e h a v e y e t p r o p o s e d l o w e r i n g c a r b o n e m i s s i o n s by t h e needed 20‑35% i n t h e n e x t t e n y e a r s .
We i n h a b i t an E a r t h t h a t c o u l d , t h e o r e t i c a l l y , w e l l sustam a p o p u l a t i o n o f 1 1 b i l l i o n p e o p l e ( t o d a y we a r e 5 . 3 b i l l i o n ) The p o p u l a t i o n growth p r o b l e m i s much l e s s t a x i n g on t h e w o r l ds r e s o u r c e s t h a n t h e o v e r c o n s u m p t i o n by t h e u p p e r 20% o f t h e w o r l ds p e o p l e
We, t h a t i s t h e l i f e s t y l e s o f t h e r i c h e s t , c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e f a c t t h a t
a t l e a s t 6 0 , 0 0 0 p e o p l e d i e u n n e c e s s a r i l y e v e r y day on Earth‑a l m o n s t
6 6
2 0 m i l l i o n p e o p l e a n n u a l l y . They d i e n o t i n w a r s t h e y have o n l y k i l l e d a r o u n d h a l f a m 1 l l i o n p e o p l e e v e r y y e a r smce 1945‑but b e c a u s e t h e y d o n o t h a v e enough o r h e a l t h y f o o d , c l e a n w a t e r , a p l a c e t o h v e , m e d i c a l c a r e , s c h o o l i n g , e t c At t h e same t i m e , 20‑30% o f a l l f o o d 1 s wasted i n t h e r i c h p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d .
We have p o l l u t e d t h e E a r t hs dnnkmg w a t e r r e s e r v 0 1 r s t o such an e x t e n t t h a t most d i s e a s e s i n t h e T h i r d World a r e r e l a t e d t o p o o r dnnkmg w a t e r . I n t h e nch w o r l d e v e r more a r e d r i n k i n g p o l l u t e d o r s t r o n g l y c h l o r i n a t e d w a t e r . I n J a p a n o n e can now buy c l e a n m i n e r a l w a t e r i m p o r t e d from F r a n c e
We a r e o n l y p r o d u c i n g more f o o d b e c a u s e o f a p p l y i n g e v e r more c h e m i c a l s . American a g r i c u l t u r e t o d a y r e q u i r e s a p p r o x i m a t e l y I O c a l o n e s o f f o s s i l e ロ e r g yi n p u t f o r e a c h c a l o n e o f f o o d t o a d i n n e r t a b l e . I n t h e 1 9 8 0 s t h e T h i r d W o r l d , p o p u l a t e d t o a l a r g e e x t e n t by s t a r v m g p e o p l e , e x p o r t e d 10% more f o o d t o t h e r i c h w o r l d t h a n t h e y i m p o r t e d from i t
We p r o d u c e and p o l l u t e t o s u c h a n e x t e n t t h a t t h e a v e r a g e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e g l o b e i s e s l i m a t e d t o i n c r e a s e by I 5‑4 5 d e g r e e s c e n t i g r a d e up t o t h e y e a r 2 0 5 0 . I f s o , s e a l e v e l s c o u l d n s e anywhere from 2 0 c e n t i m e t e r s t o 4 m e t e r s . A I t o 4 m e t e r r i s e would t h r e a t e n m a j o r c i t i e s s u c h a s C a i r o , New O r l e a n s and S h a n g h a i . Enormous r i c e ‑ p r o d u c i n g f i e l d s i n S o u t h e a s t A s i a would be d e s t r o y e d by s a l t w a t e r which would a f f e c t n e g a t i v e l y t h e h v i n g c o n d i t i o n s o f up t o one b i l l i o n p e o p l e and t u r n one f i f t h o f u s i n t o e c o l o g i c a l r e f u g e e s
We u s e s u c h methods and o v e r e x p l 0 1 t t h e f e r t i l e l a n d s t o such an e x t e n t t h a t 1 6 b i l l i o n t o n s o f f e r l i l e t o p s o i l d i s a p p e a r s w o r l d w i d e a n n u a l l y and 6 m i l l i o n h e c t a r e s become d e s e r t s
We m t h e r i c h n a t i o n s s u c h a s t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , Sweden and J a p a n consume s o much t h a t i f a l l p e o p l e s were t o a c h i e v e t h e same l i v i n g s t a n d a r d s a s we t a k e f o r g r a n t e d t o d a y , we would h a v e t o fmd 6 ‑ 8 new p l a n e t s l i k e t h e E a r t h t o t a k e t h e r e s o u r c e s f r o m .
Whether o n e b e l i e v e s t h e main c u l p r i t t o b e c a p i t a l i s m o r s o c i a l i s m ,
Western i n d u s t r i a l i s m and t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f h m 1 t l e s s , permanent
m a t e r i a l g r o w t h , C h r i s t i a n i t y o r a s o c i o b i o l o g i c a l d r i v e o r some kmd
Ethk• r o , a
Su•ta;nable 、I/oddQ , d . , 6 7 o f m i x t u r e o f some o r a l l o f them‑t h e modes o f p r o d u c t i o n and consumption o f t h e p r i v i l e g e d f e w , d e v e l o p i n g o v e r t h e l a s t 3 0 0 y e a r s o r s o must e n d . There t s s i m p l y n o w a y , n o t e c h n o l o g i c a l f i x e s o r s c 1 e n t 1 f i c . b r e a k t h r o u g h s , t h a t w i l l a l l o w t h i s t o c o n t i n u e w i t h o u t wrecking havoc on humankind and Mother E a r t h , G a i a o r b o t h .
The we above i n c l u d e t h o s e i n d i v i d u a l s and n a t i o n s t h a t a r e p r e d o m i n a n t l y w h i t e , Western (m t h i s r e s p e c t a l s o N i p p o n i c ) , c a p i t a l i s t , s o c i a l i s t , J u d e o ‑C h r i s t i a n ー I s l a m i c , r a t i o n a l , s c i e n t i f i c , male o r i e n t e d , d e m o c r a t i c , market b a s e d and a d v o c a t e 何 l e s t e r n )human r i g h t s b u t no d u t i e s o r o b l i g a t i o n s .
What we have done and contmue t o do t o d a y t s s t m i p l y a ) u n s u s t a i n a b l e , b ) u n e t h i c a l and c ) s e l f ‑ d e f e a t i n g . The E a r t h can do w i t h o u t u s , b u t we c a n n o t do w i t h o u t h e r We h a r d l y need more a l a r m i n g r e s e a r c h r e p o r t s ; I v e n t u r e t h a t we know enough t o t a k e s o c i e t a l a c t i o n and t h a t s c i e n c e n o t t h e l e a s t s o c i a l s c i e n c e w i l l mcreasmgly d e c l a r e i t s e l f i r r e l e v a n t t o t h e e x t e n t i t a n a l y s e s o n l y t h e p r o b l e m s and f o r g e t s t h a t i t s main t a s k i s t o h e l p u s f i n d ways t o new a c t i o n , governance and f o r m s o f l i v i n g i n and beyond t h e 2 1 s t c e n t u r y
2 . S u s t a i n a b i l i t y : A Meta‑Critique o f the Brundtland Commission Report
The catchword o f t h e m t e r n a t 1 o n a l d e b a t e on t h i s i s s u e h a s been s u s t a m a b t l i t y s i n c e t h e B r u n d t l a n d Comm1ss1on r e p o r t Our Common Future was p u b l i s h e d . S u s t a i n a b i l i t y i s a s o l d a s t h e m o u n t a i n s , one might s a y . I n d i g e n o u s p e o p l e t h a t a r e o f t e n c a l l e d p r i m i t i v e and b e l o n g t o t h e low c i v i h z a t i o n a l l e v e l o f t h e s o c a l l e d Fourth World"
have known and p r a c t i c e d s u s t a i n a b i l i t y f o r a g e s And e c o l o g i s t s have worked w t t h t h e c o n c e p t f o r a hundred y e a r s o r s o . The World Commissrnn on Environment and Developments r e p o r t ， Our Common Fu 如何 （TheB r u n d t l a n d Commission, 1 9 8 7 ) , f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , p l a c e d s u s t a m a b i h t y i n an i n t e r n a t t o n a l p o l i t i c a l and economic framework a s s e e n by p o l i t i c i a n s i n t h e l a t e 1 9 8 0 s . I t defmes i t i n t h i s manner
S u s t a i n a b l e development i s development t h a t meets t h e needs
6 8
o f t h e p r e s e n t w i t h o u t comprom1smg t h e a b i l i t y o f f u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n s t o meet t h e i r own n e e d s . I t contams w1thm 1 t two key c o n c e p t s : t h e c o n c e p t o f n e e d , ' i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e e s s e n t i a l n e e d s o f t h e w o r l ds p o o r , t o which overndmg p r i o r i t y s h o u l d be g i v e n , and t h e i d e a o f h m 1 t a t 旧 n s imposed by t h e s t a t e o f t e c h n o l o 且 yand s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n on t h e e n v i r o n m e n ts a b i l i t y t o meet p r e s e n t and f u t u r e n e e d s I n e s s e n c e , s u s t a i n a b l e development 1 s a p r o c e s s o f change m which t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n o f r e s o u r c e s , t h e d i r e c t i o n o f mvestments, t h e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t , and i n s t i t u t i o n a l change a r e a l l m harmony and enhance b o t h c u r r e n t and f u t u r e p o t e n t i a l t o meet human needs and a s p i r a t i o n s
I t g o e s on statmg t h a t t h e s a t i s f a c l ! o n o f human n e e d s and a s p i r a t i o n s 1 s t h e m a j o r o b j e c t i v e o f d e v e l o p m e n t , and beyond t h e v e r y b a s i c s , p e o p l e have l e g i t i m a t e a s p i r a t i o n s f o r an improved q u a l i t y o f l i f e . Development ，は 1 ss t a t e d ， 1 s t h e p r o g r e s s i v e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f economy and s o c i e t y . . p h y s i c a l s u s t a i n a b i l i t y c a n n o t b e s e c u r e d u n l e s s development p o h c 1 e s pay a t t e n t i o n t o such c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a s changes i n a c c e s s t o r e s o u r c e s and i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c o s t s and b e n e f i t s Other a s p e c t s o f t h e c o r e c o n c e p t u a l i z a l ! o n o f t h e r e p o r t a r e p r e s e n t e d m t e r m s such a s . S u s t a i n a b l e development r e q u i r e s meetmg t h e b a s i c n e e d s o f a l l and e x t e n d i n g t o a l l t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o s a t i s f y t h e i r a s p i r a t i o n s f o r a b e t t e r h i e and … s u s t a i n a b l e development reqmres t h e p r o m o t i o n o f v a l u e s t h a t e n c o u r a g e consumption s t a n d a r d s t h a t a r e withm t h e bounds o f t h e e c o l o g i c a l p o s s i b l e and t o which a l l can r e a s o n a b l y a s p i r e 。 a ta minimum, s u s t a m a b l e development must n o t endanger t h e n a t u r a l s y s t e m s t h a t s u p p o r t l i f e on E a r t h : t h e a t m o s p h e r e , t h e w a t e r s , t h e s o i l s , and t h e h v i n g bemgs （ pp 4 3 ‑ 4 4 )
F u r t h e r , t h a t u l t i m a t e h m 1 t s t h e r e a r e , and s u s t a i n a b i l i t y r e q u i r e s t h a t l o n g b e f o r e t h e s e a r e r e a c h e d , t h e w o r l d must e n s u r e e q u i t a b l e a c c e s s t o t h e c o n s t r a i n e d r e s o u r c e and r e ‑ o r i e n t t e c h n o l o g i c a l e f f o r t s t o r e l i e v e t h e p r e s s u r e s . . . "
The q u e s t i o n i s what a l l t h i s means We a r e s k e p t i c a l a b o u t t h e
Ethk• I m ' Su•t•;n, h i e 、 / V o d d0 < d e < 6 9
e n t i r e i n t e l l e c t u a l u n d e r p i n n i n g s o f t h e r e p o r t b e c a u s e , t h e o r e t i c a l l y : a ) S i ι s t a i n a b i l i t y t s made dependent upon a c o n c e p t u a l i z a t 1 o n o f n e e d s o f f u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n s and t h e i r a b i l i t y t o s a t i s f y t h e t r n e e d s But by means o f what can we know what t h e i r n e e d s w t l l b e and how t h e y w t l l s a t i s f y them' I t i s h t g h l y u t i l i t a r i s t i c : a c t s and p o l i c i e s a r e viewed i n terms o f t h e i r c o n s e q u e n c e s , n o t on t h e b a s t s o f some k i n d o f e t h i c a l o r e c o l o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e ( s 。 ）
b ) The c o n c e p t o f development a s n e e d s a t i s f a c t i o n t s f m e , b u t i t f o c u s e s o n l y o n human n e e d s and w t t h o u t any q u a l i f i c a t i o n ( t h e r e e x i s t n o u n i v e r s a l s e t o f b a s i c 'human n e e d s ' a f t e r a l l ) . I t i s a n t h r o p o c e n t r i c i n t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e needs/ nghts o f o t h e r hvmg o r g a r n s m s a r e n o t t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t
c ) The i d e a o f l i m i t a t i o n i s n o t s p e c i f t e d , c r i t e r i a n o t s t a t e d , which o r g a n i z a t i o n s t o j u d g e what l i m i t a l t o n s s h o u l d a p p l y where and when a r e n o t p r e s e n t e d .
d ) The c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n i s e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s t . The r e p o r t l o o k s m o s t l y i n t o p h y s i c a l r e s o u r c e s and p o p u l a t i o n growth and a d v o c a t e s a g e n t l e way o f domg t h e same wrongs a s p r e v i o u s l y combined w i t h r e p a i r i n g Nature and fmdmg s u b s t i t u t e s f o r h e r p r o d u c t s a f t e r t h e e x p l 0 1 t a l t o n h a s t a k e n p l a c e .
The r e p o r t n e v e r a d d r e s s e s b a s i c i s s u e s such a s consumption l e v e l s and s t r u c t u r a l l y d e t e r m i n e d o v e r d e v e l o p m e n t . R e p e a t e d l y we a r e t o l d t h a t growth i s n e c e s s a r y and t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n o f even non r e n e w a b l e r e s o u r c e s p e r f e c t l y a l l n g h t , and t h a t e v e r y ecosystem everywhere need n o t be p r e s e r v e d m t a c t p r o v i d e d t h e r a t e of u s e i s w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s of
問
g e n e r a t i o nand n a t u r a l g r o w t h . B u t , how? Do we n o t know a l r e a d y t h a t human c u l t u r e and t h e p r o d u c t i o n modes o f w o r l d c a p i t a l i s m a r e o u t o f synch w t t h o r g a r n c l i f e p r o c e s s e s ?
And what a b o u t t h e r e s o u r c e s w h i c h , when u s e d , w i l l n o t r e g e n e r a t e such a s r a i n f o r e s t s ? The a n s w e r , i n vague t e r m s , i s t h a t we s h o u l d
" t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e c r i t i c a h t y o f t h e r e s o u r c e , t h e t e c h n o l o g y f o r m i n i m i z i n g i t s e x p l o i t a t i o n , and t h e hkehhood o f developmg s u b s t i t u t e s .
e )
a f r a g m e n t a t i o n b e t w e e n な o c i e t y and "economy worldview
7 0
F u r t h e r m o r e , what i s meant by t r a n s f o r m a t i o n ?
f ) The r e p o r t d o e s n o t d e a l w i t h t h e i s s u e s o f d i s t r i b u t i o n o r p r i o r i t i e s , 1 t n e v e r a d d r e s s e s what i t would i m p l y t o g i v e o v e r r i d i n g p r i o r i t y t o t h e worlds poor p e o p l e .
g ) S t a t i n g a s t h e r e p o r t d o e s { p 4 4 ) t h a t d e v e l o p m e n t i s a c c e p t a b l e o n l y 1 ! r e f l e c t i n g b o t h s u s t a m a b 1 h t y and non e x p l o i t a t i o n o f o t h e r s and s i m u l t a n e o u s l y i n c r e a s m g b o t h p r o d u c t i v i t y and e n s u r i n g e q u i t a b l e o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r a l l i t seems t o have l o s t c o n t a c t w i t h t h e r e a h l ! e s . The p r e s e n t w o r l d s y s t e m i s u n t h m k a b l e w i t h o u t g r o s s e x p l o i t a t i o n o f N a t u r e and p e o p l e s i n p e r i p h e r i e s o f c o r e c a p 1 t a h s m .
h ) One must b e s k e p t i c a l a b o u t t h e worldvzew of harmony, o f common i n t e r e s t s and o u r common f u t u r e when i t i s n o t a t t a c h e d t o a c o n s i s t e n t change p e r s p e c t i v e . The Comm1ss1on seems t o n e g l e c t any a s p e c t o f c o n f l i c t between i t s s t a t e d g o a l s , p r i o n t i e s o r between p e o p l e s o r g o v e r n m e n t s , e c o n o m i c s t r u c t u r e s o r , w o r s e , between humankinds n e e d s , m a s s i v e e c o n o m i c growth and t h e c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y o f G a i a .
When we l o o k a t t h e d 1 s p a r i t 1 e s and i n c r e a s i n g i n e q u a l i t y on v i r t u a l l y a l l v i t a l w o r l d i n d i c a t o r s we must a s k o u r s e l v e s : What do we have m common? What d o e s t h e s u b s i s t e n c e f a r m e r w i t h s i x c h i l d r e n and a tmy p l o t o f l a n d t h a t he t o i l s w i t h p r i m i t i v e t o o l s h a v e i n common w i t h t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e p r o f e s s o r s h o p p i n g h i s o r h e r way t h r o u g h t h e G i n z a d e p a r t m e n t s t o r e s ?
Do we r e 副 l yh a v e a common f u t u r e w i t h t h o s e who s u f f e r and t h o s e who d i e ？ I t i s n o t t h a t t h e r e i s o n e s e t o f v i l l a m s and a n o t h e r o f v i c t i m s A l l would b e b e t t e r o f f i f e a c h p e r s o n t o o k mto a c c o u n t t h e e f f e c t o f h i s o r h e r a c t s upon o t h e r s ， t h e r e p o r t s t a t e s ( p . 4 7 )
1 )
The B r u n d t l a n d R e p o r t l a c k s a c a u s a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e w o r l d ' s m a l a i s e and e x p l i c i t l y r e f u s e s t o p i n p o i n t po
山e r s t r u c t u r e s and a d v o c a t e s n o c h a n g e s m t h e s 1 t u a t 1 o n o f t h e o v e r ‑p r i v i l e g e d . C o n s e q u e n t l y , i t s e r v e s a s a smoke‑s c r e e n o v e r t h e e x t r e m e l y e x p l o i t a t i v e p r e s e n t s y s t e m .
j ) Whenever we s e e a Chnstmas l i s t s o f a l l good t h i n g s t h a t s h o u l d
be done m a t e r i a l g r o w t h , c o n s e r v a t i o n , s u s t a i n a b i l i t y , e q u i t y , e t c .
E t h " a f o ' a S u a t m n a b l e 、 v げ 。 I dQ , d . , 7 1
we s h o u l d a s k : And what w i l l we have t o a b s t a i n f r o m d o i n g ' What t y p e s of p o l 日 i e sand a c t s c a u s e d t h e p r e s e n t s i t u a t w n and how do
山e change t h e s e f a c t o r s ? The c o m m i s s i o n ' s r e p o r t b a s i c a l l y p r o m o t e s t h e somewhat o u t d a t e d view t h a t everythmg i s p o s s i b l e and t h e f u t u r e i s bnght I n whose m t e r e s t s ?
P o l i t i c a l l y , a s k e p t i c a l view would l o o k a t
k ) The f a c t t h a t t h e f i r s t s t r a t e g i c i m p e r a t i v e i s s a i d t o be t h e r e v i v i n g of ( e c o n o m i c ) g r o
山t h ,b o t h i n what i s e u p h e m i s t i c a l l y c a l l e d t h e developmg c o u n t r i e s and i n t h e i n d u s t r i a l c o u n t r i e s "Meetmg e s s e n t i a l n e e d s r e q u i r e s n o t o n l y a new e r a o f e c o n o m i c growth f o r n a t i o n s i n which t h e m a j o r i t y a r e p o o r , b u t an a s s u r a n c e t h a t t h e s e p o o r g e t a f a i r s h a r e o f t h e r e s o u r c e s r e q u i r e d t o s u s t a i n t h 苧 tg r o w t h "
( p 8 ) What i s a f a i r s h a r e , and why d o e s t h e r e p o r t a d v o c a t e growth f i r s t , r e d 1 s t n b u t i o n s e c o n d , m s t e a d o f t h e o p p o s i t e ? Not o n l y t h e p o o r n a l i o n s s h a l l g r o w , s o s h a l l w e , and t h e r e p o r t m e n t i o n s t h e hkehhood o f a f i v e ‑t o t e n f o l d growth o f t h e p r e s e n t w o r l d economy o f 1 3 , 0 0 0 b i l l i o n d o l l a r s i n t h e commg 5 0 y e a r s ( p . 4 ) .
I ) Poverty t s r e l a t e d t o e c o l o g i c a l c a t a s t r o p h e , o v e r e x p l o i t a t i o n , o v e r d e v e l o p m e n t and l u x u r y c o n s u m p t i o n a r e n o t a w o r l d m which p o v e r t y i s endemic w i l l a l w a y s b e p r o n e t o e c o l o g i c a l and o t h e r c a t a s t r o p h e s （ p . 8 a n d 6 9 ) .
m) The s t r a t e g i c i m p e r a t i v e s s u g g e s t e d c o n c e r n i n g g r o w t h , t h e q u a l i t y o f g r o w t h , n e e d s , p o p u l a t i o n , r e s o u r c e c o n s e r v a t i o n , new t e c h n o l o g i e s o r d e c i s i o n making p r o c e d u r e s have l i t t l e i f any i m p a c t on t h e l i f e ‑ s t y l e s o f t h e r i c h m i n o r i t y , s a y , 2 0 p e r c e n t on E a r t h The i m p l i c i t h y p o t h e s i s o f t h e B r u n d t l a n d R e p o r t seems t o b e t h a t hvmg s t a n d a r d s c a n b e r a i s e d f o r a l l , and w i t h i n e c o l o g i c a l l i m i t s , s o t h a t we a l l m c l u d i n g f u t u r e generations‑g e t a f a i r s h a r e " V i r t u a l l y a l l s t a t i s l i c s a v a i l a b l e p o i n t t o t h e i l l u s o r y c h a r a c t e r o f t h i s h y p o t h e s i s .
n ) There i s no l i n k a g e b e 加 e e n p o v e r t y and u n d e r d e v e l o p m e n t i n
p e r i p h e r a l c o u n t r i e s and o v e r d e v e l o p m e n t i n c e n t r a l c o u n t r i e s s u c h a s
o u r s . I n s t e a d 1 t i s p o i n t e d o u t t h a t i n d u s t r i a l c o u n t r i e s must h e l p t h e
p o o r more and f o r t h a t t h e y need economic growth T h i s i m p o s s i b l e
e q u a t i o n g o e s l i k e t h i s :
72
I n p r a c t i c a l t e r m s , t h i s means more r a p i d e c o n o m i c growth m b o t h m d u s t r i a l and d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t n e s , f r e e market a c c e s s f o r t h e p r o d u c t s o f developmg c o u n t r i e s , l o w e r i n t e r e s t r a t e s , g r e a t e r t e c h n o l o g y t r a n s f e r , and s i g n i f i c a n t l y l a r g e r c a p i t a l f l o w s , b o t h c o n c e s s i o n a l and c o m m e r c i a l . The C o m m 1 s s 1 o n ' s o v e r a l l a s s e s s m e n t i s t h a t t h e m t e r n a t i o n a l economy must s p e e d up w o r l d growth w h i l e r e s p e c t i n g t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n s t r a m t s ( p . 8 9 ) .
S i n c e t h e m a t e r i a l growth o f , s a y , 20% o f t h e w o r l ds p o p u l a t i o n o v e r t h e l a s t 5 ‑ 1 0 d e c a d e s h a s c a u s e d s o much t r o u b l e and b r o u g h t u s on t h e v e r g e o f a c i v i l i z a t i o n a l c r i s i s , o n e may a s k how n o t o n l y t h e s e 20%
b u t t h e remammg 80% s h a l l a c h i e v e t h e i r f a i r s h a r e o f g l o b a l w e l f a r e ? The answer o f t h e r e p o r t 1 s v i r t u a l o n e : By means o f t h e d i f f u s i o n o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y s o u n d t e c h n o l o g i e s ( p . 8 7 ) The p o s s i b l e i s c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e n e c e s s a r y and t h a t a g a i n i s c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e d e s i r a b l e .
S o , we a r e p r e s e n t e d w i t h a t e c h n o l o g i c a l f i x f o r what i s t r u l y a n e c o l o g i c a l , p o l i t i c a l , c u l t u r a l , e t h i c a l , s o c i o ‑economic and s e c u r i t y p r o b l e m a t i c . These e l e m e n t s o f a f u n d a m e n t a l c n t J q u e o f t h e B r u n d t l a n d Commiss10n R e p o r t w z l l do h e r e
The b a s i c c h a l l e n g e , a s I s e e i t , i s t h i s S u s t a i n a b i l i t y w i l l have t o b e l i n k e d somehow with t r u e l i m i t a t i o n s , s e l f ‑ c o n t r o l , c a r e , preservation‑
i e , with an e t h i c a l standpoint‑and n o t o n l y
山z t h a u t i l i t a r z s t i c , e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s t reformism
From h e r e , l e ts e l a b o r a t e a l i t t l e o n t h e development/ growth p r o b l e m a t i c
3 . The f a l s e d i s t i n c t i o n between growth and no growth
For h e u r i s l ! c p u r p o s e s , l e ts s t a r t o u t w i t h a few d i s t i n c t i o n s a b o u t
growth/ e n v i r o n m e n t m o d e l s : Growth (G) can be n e g a t i v e , z e r o o r
p o s i l ! v e , t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l impact ( E I ) o f human a c t i v i t y c a n b e
n e g a t i v e , b a l a n c e d o r p o s i t i v e .
E t h i " r o , a S u , t a i n a b l e 、 i V n d dQ , d e ' 7 3
These r a t h e r s i m p l e d i s t i n c t i o n s o f f e r u s n i n e p o s s i b 1 h t i e s . A N e g a t i v e G
B
c
D Z e r o G E
F
G P o s i t i v e G H
十 n e g a t i v eE I
+ b a l a n c e d E I
+ p o s i t i v e E I 十 n e g a t i v eE I
+ b a l a n c e d E I
+ p o s i t i v e E I
+ n e g a t i v e E I
+ b a l a n c e d E I 十 p o s i t i v eE I
I f we i m a g i n e t h a t t h i s can b e apphed t o ( a t l e a s t ) t h e l o c a l ( s u b n a t i o n a l ) , t h e n a t i o n a l , t h e r e g i o n a l and t h e g l o b a l l e v e l , we have 3 6 ( 4 × 9 ) d i m e n s i o n s . T h u s , t h e d e b a t e a b o u t growth o rn o growth and e n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t i s s o m e t i m e s a b i t narrow m i n d e d . There 1 s n o t h e o r e t i c a l o r c o n c e p t u a l r e a s o n why growth must a u t o m a t i c a l l y i m p l y e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e s t r u c t i o n ( G ) , o r why no g r o w t h " s h o u l d a u t o m a l i c a l l y l e a d t o e n v i r o n m e n t a l r e g e n e r a t i o n o r s u s t a i n a b i l i t y ( F ) . N e i t h e r 1 s t h e r e any u n i v e r s a l i t y i n t h e c l a i m t h a t o n l y m a s s i v e m a t e r i a l growth w i l l l e a d t o a b e t t e r e n v i r o n m e n t a s a d v o c a t e d by t h e B r u n d t l a n d Commission R e p o r t ( ! ) . There a r e many o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t i e s The r e a l w o r l d d i s p l a y s them
The Western OECD w o r l d i s a p p r o a c h i n g z e r o o r n e g a t i v e e c o n o m i c g r o w t h . I t 1 s beyond d o u b t t h a t t h e y a r e t h e main d e s t r o y e r s o f t h e i r own a s w e l l a s t h e w o r l ds e n v i r o n m e n t I n many r e g i o n s and c o u n t r i e s p o v e r t y and r e a l GNP d e c l i n e i s accompanied by e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e s t r u c t i o n I f t h e c o s t s o f l o o s i n g b 1 0 m a s s and o f repamng e n v i r o n ‑ m e n t a l damage were i n c o r p o r a t e d i n n a t i o n a l b u d g e t s , t h e r e would p r o b a b l y be n e g a t i v e growth m t h e m a j o r i t y o f OECD c o u n t r i e s t o d a y
F u r t h e r m o r e , some c o u n t n e s d i s p l a y a p a t t e r n o f i m p r o v i n g t h e
o v e r a l l q u a l i t y o f t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t o v e r t i m e w h i l e m a i n t a i n i n g h i g h
growth r a t e s J a p a n p r o b a b l y b e i n g t h e f o r e m o s t e x a m p l e . However, i t
r e l i e s h e a v i l y on d e s t r o y i n g t h e e n v i r o n m e n t o u t s i d e J a p a n , e . g . , t h e ram
f o r e s t s m M a l a y s i a .
7 4
At t h e l o c a l l e v e l , c l o s e t o o u r s e l v e s , i n o u r g a r d e n s and a g r i c u l t u r a l f i e l d s , we know t h a t s u s t a m a b i h t y i s n a t u r a l . We can h a r v e s t o n l y a c e r t a i n number o f p o t a t o e s p e r t i m e and s p a c e umt by n a t u r a l m e t h o d s , and o n l y by means o f c h e m i c a l s o r b i o e n g m e e r i n g c a n t h e s e p r o c e s s e s b e f o r c e d . N a t u r e t a k e s i t s t i m e , f o r p r o d u c t i o n a s w e l l a s r e g e n e r a t i o n a s c o m p o s t i n g r e v e a l s t o t h e o b s e r v e r . Growth i s n a t u r a l , s o 1 s d e c a y and r e c y c h n g There a r e l i m i t s t o how f a s t t h e s e c y c l e s a r e . T h e r e f o r e , one v i t a l e l e m e n t 1 s missmg i n t h e growth/ no growth d e b a t e t i m e
Man w i l l p r o b a b l y a l w a y s make an i m p a c t , h o p e f u l l y b a l a n c e d , b e i n g m p a r t n e r s h i p w i t h N a t u r e But t h e s p e e d w i t h which we do s o t o d a y w i t h a r t i f i c i a l , mechanic t i m e r a t h e r t h a n o r g a n i c t i m e , f o r c i n g p r o d u c t i o n and c o n s u m p t i o n p r o c e s s e s t h r o u g h N a t u r es c y c l e s i n a much h i g h e r p u l s e t h a n i s n a t u r a l t h r o u g h o u t h i s t o r y , i s c l e a r l y u n s u s t a m a b l e . The f a c t t h a t t h e rhythms o f c u l t u r e and o f n a t u r e 町 e a n y t h i n g b u t s y n c h r o n o u s i s o f t e n f o r g o t t e n ( a s i s s o e l o q u e n t l y i l l u s t r a t e d f r o m an e v o l u t i o n i s t p e r s p e c t i v e i n O r n s t e i n and E h r l i c hs
"New W o r l d . New M i n d .
And t h e t i m e d i m e n s i o n must b e c o u p l e d t o t h e c o n s t a n t e x p a n s i o n o f human a c t i v i t i e s which a f f e c t s N a t u r e Not o n l y d o we add 2 2 0 , 0 0 0 new p e o p l e p e r day ( 8 0 m i l h o n p e r y e a r ) t o t h e w o r l ds p o p u l a t i o n , b u t a m i n o r i t y i n s i s t s on e x p a n d i n g t h e i r d a i l y c o n s u m p t i o n ad absurdum ( s i g n i f i e d more t h a n anywhere e l s e i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and J a p a n )
Then t h e r e 1 s t h e whole i s s u e on how 、 旬 s s e s s t h e i m p a c t o f
human a c t i v i t y on o r i n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t I s N a t u r e o n l y w o r t h t h e c o s t s o f r e p a i r , s u b s t i t u t i o n and t e c h n o l o g i c a l f i x e s o r d o e s s h e ( a l s o ) h o l d a v a l u e t h a t 1 s i m m e a s u r a b l e , o r i s N a t u r e a v a l u e by s i m p l y b e i n g , t h a t 1 s , s o m e t h i n g t h a t i s b e y o n d e v a l u a t i o n ?
As t h e r e i s a p r o b l e m w i t h t i m e , t h e r e i s o n e w i t h s p a c e . Many
a n a l y s e s , s o t o o t h e B r u n d t l a n d C o m m i s s i o n , t a k e s f o r g r a n t e d t h a t
t h e r e must be growth e v e r y w h e r e i n a s y s t e m , t h a t i t i s a u n i f o r m
phenomenon and t h a t non‑growth i s a n e g a t i v e f e a t u r e T h i s i s a n
u n c o u t h s 1 m p h h c a t 1 0 n . N a t u r e d o e s n o t o p e r a t e t h a t w a y , n e i t h e r d o e s
t h e i n d i v i d u a l human b e i n g . There i s growth and d e c a y , t h e r e i s
E t h i 0 > f o < a S u , t
制n a b l e 羽 T o d d Order 7 5 s t a b 1 l r t y and c h a n g e , t h e r e a r e p e r i o d s when a s y s t e m g i v e s p r i o r i t y t o c e r t a i n t y p e s o f growth w h i l e o t h e r s a r e l e f t s t a b l e .
We would d i s p u t e t h a t t h e p r e c o n d i t i o n m a t e r i a l growth m t h e T h i r d World 1 s m a s s i v e m a t e n a l growth m t h e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d w o r l d o r i n t h e w o r l d e c o n o m i c s y s t e m i n g e n e r a l . H i s t o r y shows t h a t , p e r h a p s w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f a few s m a l l n e w l y ‑ m d u s t n a l i z e d c o u n t n e s ， t h i s m a s s i v e growth a t t h e c e n t e r s h a s n o t l e d t o t r u e d e v e l o p m e n t i n t h e p e r i p h e n e s , r a t h e r , t h e r e s u l t t s s t r u c t u r a l o v e r ‑and u n d e r d e v e l o p m e n t , i n s h o r t s y s t e m i c maldevelopment A b a s i c h y p o t h e s i s t s t h a t c o u n t n e s , and s y s t e m s , w i t h v e r y d i f f e r e n t s o c i o e c o n o m i c , p o l i t i c a l and c u l t u r a l f e a t u r e s and h i s t o r i e s s h a l l n o t n e c e s s a r y b e g i v e n i d e n t i c a l medicme, s u c h a s m a s s i v e economic growth e v e r y w h e r e .
E v i d e n t l y , t o o , growth m
山t b e q u a l i f i e d There 1 s m a t e n a l , e c o n o m i c , m e a s u r a b l e growth and t h e r e 1 s e v e r y t h i n g e l s e , i n c l u d i n g human, m e n t a l , c i v i h z a t i o n a l growth o r , b e t t e r , m a t u r i t y and q u a l i t y . But t h e r e i s a l s o a d i s t i n c t i o n t o be made between e n d o g e n o u s l y s t i m u l a t e d , s e l f r e l i a n c e o r i e n t e d growth and e x o g e n o u s , o t h e r ‑ d e p e n d e n t g r o w t h , t h e r e 1 s i n n e r e x p l o i t a t i o n , e x p l o i t a t i o n o f someone e l s e and t h e r e i s n o n ‑ e x p l o i t a t i o n .
Be t h i s a s i t m a y , i t a l l d e p e n d s on what i s meant by " g r o w t h and by d e v e l o p m e n t
，＇e s s e n t i a l l y c o n t e s t e d c o n c e p t s a s t h e y a r e . To e q u a t e d e v e l o p m e n t w i t h e c o n o m i c m a t e r i a l g r o w t h , measured m t e r m s s u c h a s GNP, a s 1 s most o f t e n d o n e , i s a b s u r d . We would n o t dream o f t a k i n g t h e c a l o r i e i n and t h r o u g h p u t o f a human b e i n g a s an m d i c a t o r o f h i s o r h e r p e r s o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t .
Why a r e s u c h a b s u r d m e a s u r e s and n a l ! o n a l g o a l s p r e s e r v e d a g a i n s t a l l common s e n s e ' Presumably b e c a u s e modern b o u r g e o i s , n e o ー l i b e r a l e c o n o m i c s r a n k s f a i r l y low i n t e r m s o f i n t e l l e c t u a l q u a l i t y b u t h i g h i n t e r m s o f c o m p a t i b i h t y , 1 f n o t i s o m o r p h i s m , w i t h power e l i t e s m whose i n t e r e s t i t i s t o p r e s e r v e r a t h e r t h a n a b o l i s h s u c h i n t e l l e c t u a l detachment and a b s t r a c t s i m p l i f t c a t i o n s s u c h a s Homo e c o n o m i c u s . We a r e s t i l l m need o f a t r u e e c o n o m i c s , a s pomted o u t r e c e n t l y by E t z i o n i and by D a l y and Cobb J r .
As an a l t e r n a t i v e , l e t u s s i m p l y q u o t e t h e d e f i n i l ! o n o f d e v e l o p m e n t
7 6
a s we f i n d i t i n The C h a l l e n g e t o t h e S o u t h . The R e p o r t of t h e South Commission from 1 9 9 0 u n d e r t h e c h a i r m a n s h i p o f Tanzanias f o r m e r p r e s i d e n t J u l i u s N y e r e r e . I t h a s n o t r e c e i v e d any i n t e r n a l 旧 n a l media a t t e n t i o n i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e B r u n d t l a n d Commission R e p o r t . The r e a s o n , o f c o u r s e , 1 s t h a t i t i s m t e l l e c t u a l l y s o much b e t t e r and p o h t i c 剖 l ys o much l e s s system c o m p a t i b l e
Development i s a p r o c e s s which e n a b l e s human bemgs t o r e a l i z e t h e i r p o t e n t i a l , b u i l d s e l f ‑c o n f i d e n c e and l e a d l i v e s o f d1gmty and f u l f d ! m e n t I t i s a p r o c e s s which f r e e s p e o p l e from t h e f e a r o f want and e x p l o i t a t i o n . I t 1 s a movement away from p o l i t i c a l . e c o n o m i c , o r s o c i a l o p p r e s s i o n Development t h e r e f o r e i m p l i e s growing s e l f ‑ r e l i a n c e , b o t h i n d 1 v 1 d u a l and c o l l e c t i v e The b a s i s f o r a n a t i o ns development must b e i t s own r e s o u r c e s , b o t h human and m a t e r i a l , f u l l y u s e d t o meet i t s own n e e d s . 。 Development i s a p r o c e s s o f s e l f r e l i a n t g r o w t h , a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e p e o p l e a c t i n g i n t h e i r own i n t e r e s t s a s t h e y s e e t h e m , and under t h e i r own c o n t r o l . I t s f i r s t o b j e c t i v e must b e t o end p o v e r t y , p r o v i d e p r o d u c t i v e employment, and s a t i s f y t h e b a s i c human n e e d s o f a l l t h e p e o p l e , any s u r p l u s bemg f a i r l y s h a r e d . T h i s i m p l i e s t h a t b a s i c g o o d s and s e r v i c e s such a s f o o d and s h e l t e r , b a s i c e d u c a t i o n and h e a l t h f a c d i t 1 e s , and c l e a n water must be a c c e s s i b l e t o a l l . I n a d d i t i o n , d e v e l o p ment p r e s u p p o s e s a d e m o c r a t i c s t r u c t u r e o f g o v e r n m e n t , t o g e t h e r w i t h i t s supportmg i n d i v i d u a l freedoms o f s p e e c h , o r g a m z a ! I o n , and p u b l i c a t i o n , a s w e l l a s a system o f J u s t i c e which p r o t e c t s a l l t h e p e o p l e from a c t i o n s i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h i u s t l a w s t h a t a r e known and p u b h c l y a c c e p t e d .
T h i s d e f i n i t i o n e m p h a s i z e s a s e t o f s o c i e t a l q u a l i t i e s c e n t e r e d a r o u n d growmg s e l f ‑r e l i a n c e o f a l l u n i t s , from t h e s m a l l e s t and upward, c o u p l e d w i t h human and s o c i a l need s a t i s f a c t 1 0 n , a f a i r d 1 s t n b u h o n o f o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r r e a l i z a t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l a s w e l l a s s o c i e t a l p o t e n t i a l s
I f t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s were t o form t h e b a s i s o f development p o l i c i e s
Ethic• f o < a Su•tainable W 。 d dO < d e < 7 7 w o r l d w i d e ( a n d t h e y a r e u n i v e r s a l i z a b l e t o a h i g h e r e x t e n t t h a n t h e p r e s e n t e c o n o m i c growth p h i l o s o p h y ) s u s t a i n a b i l i t y would b e enhanced by a l l u n i t s a n d t h e p r e s e n t w o r l d o r d e r becomes t o t a l l y t r a n s f o r m e d .
One may a r g u e t h a t t h i s d o e s n o t s a y much a b o u t o u r a t t i t u d e t o N a t u r e . I m p l i c i t l y , h o w e v e r , i t d o e s I t e m p h a s i z e s human n e e d s , n o t e v e r g r o w i n g market demand and i t pomts t o t h e r e a ! t z a t 1 o n o f p o t e n t i a l s t h a t c l e a r l y d o e s n o t mean u t i l i t y m a x i m i z i n g b e h a v i o u r o f an
" e c o n o m i c man a s i s t h e c a s e m n e o ‑ J i b e r a l e c o n o m i c s
S e l f r e l i a n c e means s e e k i n g o n es r e s o u r c e s f t r s t a t t h e l o c a l l e v e l and adaptmg t o some e x t e n t a t l e a s t t o what t s a v a i l a b l e . I f t h e F i r s t World d i d t h a t t o d a y and s t o p p e d e x p l o i t i n g t h e S e c o n d , T h i r d and F o u r t h Worlds t h e r e would be p l e n t y o f o p p o r t u n i t y f o r t h o s e t o r e g e n e r a t e , s a t i s f y t h e i r n e e d s and r e a l i z e t h e t r tremendous p o t e n t i a l s A l s o w i t h ! t m 1 t l e s s m a t e r i a l i s m g o n e , t h e r a t e o f d e s t r u c t i o n o f N a t u r e would s l o w down c o n s i d e r a b l y .
T h u s , r e c y c l i n g , c o n s e r v a t i o n . a b s t e n t i o n f r o m c e r t a i n a b s o l u t e l y n o n ‑ e s s e n t i a l t y p e s o f c o n s u m p t i o n and t h e c a r e f o r t h i n g s o f h i g h d u r a b i l i t y a r e a l l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a s o c i e t y t h a t s t r i v e s f o r s e l f r e l i a n c e , b e c a u s e s e l f r e l i a n c e i s a l s o an e f f o r t t o r e d u c e t h e de‑
p e n d e n c e on e x p l 0 1 t a t i o n o f N a t u r e t h a t we know t o d a y Because o f t h e tremendous e n e r g y o f t h e sun and i t s wide and e q u a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o v e r t h e g l o b e , t h i s w i l l b e t h e m a 1 o r e n e r g y s o u r c e i n a l l i t s f o r m s , o f t h e f u t u r e , more s e l f ‑r e l i a n t l o c a l a n d w o r l d ‑c o m m u n i t y . The more we c o n s u m e , t h e more we become d e p e n d e n t o n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t t o p r o v i d e a l l we want ( b u t d o n o t a l w a y s n e e d ) and t h e more we w i l l be harmed by t h e a c c u m u l a t e d c o n s e q u e n c e s o f N a t u r es d e g r a d a t i o n S o , s e l f ‑ r e l i a n c e means l e s s s e l f m f l i c t e d p a i n f r o m e . g . p o l l u t i o n and f r o m t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f c o n f l i c t s and wars f o u g h t f o r a c c e s s t o r e s o u r c e s t h a t do n o t b e l o n g t o t h o s e who a t t e m p t t o c o n t r o l o r p o s s e s s them b e c a u s e t h e y a r e o t h e r r e l i a n t . I s s o l a r power s o u n i n t e r e s t i n g i n t h e e y e s o f power e l i t e s b e c a u s e i t c a n n o t be m o n o p o l i z e d and p r o f i t e d from i n t h e same way a s o i l w e l l s c a n ? Or b e c a u s e i t s power c a n n o t b e t r a n s f o r m e d t o s o p h i s t i c a t e d weaponry?
Optimizmg s e l f r e l i a n c e 1 s n o t o n l y common s e n s e from t h e p o i n t s o f
7 8
view o f d e v e l o p m e n t and e n v i r o n m e n t I t i s a l s o g o o d s e c u r i t y and disarmament p o h c y : I t s h o u l d b e f a i r l y e v i d e n t by n o w , t h a t had t h e Umted S t a t e s b e e n more s e l f r e h a n t a s a n economy and s o c i e t y and had i t s d e l i b e r a t e p o h c y o v e r t h e l a s t few d e c a d e s b e e n s e t t o i n c r e a s e r a t h e r t h a n d e c r e a s e i t s s e l f ‑s u f f i c i e n c y and d o m e s t i c p r o d u c t i o n i n p r i m a r y e n e r g y , i t s p r o n e n e s s t o i n t e r v e n e i n t h e o i l nch M i d d l e E a s t would p r o b a b l y have b e e n much s m a l l e r .
Now 1 t must s q u a n d e r i n c r e d i b l e amounts o f d o l l a r s t o f i g h t f o r i t s
DI
ト− and t h a t o f o t h e r Western powers and a b s u r d l y o t h e r r e l i a n t J a p a n . I f we add t h e pnce o f m i l i t a r y a c t i v i t i e s t o s e c u r e t h e 0 1 1 , t h e r e a l p o s t ‑ 1 9 9 1 p r i c e p e r b a r r e l c r u d e must be t h e h i g h e s t e v e r i n human h i s t o r y .
4 The need f o r an e t h i c a l approach
I f you r e a d an a p p e a l f o r new thmkmg beween t h e l i n e s i n t h i s t h i n k p i e c e you a r e r i g h t The q u e s t i o n i s : When w i l l we b e humble enough t o s e e t h a t we have p r o b l e m s and c a u s e p r o b l e m s and t h a t t h i n g s can b e done d i f f e r e n t l y ? Where t o l o o k f o r i n s p i r a t i o n ?
We u r g e n t l y need a Western p e r e s t r o i k a i n c l u d m g s e l f ‑c r i t i c i s m . We have d i f f e r e n t p r o b l e m s from t h o s e o f t h e S o v i e t s and E a s t E u r o p e a n s , b u t we s h a r e a c i v i l i z a t i o n a l f a t e : Our s y s t e m i s b u i l t on s u c h a s s u m p t i o n s , o p e r a t e s on such a m e n t a l program t h a t t h e r e t s n o t t h e s h g h t e s t chance‑or p r o b a b i l i t y o f s u r v i v a l i n t h e l o n g r u n by J u s t , o r p r e d o m i n a n t l y , d o i n g a s we have d o n e t h e l a s t 3 0 0 y e a r s
Both t h e S o v i e t U n i o n , E a s t e r n E u r o p e , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and
Western Europe b e l o n g t o t h e O c c i d e n t a l c i v i l i z a t i o n The E a s t e r n b l o c
(now w i s e l y d i s s o l v e d ) and t h e Western ( u n w i s e l y now b e i n g e x p a n d e d )
a r e e s s e n t i a l l y two v e r s i o n s o f t h e same c 1 v 1 h z a t i o n o r c o s m o l o g y . The
most s e r i o u s p r o b l e m w i t h t h e West i s t h a t o u r m a t e n a l s t a n d a r d s bhnd
u s v i s a ‑ v i s o u r p r o b l e m s and t h o s e we c r e a t e f o r o t h e r s M a t e r i a l i s m
t h e Western way h a s been a b l e s s i n g b u t t s now a c u r s e . T h u s ,
whereas t h e Gorbachev g e n e r a t i o n h a s s t a r t e d o u t a p r o c e s s o f s e l f
c n t l c 1 s m a n d , i m p l i c i t l y , h u m i h t y and new thmkmg, t h e West
c o n g r a t u l a t e s i t s e l f t h a t we have won t h e C o l d War, o u r system i s t h e
Eth.o• f o , a Su•tamablo Wodd O < d 0 < 7 9 b e s t . " Whereas t h e T h i r d and t h e Second W o r l d s h a v e someone e l s e t o l o o k a t , t h e F i r s t World 1 s bound t o b e l i e v e t h a t i t i s Second t o None and w i l l r e m a i n s o .
I t i s p r e s u m a b l y i n s u c h p s y c h o ‑ p o l i t i c a l mechanisms we s h a l l f i n d some o f t h e r a i s o n de t r e o f t h e i n c r e d i b l e b l i n d n e s s t o t h e d i s i n t e g r a ‑ t 1 o n o f t h e American s o c i e t y compared w t t h t h e a t t e n t i o n p a i d t o t h a t o f t h e S o v i e t s o c i e t y .
T h u s , t h e Western O c c i d e n t i s p r o u d o f i t s w e l f a r e , t e c h n o l o g y , d e m o c r a c y , f r e e d o m , human r i g h t s and e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s m I t f o r g e t s o r , t o b o r r o w a term by l a t e e c o n o m i s t Gunnar M y r d a l , i t p r a c t i c e s o p p o r t u n e ignorance‑about t h e o t h e r s i d e s of t h e c o i n s .
We t r y t o f o r g e t t h e t r u t h t h a t consumptwn o v e r a c e r t a i n l e v e l d o e s n o t f o s t e r h a p p i n e s s and p r e t e n d t h a t e x i s t e n l i a l e m p t i n e s s can be compensated w i t h e v e r more c o n s u m p t i o n With i n c r e a s i n g w e l f a r e , we t a l k m o r e , a l m o s t o b s e s s i v e l y , a b o u t money, s a l a r i e s and p r o f i t s t h a n e v e r b e f o r e .
We f o r g e t t h e p o v e r t y p o c k e t s and m m o r i l i e s w i t h i n o u r own n a t i o n s and t h e u t t e r d e p r i v a t i o n o f everythmg human f o r t h e maionty o f w o r l d c i t i z e n s t h a t i s c a u s a l l y r e l a t e d t o o u r v e r y m a t e r i a l i s m . We f o r g e t t h e s o 口 a la l i e n a t 1 0 n and p a s s i v e c o n s u m p t i o n i n t h e wake o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l wonders and t h e m c r e d i b l e s t r e s s we f e e l t h e more t i m esavmg d e v i c e s we s u r r o u n d o u r s e l v e s w i t h We f o r g e t t h a t democracy means g e n u i n e p a r t t c i p a t i o n , n o t p e r f o r m a n c e by r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . T o d a y , h a r d l y anyone m t h e media s p e a k s f o r him o r h e r s e l f b u t on b e h a l f o f l a r g e o r g a n i z a t i o n s which i s t h e same a s n e v e r t a k i n g f u l l p e r s o n a l r e s p o n s 1 b 1 h t y o r showing c t v t l c o u r a g e , when n e e d e d . And we c r e a t e o r g a n i z a t i o n s t h e s i z e o f which makes 1 t v i r t u a l l y i m p o s s i b l e t o p r a c t i c e democracy
We f o r g e t t h e l a c k o f freedoms ー fromwar r i s k s , p o v e r t y , economic
p r e s s u r e s , u n h e a l t h y j o b s , a d v e r t i s e m e n t s , s t a t e i n t r u s i o n , m t h t a r y
s e r v i c e , and t h e n o t n e g l i g i b l e s e l f ‑c e n s o r s h i p g e n e r a l l y p r a c t i c e d t o
a c h i e v e c e r t a m p o s i t i o n s . We f o r g e t t h e c o m m e r c i a l i z a t i o n o f news
media withm t h e f r e e p r e s s and t h e s y s t e m a l t c m a r k e t i z a t 1 o n o f
q u a l i t i e s i n o u r l i v e s . And we t e n d t o i g n o r e t h a t most human r i g h t s
8 0
v 1 0 l a t 1 0 n s a r e comm1tted w i t h i n t h e Western h e m i s p h e r e and i t s d e p e n d e n c i e s i n t h e p e r i p h e r i e s . T h u s , w h i l e t h e w o r l d umted i n m d 1 g n a 1 I o n o v e r t h e i n d e e d b r u t a l e v e n t s i n B e i j i n g , t h e Umted S t a t e s k i l l e d a b o u t t h e same number o f p e o p l e ( 3 , 0 0 0 ) m Panama.
And, f i n a l l y , had Western governments t a k e n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l c r i s i s s e r i o u s , p o l i c y ‑ m a k i n g would l o o k e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t from what i t d o e s t o d a y . C h a l l e n g i n g t h e consumzsm o f t h e Western O c c i d e n t would t a k e a s much o f a " p e r e s t r o i k a " t h e r e a s d i d t h e c h a l l e n g e o f communism i n t h e E a s t e r n O c c i d e n t There 1 s a h i g h p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t t h e change i n t h e E a s t e r n s y s t e m i m p l i e s a s e t back o f s e v e r a l y e a r s f o r n e c e s s a r y s o c i o e c o n o m i c and ‑ c u l t u r a l change i n t h e West?
5 From neighborhood e t h i c s t o g l o b a l e t h i c s
Humankind's t e c h n o l o g i c a l c a p a c i t y h a s outgrown t h e t r a d i t i o n a l e t h i c a l framework I n t h a t t h e a g e n t s b e l o n g e d t o and s h a r e d a common p r e s e n t . I t was s t r i c t l y a n t h r o p o c e n t r i c , l i m i t e d i n t i m e and s p a c e Love t h y n e i g h b o r a s t h y s e l f ぺ Dou n t o o t h e r s a s you w i s h
them t o do u n t o you e t c .
T o d a y , t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f o u r a c l i o n s r e a c h f a r i n t o t h e s p a c e and t i m e L o c a l a c t i o n o f t e n h a s g l o b a l and c u m u l a t i v e c o n s e q u e n c e s ; t h e empathy w i t h o t h e r s harmed ( o r j o y w i t h t h o s e d e l i g h t e d ) by o u r a c t 阻止 d i m i n i s h e sw i t h mcreasmg d i s t a n c e and t i m e h o n z o n . So i s t h e c a s e w i t h o u r n o r m a t i v e and l e g a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . You a r e n o t p e r m i t t e d t o k i l l y o u r n e i g h b o r b u t i t is‑and r e m a i n s e v e n s o i n t o t h e 1 9 9 0 s , a l t h o u g h norms and a t t i t u d e s may b e changmg‑p a r t o f l e g 1 t 1 m a t e h i g h p o l i t i c s t h a t s t a t e s m e n t a k e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r p e a c e t i m e n u c l e a r war p l a n m n g , and i n c a s e o f w a r , command t h e l a u n c h o f n u c l e a r weapons t h a t c o u l d k i l l h u n d r e d s o f m i l l i o n s .
The German‑American p h i l o s o p h e r , Hans J o n a s , h a s d e v e l o p e d an e t h i c s o f c a r e . I n h i s s e m i n a l work The I m p e r a t i v e o f R e s p o n s i b i l i t y
h e o f f e r s u s a s e t o f u m v e r s a l norms and g m d e l i n e s concemmg t h e d u t y t o w a r d t h e e x i s t e n c e and t h e c o n d i t i o ロ o ff u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n s
The h i g h e s t p r m c i p l e o f modern c 1 v i l i z a l i o n IS ： Act s o t h a t t h e
e f f e c t s o f y o u r a c t i o n a r e c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e permanence o f g e n u i n e
E t h " ' f m a S u , t a m a b l o 、 v 。 < i dO < d o c 8 1
human l i f e o r I n y o u r p r e s e n t c h o i c e s , i n c l u d e t h e w h o l e n e s s o f Man among t h e o b j e c t s o f y o u r w r l l That r s , s i n c e man c a n d e s t r o y E a r t h , and d o e s s o e v e r y d a y 一 一 andc o u l d do i t p r o b a b l y o n c e and f o r a l l i n a
n u c l e a r 、 l ' l l n t e r ands i n c e 、 Nea r e m t h t s s e n s e t a k i n g upon u s t h e
r o l e o f G o d , we have become r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e r e b e i n g s o m e t h i n g r a t h e r t h a n n o t h i n g . " B e c a u s e o f o u r p o w e r s , we must b e h u m b l e , we must c a r e , we must p r e s e r v e what i s , we have a d u t y t o c a r e f o r what i s extra‑human and do s o f o r i t s own s a k e , n o t f o r o u r s .
E t h i c s c a n n o l o n g e r be e x c l u s i v e l y a n t h r o p o c e n t r i c and l o c a l , r t must encompass G a i a , t h e I r v i n g E a r t h o f which we a r e o n l y one among p e r h a p s some 2 0 m t l l i o n s p e c i e s and t t must r e a c h o u t i n t h e f u t u r e , t h a t i s , we s h a l l have t o d e v e l o p a c o m p l e t e l y new i n t u i t i o n , empathy and f u t u r e o r i e n t a t e d s e n t i m e n t t o answer q u e s t i o n s s u c h a s What w i l l o u r d e c i s i o n h e r e and now i m p l y f o r commg g e n e r a t i o n s , t h e y e t u n b o r n ? What d u t i e s d o we have t o h o n o r t h e r i g h t s o f t h e thmgs and t h e humans and t h e extra‑humans o f t h e f u t u r e who c a n n o t g i v e v 0 1 c e t o t h e o b v i o u s n g h t t h e y have t o an e x i s t e n c e ?
We would l i k e t o s u g g e s t t h r e e domains o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t h a t must be i n c l u d e d i n an e t h i c s o f c a r e f o r G a i a :
* C a r i n g f o r t h e Permanence o f e x i s t e n c e o f p r e s e n t l i v e s C a t c h w o r d s ・ Be humble ！
本 C a r i n g f o r b i o ‑d i v e r s i t y Catchwords ： A b s t a i n , a p p r e c i a t e , p r e s e r v e ＇
* C a r i n g f o r t h e y e t unborn 一 一 C a t c h w o r d s : E m p a t h i z e , l o v e
！＇These a r e t h r e e v r t a l , t r u l y u n i v e r s a l d o m a i n s , n o t o n l y f r o m t h e p o i n t o f view o f e t h i c a l c o n c e r n . T h e y , n o t a p a r t t c u l a r Western i d e a a b o u t human n g h t s , a r e u n i v e r s a l i z a b l e . They a l s o t o u c h upon t h e e s s e n t i a l s o f what g l o b a l d e v e l o p m e n t , s e c u r i t y , and p e a c e must be a b o u t i f , i n t h e l o n g r u n , we s h a l l a l l s u r v i v e .
I n o t h e r w o r d s , we would l i k e t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e c o n c e p t o f r i g h t s
a p p l y n o t o n l y t o human bemgs a l i v e t o d a y , b u t a l s o t o t h e e x t r a
human s p e c i e s s u c h a s t h e t r e e s and ammals and t h e complex web o f
b i l h o n s o f p r o c e s s e s t h a t c o n n e c t them What we do n o t p r e s e n t a
8 2
f o r m u l a f o r h e r e i s t h e e x a c t ways m which s u c h r i g h t s c a n be r e s p e c t e d . And, i n d e e d , no one h a s come up w i t h a v i a b l e s e t o f p r i n c i p l e s . L i k e w i s e , t h e y e t u n b o r n h a v e r i g h t s w i t h which we have a d u t y t o empathize
T h i s i s t h e e s s e n c e o f what e n v i r o n m e n t a l e t h i c s must d e a l w i t h . The h o r i z o n s o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , o f e t h i c s and human d u t i e s a r e facmg a g r e a t d e a l o f musts b e c a u s e o f o u r power and t h e s y s t e m f a i l u r e we have o p e r a t e d w i t h a l l t h r o u g h t h e m d t i s t n a l p h a s e t h e a n t h r o p o ‑ c e n t r i c view o f o u r s e l v e s and t h e mechamsl!c m a t e r i a l ‑ s c i e n l ! h c image o f ( a f e m a l e ) N a t u r e a s an o b J e c t t o be p e n e t r a t e d , c o n t r o l l e d and e x p l o i t e d by m a l e , Western s c i e n c e .
H u m i l i t y , s t e w a r d s h i p , wisdom and l o v e a r e , o n c e a g a i n , becoming e s s e n l ! a l i n t h e v o c a b u l a r y o f t h e s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t I n s p i r a t i o n c a n b e s o u g h t m many d i r e c t i o n s . One would b e Mohandas K . G a n d h i , a n o t h e r would b e t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y f e m i n i n e and s p i r i t u a l s e n t i m e n t , a t h l f d would b e new i n t e g r a t i v e s c i e n c e e n d e a v o u r s . And, a s e v e r , p o e t r y , m y t h s , m e t a p h o r s and f i c t i o n w i l l h e l p u s a l o n g way But most i m p o r t a n t i s t h e g e n u i n e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a f r e e , c r e a t i v e mmd somethmg, by t h e w a y , s o w o n d e r f u l l y d e p i c t e d i n P e t e r We!fs f i l m
r
