wordswﾉiicﾉ1γ“I(〃/romtﾉleapplicα"onofthe ruleαγeacceptable;theyarefreelyﾉαccepfα〃eonly wﾉ'@〃〃leyノlaUegainedα〃加s〃"(〃o"α/currG"cyI〃

ALexicalGrammarofVerb-BasedCompounds

MorioNlSHIKAWA

Aruleofi八ﾉordfor"'α"o〃“s"α"vdiffersfroma syntacticrulemo"2〃"'oγtα"trespect:itisof

〃"litedproduc〃ひ〃y.i〃〃lesensethatnotα〃

wordswﾉiicﾉ1γ“I(〃/romtﾉleapplicα"onofthe ruleαγeacceptable;theyarefreelyﾉαccepfα〃eonly wﾉ'@〃〃leyノlaUegainedα〃加s〃"(〃o"α/currG"cyI〃

t h e I α g e ． l ｲ a " g

(Quirketal..1985)

[I1Introduction

Linguisticsisascientificstudyoflanguagewhichcomprisesthetheoreticalcomponents ofphonology,morphology,syntax,semantics,andpragmatics.Ourfocuswillbeputon morphologywhichaimsbasicallytostudytheprocessofwordformationintermsofsimplex wordsandcomplexwordsofaffixationandcompounding.

Asamatteroffact,oneofthemostinterestingmethodsofmakingnewwordsisa linguisticdeviceofputtingtwoormoreconstituentwordstogetherandcreatinganew compoundingword.Andthemorphologicalprocessofcompoundformationcanbeconsidered tobeuniversalamongallhumanlanguagestotheeffectthatthelexicalcompetenceoi compoundformationinhumanbeingsisconsideredtobeuniversal.

Theaimofmorphologyistodescribeandexplainadequatelythelexicalcompetence whichnativespeakershaveoftheirownlanguage.Itisalsoaninnateknowledgetospecify

Thepresentpaperpresentsalexicalgrammarofverb-basedcompoundsinEnglishin termsofthestructureandfunctionofcompoundformation.

[II1CurrentStudies

Sofar.thereisnoestablishedtheoryofwordformation,althoughthenumberof linguisticanalysisof'word'isincreasing.Thehistoryofinterestinwordformationislong.

beginningfromtheancientageofPaniniwhoprovidedadetaileddescriptionofSanskritword

Itcannotbedeniedthatthelinguistictheoryofthemodernagehasbeenradically changedafterChomsky(1957,1965).Atfirst,hedidnotdiscussmorphologyverymuch becauseheemphasizedtheautonomyofsyntaxinthetheoryoflinguisticsandthe transformationswerebasicallysyntacticforhim.Asaresult,morpholgyhasbeenobscurely

hiddenuntilChomsky(1970)betweenphonologyandsynta.､.Lees(1963).dismissingtheearly

worksofdescriptiveandtraditionalapproach,proposedexplicitlythegenerativetransforma-

tionalanalysisofcompounds.Heclaimed,forexample,thatthecompoundcar〃liefmustbe

MorioXishikawa

derivedfromtheparaphrasaldeepstructure.T/letﾉliefstealsthecar.

Inthemeantime.Chomsky(1970)providedatheoreticalexplanationofthedifference betweenthepositionsof'transformationalist'and'lexicalhypothesist.'Heputatheoretical

inferiorityontheformertotheeffectthatthetransformationsdonotexplainadequatelythe differenceoftheproductiveprocessesofgerundivenominalsandderivednominals.According

tohim.thenounsderivedfrom，℃rbscannotbeexplainedbytransformationsbecausethere liesasemanticgaporchangebetweentheoriginalverbsandtheirderivednominals.Thisis nothingbutaviolationofthemeaningpreservationprincipleoftransformation.Aderived nominalcanformulateanounphraseliketheproofofthetheore'〃orノo/in'sunmo"UaZea

thebook.

Acompoundhasbeendefinedbyanumberofphilologistsorlinguists.Amongthem.

Jespersen(1954)remarks."Acompoundmayperhapsbeprovisionallydefinedasacombination oftwoormorewordssoastofunctionasoneword,asaunit."Leech(1974)claims,referring totheformoflexicalrules,"acompoundruleisa'coalescence'oftwolexicalentriestoform

WenowremembertheHalle'smodeloftherulesofwordformation.Hailed973) proposedthetheoreticalframeworkofthelexicalcompetenceofanativespeakerofacertain

language,distinguishingthelexicalphasesofpotentialorpossiblewordsfromactualorexisting words.Herefunctionsthe'filter'oflexicalinsertioninordertomakeanactualword.Roeper

andSiegel(1978)gaveasignificantanalysistoverbalcompoundsintermsoflexical

generativesemanticist.providedatotalsemantico-lransformationalanalysisoncomplex nominalsintermsofthekeyconceptofRecoverableDeletionPrinciple(RDP).Ontheother

goeswithoutsayingthatwehaveotherimportantworksoncompoundsincluding

[Ill]Lexicalization

Morphologydealswiththestructuralandsemanticmechanismofaword.Word

comprisestwomajortypesofsimplexandcomplexwords.Complexwordshavethesubset

wordsofaffixationandcompounding.Anditgoeswithoutsayingthattheaffixalwordsof

compoundscanbeformedbycombiningtwoormoreconstituentwords.Furthermore,

fact,canberealizedintheformofderivation,butsuffixationcanberealizedbothinthe formsofinflectionandderivation.

Inthispaper,weregardtheunitofwordformaslexicalformativeratherthanthe morphemeofAmericanstructuralists.Lexicalformativesare.infact,eitherfreeform(FF)or

boundform(BF).Boundformscompriseprefixes,suffixes,andthecrα"(ofcγα"beγγv)type formativeofEnglish,referringtoAronoff(1976).Inthiscondition,wecanprovideatablebelow

whichshowsaprototypeofthecombinationofFFandBF.

Type(1) ^{F F + F F}

Compounding

Type(2)

Type(3) ^{F F + B l} Suffixation

Type(4) B F + B l

Awordisafreeformevenifitcontainsaboundforminsofarasitfunctionsasa，vord.

Type(1)signifiesthecaseofcompoundslike〃e〆αce,darkroom,ノlay-ﾉ"α灼加g,andノl“Uv s"2o陸γTypes(2)and(3)signifyprefixationandsuffixationrespectively.Andtype(4)

cannotbeapplicabletotheeffectthatonlytheamalgamationofboumdformsdoesnotresult inmakinganewcompoundingword.

Intype(3),wehavetwokindsofsuffixesofinflectionandderivation.InEnglish inflection,thecategoryofNounhastheinflectionalsuffixesofnumber(singularandplural)

like-sofbooks,-esofglasses,で〃ofoxen,andthoseofcase(genitive)like-'sof舵αc/ler's.

ThecategoryofVerbhastheinflectionalsuffixesoftense(presentandpast)like3ofwa雌s oresofwisﾉwsand-edofta雌ed.Theappearanceoftheinflectionalformsofverbdepends onthecontextualinformationofthepersonandnumberofthesubject.Theinflectionalsuffix ofnumbercomprisessingularandplural,andthatofpersoncomprisesthethreephasesof first,second,andthirdperson.And,furthermore,bothadjectiveandadverbialsuffixescanbe

realizedbythecomparativeandsuperlativeformativesofでγandestlikesmα此γand s"1α〃est.NoticethefollowingtableofEnglishinflection.

Category Aspects

Nour Number.Case

-s(-es,-en)-'s

Verl Tense,Number,Persoi -s(es)-ec

Adjectiv

Comparative,Superlativi

Advert

Comparative,Superlativi

Thederivationalsuffixisvaried,andtheprocessofcategorychangeorthederivational processfromtheroottotheterminalwordisbeautifullyrule-governed.Needlesstosay.we canchangebothcategoryandfunctionofawordbytheprocessofsuffixation.Wecansee

Levels Wore 】iffuS

Categon

’ nature 9 ^Noui

Ⅱ natura -a Adjective

N一一・Adj

naturalizi -lZ1 Verb

Adj-－→V

I naturalizatior -atlol Noui V-一→》

Additionally,thecategorychangeofawordbyprefixationandsuffixationispartlyexemplified

below:

(A)Prefixation

endanger:V,I-f-Nl;

Ien+danger(N)l

MorioNishikawc

Ibe+friend(N)|

|a-+sleep(V)l

ＶＡ

↓↓ 一一

ＮＶ

befriend:V.l-f

asleep:Adj.[4

Ifriend(N)4-lyj

|glory(N)4-ifyl

lclock(N)4-wise]

clockwise:Adv.|+N|:|clock(N)4-wise]N→Adv lcorrect(V)4-(t)ion|

correction:N.14Vj:lcorrect(V)4-(t)ion|V→N

active:Adj.[4Vj:|act(V)4-ive|V->Adj

Ikind(Adj)+-ness]

kindness:N.1+Adj|:|kind(Adj)+-ness]Adj→N

Ireal(Adj)4-ize]

realize:V.14Adjj;Ireal(Adj)4-ize]Adj->V Irapid(Adj)+-lyj rapid:Adv.[4Adj|:|rapid(Adj)+-lyjAdj→Adv Wehaveanothercaseofprefixationwhichcausestherootorstemtochangeitsmeaning

drasticallybuttomaintainitsgrammaticalcategory.Noticethefollowingexamples.Theyare

mostlynegativeprefixes:

unhappy:A.(4Adj]; lun-4happy(Adj)l

insane:A.|4Adj|:|in4sane(Adj)|

discover:V.|+Vj: (dis-4cover(V)|

despoil:V.1+Vj:jde4spoil(V)|

nonsense:N.[4N|:|non-4sense(N)|

[IV]SurfaceVarietiesofEnglishCompounds

Themorphologicalprocessofcompoundingisnothingbutatypeoftheproductsol lexicalcomptence.Thisisauniquecaseof'awordplusanotherwordequalsnotaphrase butaword.'Acompound・consistingoftwoormoreconstituentwords,mustbeassignedont ofthegrammaticalcategoriesofNoun(N),Verb(V),Adjective(A),orAdverbialParticle(P)insc

farasitturnsouttobeaword.Thefollowingtableshowsallthepossibilitiesofthe

Noticetheexamplesbelow

armchair,bookcase,teargas.gaslight,lighthouse citydweller,gravedigger,chainsmoker,speechcorrection frogman,turtleneck landslide,waterfall,daybreak,snakebite,spoonfeed bloodshed,sunshine,hairdo,enginerepair,hen-peck,sunrise taxfree,lifelong,skindeep,kneehigh,worldwide,carefree brickred.lemonyellow,skyblue,pearlgrey,homesick powermad.pennywise,colourblind,selfsufficient

INVl:

INA|:

P V A P

、 INN] INV] ina: [ N P

、

[VN] [VV]

[VP]

p [AN]

[AV] [ A A [AP]

ロ己

[ P N I P V IPA] I P p

INP]:

|VN|:

IVV]:

[VA|:

IVP]:

[AN]:

[AVI:

[AAl:

[AP|:

IPN|:

IPV|:

IPA]:

IPPI:

sunup,sundown,handsoff

plaything,wash-tub.hangman,peep-hole,show-room

handout,stopover・linkup,standby,dropout,round-about flare-up.gobetween・teachin.blotout.carryover darkroom,blackboard,fineart.poorhouse,highbrow,redcap

● ① ● ●

bitter-sweet,icy-cold,wideawake,deaf-mute,happyblind,

outhouse,over-night,underhand,insight,underground,outside

input,output,intake,outcome,onset,uplift,underwear outfit,overhang,overdo,underthrow,uphold upright,underripe,overlong,evergreen,oversensitive overripe,overmodest into,without,within,hereafter,onto.upon,throughout

Amongthem,someareproductive,butothersarenot.Anyway,however,wecannotbutbe surprisedthroughtheseexamplestoseetheproductivepowerofcompoundinginEnglish.

Asiswellknown,Chomsky(1970)arguesthatnominalizationscannotbedealtwith transformationally,takingthepositionof'lexicalist.'Heclaimsthatthederivednominalsare

independentoftransformationaloperationtotheeffectthattheyhavetheinternalstructureof

nounphrasesandnotofderivedsentences.Thusheremarksexplicitlythattheprocessof

independentlyinthelexicon.Asforevidenceoftheposition'lexicalist'，Jackendoff(1975)

describesthefollowingpassage:

ThefundamentallinguisticgeneralizationthatmustbecapturedbyanyanalysisofEnglishis thatwordslikedecisionarerelatedtowordslikedecideintheirmorphology,semantics,and syntacticpatterning.ForLees1963・itseemedverylogicaltoexpressthisrelationshipby assumingthatonlytheverbdecideappearsinthelexicon,andbycreatingthenoundecisionas partofatransformationalprocesswhichderivestheNPJoﾉin'sdecisiontogofromtheSJoﾉ1〃

decidedtogo.However,forreasonsdetailedinChomsky1970.thisapproachcannotbecarried outconsistentlywithoutexpandingthedescriptivepoweroftransformationstothepointwhere theirexplanatorypowerisvirtuallynil.

Then，whatisitaboutthestoryofcompounds？lnourpointo（view，thercareroughlytwo

typesofcompounds,transformationalandnon-transformational.Thesetwotypescanbe

distinguishedbytheparaphrasabilityofagivencompound.Ifitischaracterizedbystrong

idiomaticityandifitundergoesthepragmaticprocessofinstitutionalization,itcannotbedealt

withtransformationally.Thepragmaticdevice(orfilter)ofidiomatizationorinstitutionalization

MorioXishikawa

謡 側 b r e v f o 患 e 淵 r u t c u r t s 潟 湖 剛 r e v d a d 釧 岬 に … W . ) P ( e l 畔 … …

’、／～Suf

.

^ d e v e r b a l 職撫

催

’

Thetablebelowshowstheframeworkofthevarietyofverb-basedcompounds:

Andwecanpresentthecorrespondingexamplesasfollows

[A]IIX]4V-ingl

（1－1）N＋Ving：oceangoing，handmaking，sighlseeing、haymaking hand-writing,book-binding,gold-mining,meter-feeding housecleaning,mud-sliding,mountain-climbing (1－2)A4Ving:good-looking,easygoing・hard-working,farreaching

plainspeaking,long-suffering,freewheeling smallholding・high-flying,long-standing

（1－3）P＋Ving：underlying，outcrossing，ingrowing，overbearing overwhelming,uprising,outstanding,oncoming outlying,offprinting.overweening

（2－1）N＋Ven：townbred，thunderstruck・rule-governed，home-made handmade,manmade,capacityfiled,safety-tested

（2－2）A＋V－en：widespread，quickfrozen・Clearcut・rcadV-made

far-fetched,plainspoken,deepset.foreignbuilt

V-ing ^{V-en V-c V-er V-d:}

N N+V-ing

(1-1)

N+V-en (2-1

N + V - c (3－1)

N+V-er (4-1

N+V-di (5-1)

A A+V-ing

(1-2)

A 4 V - e n (2－2

A 4 V - d (3-2）

A + V - e r (4－2

A + V - d s (5-2）

ｊ P4V-ing

(1-3)

P 4 V - e n (2－2

P 4 V - c ( 3 - 3

）

P+V-er (4－3

P+V-d:

(5-3）

close-knit,freshcooked,foreignborn

（2－3）P＋V,G、：overgrown，outmoded，undersigned，above-mentioned

|C]IIXI+W6¥

（3-1）N＋V-°：brainwash，spoonfeed，bellpull,sunrise,Sunshine beesting,sunburn,waterfall,daybreak,planecrash landslide,icefall.busstop

（3-2）A＋V-°：fullswing,arialattack,fullstop,goodshot

nearmiss,safeconduct,freewheel

(3-3)P+V-○:bypass,downturn,input,output,intake,outfit

outburst,underpass,uplift・overhang,outfall

ID]IIX]+Ver]

（4－1）N十V-er：screwdriver，handglider，tonguetwister，recordplayer shockabsorber,coffeemaker,bricklayer schoolteacher,citydweller・Sundaypainter

（4－2）A＋V－er：newcomer，heavysmoker，freethinker，roughrider sharpshooter,highflier,generalpractitioner

（4－3）P＋V－er：onlooker，underwriter，bystander,outrider undertaker,underachiever,upholder,overrunner lEJMX]4-Vels]

（5-1）N十V-.s：speechcorrection，lifeinsurance，insectrepellant

selfdeception,waterpollution,flowerarrangement frontierdivision,bloodpressure,populationgrowth

（5-2）A＋V－ds：literarycriticism，auralcomprehension，fullemploymenI

（5-3）P＋V－ds：outgrowth，overcompensation，overestimation underdevelopment,overexposure

[V]LexicalTransformations

RoeperandSiegel(1978)proposedthefollowingprincipleaboutverbalcompounds.

(G)FirstSister(FS)Principle

Allverbalcompoundsareformedbyincorporationofawordinfirstsister positionoftheverb.

Theyremark,"alexicaltransformationprovidesaneconomicalaccountofa，veildefinedclass ofcompounds."Thisistheirbasicposition・Thustheycontinue,"ourlexicaltransformation

generatesverbalcompounds(thosewithaverbalaffix:-er,-加g,-ed)fromaverbandits subcategorizedcomplements.Thusoven-cleα"ercomesfromcleα〃[soven).Suggestiveisthe followingcontrastof(7)and(8).

(7)a.*peace-thinking

MorioXishikawa

peace-making q u i c k ( l y ) - t h i n k i n g

quick-making

*life-fallingsnow

l i f e - s u p p o r t i n g t r e e s fast-fallingsnow

*fastsupportingsnow

*Shethinkspeace.

Shemakespeace.

Shethinksquick(ly).

*Shemakesquick(ly).

*Itfallslife.

Itsupportslife.

Itfallsfast.

*Itsupportsfast.

０，ＣｏｄｅｒＬ《ら‐、ａＯＤＣｏｄｅｒＬ庁ら０，

１

く

Inordertoexplainthemechanismofverbalcompounds,theyfirstputtheAffixRulewhich supplies[es],[-ing],[-ed],andanemptyframe[empty]asfollows:

4-erkW

4-inghsW

八

4-edLW

[verb]W^>[[empty]4verb

[verb]Wi>[[empty)4verb

[verb]W^>[[empty]+verb

、■■■■■■ケｈ■■■■■”クＬ巳巳■■■■■■”１２３９９９

くｉ

Secondly,theyproposetheSubcategorizationInsertionin(10)andtheVariableDeletionin(11)

(10)[xempty]=>|x4-word)

(11)verbX|4word|Y=>verb[4word]Y

1 2 3 4 1 6 3 4

whereXandYrangeoveremptysubcategorizationframes.

Andfinally,theypresenttheCompoundRulewhichisprecededbytherulesthatprovide [empty],[word],and[affix).

[[empty]4verb4affix]Ix-s+word]W^>[[4word|4verb+affix)OW

1 2 3 4 5 4 2 3 < 5 5

whereWrangesoversubcategorizationframesandXstandsforlexicalcategories

N.A,Adv.

( 1 2 )

Thisisexemplifiedbythefollowing

(13)[[empty]4make+-er||[scoffee]W今llcoffee]4-make+-er)W

However,thisisnotthecase.Isthereanytheoreticalnecessitytoputtheconstituent[word]

outsideofthe｛verb＋a{fixlconcatenation？IsthereanyexpIanatoryadequacyforaIwordlto

bemoved（orlowered）intothesloloIlemptyl？InIact・the[affix]cannotbecommandedby

[word]intheunderlyingstructure.Onthecontrary,itcommandscategoricallythe tionof[word]and[verb].Consequently,thereisnonecessityfora|word]to positionofthedaughterof[verb).Wewouldratherproposearoughpictureof

( 1 4 )

concatena‐

cancelthe verb-based

一 く 、

(Verb)[Word][Affix]

Wediscardedherethe[empty]node,takingintoconsiderationthephrasalconcatenation of[[Verb|-f[Word]].Thusinthecourseoftheanalysisofverb-basedcompounds,weprovide thefollowingunderlyingstructure.

( 1 5 ) 2

Base 、~、

V P

V

紅 、

Affix

l

Suf

ｌ

唾利剣酬飼 一一一一宇 ＩＩｌｌｌ

[Prep4N(P)]

[A+-ly]

[ P ] [

V ]

whereKcomprisesPrepositionalphrase,[ly]

adverb・andAdverbialparticle(P).

Andwecannotbut

compounds. ^Wewill

referringtotheabove compound.

verb-based

compounds.

Wecanseehereaverbphrasewithinawordcalled acknowledgethatthereliesyntaxandsemanticsin summarizebelowtheproceduresofmakingverbbased

(a)Asuffix,beingaboundform,mustbeobligatorilycombinedtoastemwordtothe effectthatasuffixwithoutastemwordisintheconditionof'unemployment.' (b)Asuffixfunctionsas'head'whichdeterminesthegrammaticalcategoryofthe

verb-basedcompound.

(c)ItmeetstheFeaturePercolationConventionIVofLieber(1983)andtheRightHand Headprinciple.

(d)HereoccursalinkageofthesuffixcommandedbyZandtheverbcommandedbythe VPofBaseintermsofthestructurepreservingprincipleinmorphology.

(e)WecallthismovementtheVerbRaisingTransformation.

(f)Asaresult,weobtaintheintermediatestructureasfollows:

10 MorioXishikawa

Z

／ 、 、

Base V4Suf

V P

／ 、

． K (g)AsforK,ifitisaprepositionalphrase[P4N(P)|.Pwillbeobligatorilydeletedbecause

ofthelossofitsfunctiontoV.

(h)Ifitisanadverbofadjectiveplusadverbialsuffix|ly|,thelatterwillbeobligatorily

(i)Ifitisanadverbialparticle(P).thereisnoproblemofdeletionbecausewecannotsee anymorphologicalmarkerofadverbialparticle.

(j)Asaresult,weobtainaverb-basedcompound

Thusweproposehereasetoftheproceduresabouttheverbbasedcompoundtransformation.

(16)VerbRaising

(17)(i)PrepositionDeletion

( i i )

| - l y ] D e l e t i o n

Noticetheexamplesbelow:

(18)citydweller (19)heavysmoker (20)quickfrozen (21)above-mentioned

Firstofall,wehavethefollowingunderlyingstructureof(18):

(22)[[dwell][inacity])[er]

wecanprovidebelowthemoregeneralformof(22)

(23)[[V||Prep4N(P)||[-er|

Sincethesuffixisaboundformand'unemployed',itmustbelinkedwiththefreeformof [VJ.Itcanbeconsideredtobeevidenceofthestructurepreservingprincipleofmorphology.In

thiscase,[V]mustberaisedtotheheadof[Suf]inordertomakeadeverbalnounof[Ver|

(dweller)inthefollowingway:

(24)[[0|[in(a)city||[dwell-er|

(25)[[6][Prep4N(P)|][V-er]

Thecategoryofthiscompoundturnsouttobeanoun.So,theredundantelementmustbe deleted.Consequently,the[Prep]of[Prep4N(P)]isdeletedtoformthefollowingstructure:

(26)[101[<f>(a)city)][dweller]

(27)[[0|[0N(P)]1[V-er|

Thustheactualcompoundcitydwellercomesintoexistence.

Secondly,wehavethefollowingunderlyingstructureof(19):

(28)[[smoke][heavily]][er]

Thatistosay,thisisdrawnnotfrom'asmokerwﾉioisノ1eaUv'butfrom (29)amanwhosmokesheavily

Wecanprovidebelowthegeneralformof(28):

(30)[[V][Adj+-ly]][er]

Thetransformationalprocessofthistypeofcompoundisbasicallysameastheabove.The element[V]mustberaisedtotheheadnodeof|Suf]([-er]),cancellingtheunemployment situationof[er]・Sincetheresultantdeverbalwordfunctionsasanoun,theadverbﾉ12αひ"yor [Adj+-ly]isnotrelevant.Thecategorywhichmodifiesthisnounshouldnotbeanadverb butanadjective.Thusunderthemodificationprinciple(orforce),theadverbノlgaU"vturns outtobeanadjectiveﾉ12α〃v.Thisisnothingbuta|-ly]deletiontransformationinverb-based compoundformation:

(31)¥¥(f>¥[heavy+-lyl][smoke4-er) (32)[[cS][heavy6]][smoker]

Theabovetwoprocedurescanbegeneralizedasfollows:

(33)[[6][Adj+-lyl][V+er]

(34)¥¥6¥[Adj0I][V-er]

Thustheactualverb-basedcompoundcomesintoexistence.

Thirdly,wehavethefollowingunderlyingstructureof(20):

(35)[[freeze][quick4--ly]][-en

Thegeneralformof(35)canbeprovidedbelow:

(36)ffV][Adj4-ly]]|-en|

Thesuffixl-enjis,infact,thesisteroftheverbphrase[[VJlAdj4--ly]],anditcommands

１

MorioXishikawa

The'head'ischaracterizedbythenode[Suf]([-en])intermsofthe Theelement[V]mustberaisedtothenode[Suf]inordertorealize

principleinmorphology.Thuswegettheintermediatestructure

categorydetermination.

thestructure-preserving below:

(37）｛{・][quick4--ly]][freeze+-en]

(38)[[0][Adj+-lyl][V-en|

Sincetheresultantdeverbalisadjectival,themodifier[Adj+-ly]canfunctionlikeinquickly /rozenorwidelys'γead.However,thedeletionof[-ly]takesplaceintermsofthepragmatic

principleofsimplicityandeconomy.Asaresult,weobtaintheactualcompoundofthe

(39）Ⅱ。][quick．Ⅱ[frozen]

(40)|[．][Adj・]][V-en]

Fourthly,wehavethefollowingunderlyingstructureof(21)

(41)Ifmention][above]][-en]

Thegeneralformofthistypeofcompoundis:

(42)[[V][PI][-en]

Wenowhavethefollowingintermediateand,atthesametime,terminalstructureintermsof theVerbRaisingtransformation:

(43)[[0][above]][mention4-en]

(44)[[0][P]][V-en]

Wethusobtaintheverb-basedcompoundabove-me"〃oned.Proposedbelowistheverb-based

(A)VerbRaising

X V 2

1 ．

Ｔｌ４、五Ｊ（くＪ ｕ

Ｓ４＋

一

ー

where2+4isobligatoryandKcomprises[Prep4N(P)],[Adj4-ly],and[PI.

(B)

(i)PrepositionDeletiontakesplaceifKsignifies[Prep4-N(P)].

(

i

i

) [ - l y ] D e l e t i o n t a k e s p l a c e i f K s i g n i f i e s [ A d j 4 - - l y ] .

Someadditionalanalysesareneededforthefollowingexample:

(45)coffeemaker

ThisistheexamplewhichRoeperandSiegel(1978)discussed.Inthiscase,theelement coffeeisanobjectwhichdoesnottakeaprepositioninEnglish.However,thiselement functionsasanargumentlikeagent,instrument,location,andsoforthwhichtakeprepositions explicitly.Sowecanhypothesizethattheobjecttakesapotentialpreposition.Thusweapply thesametransformationalprocessof(25)and(27)totheverb-basedcompoundlikecoffee mαたer,graUe-digger,musiclover,andsoon.

Wehaveotherkindsofverb-basedcompoundslikespeecﾉICOγγ“〃on,water′ollution.

floweγαγγα"gement.Theiraffixesarederivationalsuffixeswhicharenotsignifiedby-航9，

-en,and-er.

Thecompoundspeechcorr“〃onisdrawnfromtheunderlyingstructurebelow:

( 4 6 ) [ [ c o r r e c t ] [ s p e e c h ] ] [ - ( t ) i o n ]

ByVerbRaisingandPotentialPrepositionDeletion,weobtainthefollowingsurfacecom-

(47)[[0][speechM[correction]

Wethuscanprovidebelowthegeneralformofthecompoundformationofthiskind:

(48)[[V][Prep+N(P)]][-ds]

(49)[[0][04N(P)]1[-ds]

Furthermore,wemusttakeintoconsiderationtheverb-basedcompoundof[[N]+V-0]]type.

Noticetheexamplesbelow:

(50)beesting,daybreak,earthquake,nightfall,rainfall landslide,heartbeat,soundchange,waterfall

Theyarecharacterizedbythefactthatthesecondelementisanintransitiveverbandthe

firstelementfunctionsasSubjectoftheverb,anditcannotbeaconstituentoftheargument

weareliabletoseetheverb-basedcompoudsofbackformation.ReferringtoQuirketal.

(1985),wecanlistthefollowingexamplesaccordingtothevarietyofargumentofthe

precedingelement:

Object:sightsee,brainwash,firewatch Temporal:daydream,springclean

Instrument:spoonfeed,lipread

(51-2) (51-3) (51-4)

ALexicalGrammarofVerbBasedCompounds

Ｊ凸１

[VI]ThePragmaticFilterofWordFormation

Thesmallestunitofawordisamorphologicalformativeratherthanamorphemeof

Americanstructuralism.Theconceptof'morpheme'wascriticizedbyAronoff(1976)tothe

effectthatthecγα〃incγα〃berrydoesnothaveany'smallestunitofmeaning.'We acknowledgenowthegrammaticalconceptofthemorphologicalformativeoffreeform,bound

form,andthecγα〃typeboundform.Thecombinationofgrammaticalformativesturnsoutto beaninputtothestructuralcomponentofwordformation,wheretheprocessofaffixation, thatis,prefixationandsuffixation,andthatofcompoundingtakeplaceintermsofinflection

First,theoutputtothestructuralcomponentturnsouttobeanotherinputtothe phonologicalandsemanticcomponents.Asforphonologicalcomponent,wehaveintherethe

problemsofthemetricalsystemortherhythmruleofwordformation.Thecompoundrulein phonologyiscalledCompoundStressRuleincontrasttoPhraseStressAssignment.

Bauer(1983)providesapictureasfollows:

I e r a s e r ﾄ

､ 1

，

l e r a s e r K [

b o a r d k l

､ i

・ l b o a r d ]

､ i

， I l l b l a c k U

1 I l b l a c k [

b o a r d ]

､

|

、 l b o a r d ]

、

l e r a s e r ]

､

|

、

l e r a s e r ]

、 WblackL

l I l b l a c k (o2)Initialbracketing

Stressassignmenttolexemes

¥e¥vbracketing Cyc〃ノ Compoundstressassignment Phrasestressassignment Newbracketing Cycle2

Compoundstressassignment Phrasestressassignment Finalbracketing

2

2

[blackboarderaser]、[black

l

board eraserI－‐

Ｉ

blackboarderaserblackboarderaser

Itgoeswithoutsayingthatthereareotherkindsofcompoundwhosestressruleisnotinitially butfinallystressed.Herearesomeexamplesbelow:

Summerweather,Christmasday,lawntennis,morningpaper Thamesvalley.VictoriaStation,Knightbachelor,queenmother

5 3

）

Second,itisnotrarethatsoundchangetakesplaceintheprocessofcompounding.

'

Thefollowingexamplesundergoassimilationasfollows:

(54)input:[in]4-[put|---|im][put|

(55)cupboard:[k.､p]4[bo:d]---Ik.､0]|bod|

(56)sit-down:[sit]+[daun]---[si0][daun]

Third,thereisonefurtherpointthatonesemanticinformationworksintheprocessof wordformation.Aparaphraseordefinitionofawordturnsouttobepartofsemantic informationinthelexicon.Moreover,theenvironmentalinformationofmeaning,thatisto

say,theselectionrestrictionalinformationwhichisinherentinawordisindispensabletothe

creationofanewword.Incompounding,wecananalyzethesemanticstructureofargument.

Aswehavealreadydiscussed,theverb-basedcompoundsof|N4VSuf]comprisesome elementsofsemanticargument.Lieber(1983).infact,dividedcompoundsintofourtypesof

Argument-taking:

(57)(a)Compoundsof'BothStemsNon-argumenttaking'

[NN].[AN].[NA|,[AA]compounds (b)Compoundsof'FirstStemArgument-taking'

[PN],[VN],[PA],[VA|compounds (c)Compoundsof'SecondStemArgument-taking'

[NV],[AV|compounds (d)Compoundsof'BothSterrjsArgument-taking'

[PV],[VV]compounds

Fourth,wecannotbuthypothesizethepragmaticfilterbywhichapotentialwordwould changeintoanactualorexistingword.Thefilterhereisbasicallyapragmaticconstraintfor a

c c e p t a b i l i t y w h o s e c o n f i g u r a t i o n i s , a c c o r d i n g t o H a l l e ( 1 9 7 3 ) , [ - ( - L e x i c a l I n s e r t i o n ] . T h i s f i l t e r f u n c t i o n s a s a s o c i o - c u l t u r a l c o n s t r a i n t o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n , a n d i t i s a p r a g m a t i c c o n d i t i o n f o r

apotentialwordtobecomeanactualword.Thusweproposethefollowingmodelofthe

、

圧 。

[VII]Conclusion

Itisnotaneasytasktodefinewhatawordis.But.infact,ithasitsowntheoretical

thedifferencebetweensimplexandcomplexwords.Thelattercomprisethecreatedwordsof inflection,derivation,andcompounding.Thevocabularyofalanguageisnotaclosedsetof simplexandcomplexwords,butitisbasicallytheexpandedsetofnewwordscreatedin

M o r n h o l o g i c a

! Formalw樫

16 MorioXishikawa

Awordcanbeconsideredtobeareflectionoflinguisticinformation.Itsconstituents interactsyntacticallyandsemanticallytocreatenewinformation.Anaffixofinflectionor

deicticinformationofastemword.ItiswellknownthroughChomsky(1965)thatlinguistic theoryhassofarbeenchangedunderthetheoreticalparadigmsof(1)observationaladequacy.

(2)descriptiveadequacy・and(3)explanatoryadequacy.Thepoint,however,isthatthese paradigmscannotbeindependentfromeachother.

First,wetoucheduponabriefhistoryofthecurrentstudiesofcompoundingwords.

WereferredinthissectiontoChomsky(1970),whocruciallydistinguished'lexicalists'from 'transformationalists'intermsofthemethodofthelinguisticanalysisofderivednominals.

Second,wesummarizedthevarietyofaffixationintermsofinflectionandderivation.

Inflectionturnsouttobesyntacticinitsphrasalcontext,anditcanberealizedonlyby suffixation.Derivation,however,isindependentofsententialcontext.Thatistosay,ithas

Third,weroughlygavetwotypesofcompounds,transformationalandnontransforma- tional.Asforverb-basedcompounds,weregardthemastransformationaltotheeffectthat

theycanbeparaphrasedandanalyzedstructurally.Incontrasttothelexicalanalysisof RoeperandSiegel(1978),wegavetheunderlyingstructureofverb-basedcompounds,providing

asetoftransformationsof(1)VerbRaising,baseduponthemorphologicalstructurepreserving principle・and(2)PrepositionDeletionorAdverbialSuffix[ly]Deletionsoastoexplainthe

Finally,weproposedalinguisticmodelofwordformation,takingthepositionthatthe structuralaspectsofaffixationandcompoundingprecedeboththephonologicalconstraintsof

compoundstressandassimilationandthesemanticconstraintsofselectionrestriction(except metaphoricalcompounds).Furthermore,weputafocusonthefunctionofthepragmaticfilter inthismodel,whichisasocioculturalconstraintofinstitutionalizationforapotentialwordto

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