The Effects of Context on The Reading Processes of Kanji, Kana Script
著者 Masuda Fumihiko, Nomura Yukimasa journal or
publication title
教育科学セミナリー
volume 13
page range 1‑10
year 1981‑12‑07
URL http://hdl.handle.net/10112/00019537
THE EFFECTS OF CONTEXT ON
THE READING PROCESSES OF KANJI, KANA SCRIPT * ) * * ) FUMIIIIKO MASUDA AND YUKIMASA NOMURA***)
Department of Psychology, Kansai University
W r i t i n g s y s t e m s may b e d i v i d e d b r o a d l y i n t o two t y p e s . The f i r s t t y p e , t o w h i c h b e l o n g a l p h a b e t i c a n d s y l l a b i c ( K a n a ) s c r i p t s , u s e s a l i m i t e d number o f v i s u a l s y m b o l s t o r e p r e s e n t i t s p h o n e t i c u n i t s . I n t h e p a r t i c u l a r c a s e o f Kana s c r i p t , f o r t y ‑ s i x s y l l a b i c s c o r r e s p o n d r e s p e c t i v e l y t o f o r t y ‑ s i x p h o n e t i c u n i t s . The s e c o n d t y p e , i d e o g r a p h i c s c r i p t ( K a n j i ) , u s e s a v e r y l a r g e number of v i s u a l s y m b o l s t o r e p r e s e n t s e m a n t i c u n i t s . T h e r e f o r e K a n j i a n d Kana s c r i p t must be p r o c e s s e d d i f f e r e n t l y w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e g r a p h e m i c , p h o n e m i c , a n d s e m a n t i c p r o p e r t i e s . S a i t o , I n o u e a n d Nomura ( 1 9 7 9 ) h a v e e x p l a i n e d t h e s e t h r e e p r o p e r t i e s w i t h i n a f r a m e w o r k of i n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g i n t h e l i g h t of t h e i r l i n g u i s t i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
We h e r e n o t e t h a t human p r o c e s s i n g s y s t e m s h a v e b e e n d i v i d e d i n t o two m a j o r t y p e s (Norman, 1 9 7 6 ) : d a t a ‑ d r i v e n p r o c e s s i n g a n d c o n c e p t u a l l y ‑ d r i v e n p r o c e s s i n g . Human p r o c e s s i n g s y s t e m s , h o w e v e r , c a n n o t be e x p l a i n e d by e i t h e r s y s t e m a l o n e : b o t h p r o c e s s e s a r e esse~tial. Both d a t a ‑ d r i v e n a n d c o n c e p t u a l l y ‑ d r i v e n p r o c e s s i n g n i u s t t a k e p l a c e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , e a c h a s s i s t i n g t h e o t h e r i n t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e o v e r a l l j o b of making s e n s e o f t h e w o r l d . T h e r e f o r e , K a n j i a n d Kana s c r i p t must be p r o c e s s e d by b o t h d a t a ‑ d r i v e n a n d c o n c e p t u a l l y ‑ d r i v e n p r o c e s s i n g . T h a t i s t o s a y , t h e g r a p h e m i c p r o p e r t i e s a r e p r o c e s s e d by t h e f o r m e r , w h i l e g l o b a l v i s u a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n s e e m s t o c a u s e t h e o r g a n i s m t o e x p e c t t h e word t o s u r r e n d e r s?me m e a n i n g , a n d t h e n t h i s e x p e c t a t i o n p r o m o t e s i n d i v i d u a l a n a l y s i s by d a t a ‑ d r i v e n p r o c e s s i n g . T h i s t y p e of p r o c e s s i n g by e x p e c t a t i o n must c e r t a i n l y be c o n s i d e r e d a s p a r t of c o n c e p t u a l l y ‑ d r i v e n p r o c e s s i n g .
The e f f e c t o f t h i s e x p e c t a t i o n i n t h e c a s e of K a n j i p r o c e s s i n g i s more e f f i c i e n t
*) The two Exps. in this paper were described briefly in Nomura (1981 b) which reviewed the informa‑ tion processing of Kanji and Kana script rea~ing.
**) This research was supported by a Grant.in Aid of Scientific Research, Ministry of F.ducation, Japan (561039)
***) I would like to thank A.S. Gibbs (Lecturer, Kansai University) fo1 his careful reading of the manu‑
script.
t h a n i n t h a t o f p r o c e s s i n g Kana s c r i p t , s i n c e t h e v i s u a l i m a g e s o f K a n j i a n d Kana s c r i p t a r e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t , a n d K a n j i a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e i r p i c t o r i a l a s p e c t . I t i s p o s s i b l e t o s a y t h a t K a n j i a r e more c o m p l i c a t e d t h a n Kana s c r i p t b e c a u s e K a n j i show a t w o ‑ < l i m e n t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e composed from a s e m a n t i c e l e m e n t c a l l e d " t h e r a d i c a l " a n d a " p h o n e t i c " e l e m e n t , w h i l e a n y s e q u e n c e of Kana s c r i p t i s c o n ‑ s t r u c t e d on a o n e ‑ d i m e n s i o n a l a r r a n g e m e n t o f s y l l a b i c s . T h e r e f o r e i t may be s a i d t h a t , a s K a n j i , i n d i s t i n c t i o n from any s e q u e n c e of a l p h a b e t i c o r Kana s c r i p t , o f f e r d u a l s o u r c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n , b o t h o f which a r e e x t r a c t e d a n d t h e n p r o c e s s e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , t h e y a r e i n some r e s p e c t s more e f f i c i e n t t h a n t h e s e q u e n t i a l s i g n i f i c a t i o n o f words i n o t h e r w r i t i n g s y s t e m s .
I t i s t h e r e f o r e p o s s i b l e t o s a y t h a t t h e c o n c e p t u a l l y ‑ d r i v e n p r o c e s s i n g o f K a n j i i s more e f f i c i e n t t h a n t h a t o f Kana s c r i p t . With r e g a r d t o t h e p r o c e s s i n g o f Kana s c r i p t , h o w e v e r , a c t s o f g r a p h e m i c p r o c e s s i n g o f i n d i v i d u a l s y l l a b i c s a r e d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o a c t s o f phonemic p r o c e s s i n g . I n o t h e r w o r d s , g r a p h e m i c p r o c e s s i n g i n Kana s c r i p t i s a l w a y s a c c o m p a n i e d by s i m u l t a n e o u s phonemic p r o c e s s i n g . I n K a n j i , h o w e v e r , phonemic p r o c e s s i n g i s n o t i n e v i t a b l y r e l a t e d t o t h e g r a p h e m i c o r s e m a n t i c p r o c e s s i n g e x c e p t i n t h e s p e c i a l c a s e o f Phonetic
—ideographic C h a r a c ‑ t e r s ( K e i s e i ‑ M o j i , s e e Nomura 1 9 8 1 b ) .
The meaning of both K a n j i a n d Kana s c r i p t i s e x t r a c t e d by both t y p e s o f p r o c e s s i n g . I n t h e r e a d i n g of K a n j i , h o w e v e r , t h e i r p r o n u n c i a t i o n s e e m s t o b e g e n e r a t e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e i r meaning which i s e x t r a c t e d by d a t a ‑ d r i v e n a n d c o n c e p t u a l l y ‑ d r i v e n p r o c e s s i n g . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , w h i l e t h e r e a d i n g of a s e q u ‑ e n c e o f Kana s c r i p t s e e m s t o be g e n e r a t e d on t h e b a s i s o f meaning a s w i t h K a n j i , i t i s d i r e c t l y c o n s t r u c t e d from d a t a ‑ d r i v e n p r o c e s s i n g a l o n e .
W h i l e t h e e f f e c t s o f d a t a ‑ d r i v e n a n d c o n c e p t u a l l y ‑ d r i v e n p r o c e s s i n g on r e a d i n g a r e v e r y i m p o r t a n t , t h e s e e f f e c t s seem t o depend on v a r i o u s f a c t o r s , n a m e l y , 1 ) t h e number o f l e t t e r s i n t h e t a r g e t , 2 ) t h e m e a n i n g f u l n e s s o f t h e t a r g e t , 3 ) t h e p r e s e n c e o r a b s e n c e o f p r i o r w a r n i n g l e a d i n g t o e x p e c t a t i o n o f m e a n i n g f u l n e s s o r m e a n i n g l e s s n e s s from t h e t a r g e t .
W i t h r e g a r d t o t h e f i r s t two v a r i a b l e s , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o s a y t h a t t h e d e g r e e o f e f f e c t o f b o t h d a t a ‑ d r i v e n a n d c o n c e p t u a l l y ‑ d r i v e n p r o c e s s i n g may be d e p e n d e n t on t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f t a s k r e q u i r e m e n t i n Kana s c r i p t p r o c e s s i n g , b u t n o t i r i K a n j i p r o c e s s i n g .
F u r t h e r m o r e w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e p r e s e n c e o r a b s e n c e o f p r i o r w a r n i n g v a r i a b l e s , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o s a y t h a t t h i s v a r i a b l e c a u s e s S s t o a d o p t d i f f e r e n t s t r a t e g i e s from t h o s e a d o p t e d i n t h e a b s e n c e o f a n y s u c h w a r n i n g c o n c e r n i n g t h e t a r g e t .
‑2‑
I n o r d e r t o t e a t t h e s e p o s s i b i l i t i e s , Nomura ( 1 9 8 1 a ) p e r f o r m e d t h r e e e x p e r i m e n t s , i n w h i c h S s w e r e p r e s e n t e d w i t h a random s e r i e s o f K a n j i a n d s e q u e n c e s o f Kana s c r i p t o n e a t a t i m e a n d w e r e r e q u i r e d t o r e a d a l o u d t h e p r e s e n t e d word a s f a s t a s t h e y c o u l d . The r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t s seem t o be a d e q u a t e l y e x p l a i n e d by t h e a b o v e p o s s i b i l i t i e s .
EXP. I
We ̲ h e r e n o t e t h a t w h i l e t h e e f f e c t s of d a t a ‑ d r i v e n a n d c o n c e p t u a l l y ‑ d r i v e n p r o c e s s i n g on r e a d i n g may be a l s o d e p e n d e n t on t h e e x i s t e n c e of c o n t e x t , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p h a s n o t y e t b e e n v e r i f i e d . A l l t h e a b o v e t h r e e e x p e r i m e n t s (Nomura, 1 9 8 1 a ) w e r e p e r f o r m e d i n s u c h way t h a t S s w e r e r e q u i r e d t o r e a d K a n j i s i n g l y o r i n p a i r s ( f o r m i n g compound s e m a n t i c u n i t s ) and m e a n i n g f u l o r m e a n i n g l e s s Kana s e q u e n c e s , e a c h of which was p r e s e n t e d a l o n e . B u t when t h e s e s e m a n t i c u n i t s a r e p r e s e n t e d embedded i n m e a n i n g ̲ f u l s e n t e n c e s , t h e r e s u l t s c h a n g e , s i n c e S s a r e t h e n a b l e t o u s e i n p r o c e s s i n g t h e c o n t e x t p r o v i d e d by t h e s e n t e n c e s . T h e r e f o r e t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of c o n c e p t u a l l y ‑ d r i y e n p r o c e s s i n g i s g r e a t e r when t h e t a r g e t s e m a n t i c u n i t i s embedded i n a m e a n i n g f u l s e n t e n c e t h a n when i t i s p r e s e n t e d i n i s o l a t i o n . The h e l p p r o v i d e d by c o n t e x t , h o w e v e r , s e e m s t o be a l m o s t t h e same w h e t h e r t h e t a r g e t i s a s e q u e n c e of K a n a , a s i n g l e K a n j i o r a p a i r o f K a n j i .
On t h e o t h e r h a n d , p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e t a r g e t embedded i n a s e n t e n c e a l s o c r e a t e s h i n d r a n c e s t h a t a r e a b s e n t when t h e t a r g e t i s p r e s e n t e d i n i s o l a t i o n . One o f t h e s e h i n d r a n c e s i s t h a t i t becomes d i f f i c u l t f o r S s t o d i s c r i m i n a t e t h e t a r g e t f r o m t h e o t h e r words o r l e t t e r s i n t h e s e n t e n c e . T h i s t y p e of d i f f i c u l t y s e e m s t o a r i s e from c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e l a n g u a g e a n d w r i t i n g s y s t e m s .
The h y p o t h e s e s upon which t h i s E x p . was b a s e d a r e a s f o l l o w s : t h e r e a d i n g
l a t e n c y o f K a n j i i s n o t h i n d e r e d when p r e s e n t e d a s a t a r g e t embedded i n a
s e n t e n c e , w h i l e t h e p r o c e s s i n g o f a s e m a n t i c u n i t i n Kana s c r i p t i s c o n s i d e r a b l y
h i n d e r e d by p r e s e n t a t i o n w i t h i n a s e n t e n c e of o t h e r w i s e made up o f Kana s c r i p t .
T h i s i s b e c a u s e , a s i s e v i d e n t from t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s
(私は山へ行く,私は やまへ行く),t h eKana s y l l a b i c s c o n s t i t u t i n g t h e t a r g e t embedded i n a s e n t e n c e
a r e i n e v i t a b l y s u r r o u n d e d by o t h e r Kana s y l l a b i c s .
METHOD S u b j e c t s
The S s w e r e 24 u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s o f K a n s a i U n i v e r s i t y who c h o s e t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h i s e x p e r i m e n t v o l u n t a r i l y . Each S was t e s t e d i n d i v i d u a l l y . Each S was a s s i g n e d a t random t o one o f two d i f f e r e n t g r o u p s o f 1 2 . None o f them h a d b e e n p r e v i o u s l y employed i n a n y e x p e r i m e n t o f t h i s k i n d .
M a t e r i a l and A p p a r a t u s
H a l f o f t h e S s w e r e r e q u i r e d t o r e a d m e a n i n g f u l Kana s e q u e n c e s o r s i n g l e K a n j i o r a p a i r o f K a n j i , e a c h o f which was p r e s e n t e d a l o n e ( w o r d c o n d i t i o n ) . A l l t h e s e s e m a n t i c u n i t s w e r e d i f f e r e n t : 24 K a n j i s i n g l y ( e . g . ,
山:m o u n t a i n ) a n d 24 K a n j i i n p a i r s ( e . g . ,
学校:s c h o o l ) . And t h e n 48 K a n j i w e r e a l s o r e p r e s e n t e d by s e q u e n c e s o f Kana s c r i p t ( e . g . ,
やま:m o u n t a i n ,
がっこう:s c h o o l ) . The mean number o f Kana s y l l a b i c s was 1 . 9 i n t h e c a s e o f s i n g l e K a n j i , w h e r e a s t h e number was 3 . 8 i n t h e c a s e o f t h e p a i r s o f K a n j i . S i n g l e K a n j i had b e e n drawn from t h e w o r d ‑ p o o l o f Kun d o m i n a n t K a n j i ( N o m u r a , 1 9 7 8 ) . The p a i r s o f K a n j i w e r e drawn from t h e w o r d ‑ p o o l o f J a p a n e s e nouns (Ogawa a n d I n a m u r a , 1 9 7 3 ) , e a c h o f which c o n s i s t s ‑ o f two Chin~se c h a r a c t e r s a n d h a s a n e a s e o f l e a r n i n g v a l u e o f b e t w e e n 3 . 0 0 a n d 5 . 0 0 . F u r t h e r m o r e , f o u r p r a c t i c e s e m a n t i c u n i t s w e r e c h o s e n i n t h e same manner r e s p e c t i v e l y .
The o t h e r h a l f o f t h e S s ( s e n t e n c e c o n d i t i o n ) w e r e r e q u i r e d t o r e a d s e n t e n c e s , e a c h of which was . c o n s t r u c t e d u s i n g t h e same s e m a n t i c u n i t s a s i n t h e word c o n d i t i o n p h a s e . T h e s e se~tences w e r e a s f o l l o w s : S u b j e c t ( I ) +noun (Kana s c r i p t o r K a n j i ) + v e r b , f o r e x a m p l e ,
私はやまへ行く;私は山へ行く (Is h a l l go t o t h e moun‑
t a i n s ) ,
私はやまを写す;私は山を写す( I s h a l l t a k e a p i c t u r e o f a m o u n t a i n ) ,
私は がっこうへ行く;私は学校へ行く (Is h a l l go t o a s c h o o l ) ,
私はがっこうを写す;私は 学校を写す (Is h a l l t a k e a p i c t u r e o f a s c h o o l ) . Each s e t c o n s i s t e d o f e i g h t o f t h e s e n t e n c e s , e a c h o f which had t h e same p a t t e r n o f c o n s t r u c t i o n . 25 s e t s o f t h e s e s e n t e n c e s w e r e c o n s t r u c t e d , one o f which was u s e d a s p r a c t i c e , a n d t h e o t h e r a s t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n u n d e r t h i s c o n d i t i o n .
R e g a r d i n g word c o n d i t i o n , f o u r k i n d s o f s e m a n t i c u n i t w e r e randomly d i v i d e d i n t o h a l v e s , g i v i n g g r o u p s o f t w e l v e s e m a n t i c u n i t s e a c } J . . One h a l f o f t h e s e was u s e d a s p r e s e n t a t i o n m a t e r i a l f o r h a l f o f t h e S s , w h i l e t h e o t h e r h a l f w e r e u s e d i n t h e same manner f o r o t h e r g r o u p s o f S s . A l l t h e s e s e m a n t i c u n i t s w e r e d i f f e r e n t . W i t h r e g a r d t o s e n t e n c e c o n d i t i o n , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , e a c h s e t , c o n s i s t i n g o f e i g h t s e n t e n c e s , was d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r g r o u p s o f two s e n t e n c e s , e a c h o f which
‑4‑
i n c l u d e d s i n g l e K a n j i o r i t s p r o n u n c i a t i o n i n Kana s c r i p t and a p a i r o f K a n j i o r i t s p r o n u n c i a t i o n i n Kana s c r i p t , e a c h p a i r o f s e n t e n c e s h a v i n g d i f f e r i n g v e r b s . 24 o f t h e s e s e t s w e r e a s s e m b l e d i n t o one b l o c k . I n t h i s way 4 d i f f e r e n t b l o c k s o f 48 d i f f e r i n g s e n t e n c e s w e r e c o n s t r u c t e d , e a c h o f which was a s s i g n e d a s p r e s e n t a ‑ t f o n m a t e r i a l t o a g r o u p o f 3 S s . A l t h o u g h t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o r d e r of t h e m a t e r i a l w i t h i n e a c h b l o c k was c o n s t a n t , no two b l o c k s had t h e s a m e o r d e r o f p r e s e n t a ‑ t i o n .
A l l t h e m a t e r i a l s w e r e p r e p a r e d i n t h e form o f s l i d e s which w e r e p r e s e n t e d u s i n g a Kodak Model 850 p r o j e c t o r w i t h a n e l e c t r i c s h u t t e r ( R a l f G e r b r a n d s C o . ) a n d t i m e d by a r e g u l a t o r ( B i o m e d i c a K . K . ) . The r e a c t i o n a s a d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e was ‑ r e c o r d e d u s i n g a d i g i t a l t i m e r ( T a k e i K i k i K . K . ) and a v o i c e key (Sanwa K . K . ) . P r o c e d u r e
I n t h e 2x2x2 f a c t o r i a l d e s i g n o f t h i s e x p e r i m e n t , a b e t w e e n ‑ s u b j e c t s f a c t o r was t h e t y p e o f p r e s e n t a t i o n form ( w h o l e s e n t e n c e o r s e m a n t i c u n i t i n i s o l a t i o n ) a n d two w i t h i n ‑ s u b j e c t s f a c t o r w e r e t h e number o f l e t t e r s ( o n e K a n j i o r two K a n j i ) and t h e t y p e o f w r i t i n g s y s t e m u s e d f o r t h e t a r g e t s e m a n t i c u n i t ( K a n j i o r Kana s c r i p t ) . The S s w e r e p r e s e n t e d w i t h a s e r i e s o f 48 s e m a n t i c u n i t s i n i s o l a ‑ t i o n o r embedded i n s e n t e n c e s one a t a t i m e and t h e n r e q u i r e d t o r e a d them a l o u d a s f a s t a s t h e y c o u l d .
I n t h e word c o n d i t i o n p h a s e , t h e t r i a l f o r e a c h s e m a n t i c u n i t was a s f o l l o w s : S s w e r e a t t h e o u t s e t p r e s e n t e d w i t h a s i g n a l a t 1 s e c a n d a f t e r a 1 s e c i n t e r v a l w e r e p r e s e n t e d w i t h a s e m a n t i c u n i t and r e q u i r e d t o r e a d i t a s f a s t a s t h e y c o u l d . The l a t e n c y o f r e a d i n g was t h e n r e c o r d e d . The t a r g e t was p r e s e n t e d f o r a m a x i ‑ mum o f 2 s e c , a n d i f a S ' s r e s p o n s e was f a s t e r t h a n t h i s , i t was removed f r o m v i e w s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t o h i s r e s p o n s e . The s i g n a l f o r t h e n e x t t r i a l was p r e s e n t e d i n t h e same manner a f t e r a n i n t e r v a l o f t e n s e c o n d s from h i s l a s t r e s p o n s e .
I n t h e s e n t e n c e c o n d i t i o n p h a s e , t h e p r o c e d u r e was t h e same a s t h a t f o r t h e word c o n d i t i o n p h a s e e x c e p t f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g i n s t r u c t i o n : S s w e r e t o l d t o r e a d t h e whole s e n t e n c e e x c e p t f o r t h e s u b j e c t
(君{,. :I ) . I n e a c h p h a s e , S s w e r e g i v e n f o u r p r a c t i c e t r i a l s .
R e s u l t s and D i s c u s s i o n
The mean l a t e n c y of a l l c o n d i t i o n s o b t a i n e d from t h i s E x p . i s shown i n F i g . I .
T h e r e i n t h e l a t e n c i e s i n c a s e s o f v o i c e key f a i l u r e a n d o f m i s r e a d i n g h a v e b e e n
o m i t t e d ; t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f e x c e p t i o n i s l e s s t h a n 3% of t h e t o t a l r e s p o n s e s , a n d
t h e s e r e s p o n s e s w e r e n o t c o n s p i c u o u s l y f r e q u e n t f o r any p a r t i c u l a r c o n d i t i o n . The mean l a t e n c y was
a n a l y s e d by 2x2x2 ANO‑
VA ( L i n d q u i s t , 1 9 5 3 ) on t h e b a s i s o f t h e r e c i p r o c a l c o n v e r t e d s c o r e o f e a c h
900
'u'
in sentence in isolation
o‑‑‑o
one Kanji• • twoKanji
raw l o f l a a t t e e n n c c y y d . The a a t a r e n v a e l a y l s e i d s ] . . a , . s o o
.
苫.
s 1 g m f 1 c a n t mam e f f e c t o f . . . .
~゜
~t h e t y p e o f p r e s e n t a t i o n
c::~700
form ( F = J S . 4 7 1 , d f = J / 2 2 ,
.!目!/
p < . 0 0 1 ) , a n d f u r t h e r ‑ : : : : . 。 more t h r e e s i g n i f i c a n t f i r s t o r d e r i n t e r a c t i o n s , between r e s p e c t i v e l y t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n form a n d t h e number of l e t t e r s ( F = 2 0 . 4 1 1 , d f = l / 2 2 , p<
. 0 0 1 ) , t h e number o f l e t t e r s a n d t h e t y p e o f
600
Kana script Kanji Kana script Kanji Fig. 1 Mean latency of reading a sentence or the target semantic unit in isolation. Data shown with filled circles are based on two Kanji condition, and those with open circles are based on one Kanji condition.
w r i t i n g s y s t e m ( F = 5 . 5 5 4 , d f = J / 2 2 , p < . 0 5 ) , t h e t y p e o f w r i t i n g s y s t e m a n d p r e s e n ‑ t a t i o n form ( F = 2 7 . 5 6 4 , d f = l / 2 2 , p < . 0 0 1 ) .
The f i r s t i n t e r a c t i o n may be due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e l a t e n c y o f t h e two l e t t e r c o n d i t i o n i s f a s t e r t h a n t h a t o f t h e one l e t t e r i n c a s e s where t h e t a r g e t was em‑
bedded i n a s e n t e n c e , b u t w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e word c o n d i t i o n p h a s e , s i n g l e l e t t e r showed f a s t e r l a t e n c y t h a n p a i r s o f l e t t e r . The s e c o n d i n t e r a c t i o n may a l s o b e d u e t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e l a t e n c y o f 2 ‑ s y l l a b i c s i s f a t e r t h a n t h a t o f 4 ‑ s y l l a b i c s i n Kana s c r i p t , b u t t h e l a t e n c y o f a p a i r o f K a n j i i s f a s t e r t h a n t h a t o f s i n g l e K a n j i . F u r t h e r m o r e t h e t h i r d i n t e r a c t i o n may be due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e between K a n j i a n d Kana s c r i p t embedded i n a s e n t e n c e i s l a r g e r t h a n t h a t b e t w e e n t h e two when e a c h i s p r e s e n t e d i n i s o l a t i o n .
The r e s u l t s g a i n e d from t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e s e m a n t i c u n i t i n i s o l a t i o n a r e a l m o s t t h e same a s t h o s e o f Nomura ( 1 9 8 1 a ) b u t we o b s e r v e d some d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e r e s u l t s f o r t a r g e t s embedded i n m e a n i n g f u l s e n t e n c e s and t h o s e f o r t a r g e t s p r e s e n t e d i n i s o l a t i o n .
F i r s t , t h e r e a d i n g l a t e n c y o f Kana s c r i p t t a r g e t s embedded i n s e n t e n c e s i s
‑ 6 ‑
s l o w e r t h a n t h a t o f K a n j i , w h e r e a s t h e r e a d i n g l a t e n c y o f Kana s c r i p t t a r g e t s p r e s e n t e d i n i s o l a t i o n i s f a s t e r t h a n t h a t o f K a n j i . T h i s f a c t may b e d u e t o t h e low d i s c r i m i n a t i o n p o t e n t i a l o f t a r g e t s embedded i n s e n t e n c e s w h i c h r e n d e r s d a t a ‑ d r i v e n p r o c e s s i n g i n e f f e c t i v e .
S e c o n d , w i t h r e g a r d t o K a n j i t a r g e t s embedded i n s e n t e n c e s , t h e r e i s a d i f f e r ‑ e n c e i n l a t e n c y b e t w e e n t a r g e t s composed o f s i n g l e K a n j i a n d t h o s e C?mposed o f a p a i r . A l t h o u g h t t h i s d i f f e r e n c e h a s n o t b e e n a d e q u a t e l y e x p l a i n e d f o r t h e p r e s e n t , a s t h e r e i s , h o w e v e r , no d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e two k i n d s of t a r g e t i n word c o n d i t i o n , t h i s d i f f e r e n c e may b e due t o e i t h e r t h e c o n t e x t e f f e c t c a u s e d by t h e s e m a n t i c u n i t embedded i n m e a n i n g f u l s e n t e n c e s o r t o t h e f a c t t h a t K a n j i , i n g e n e r a l , a r e u s e d i n p a i r s (compound w o r d s ) a n d t h a t a p a i r o f K a n j i i n t h e s e n t e n c e a p p e a r s a s v i s u a l l y w e l l ‑ b a l a n c e d .
T h i r d , t h e r e i s a d i f f e r e n c e i n l a t e n c y b et we en 1 . 9 l e t t e r a n d 3 . 8 l e t t e r s e q u e n c e s o f Kana s c r i p t i n t a r g e t s p r e s e n t e d i n i s o l a t i o n , b u t t h e r e i s no d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n them i n t a r g e t s embedded i n s e n t e n c e s . T h i s i s b e c a u s e , w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e f o r m e r , t h e f e w e r t h e number o f t h e l e t t e r s , t h e f a s t e r t h e t a r g e t c a n b e r e a d , due t o d a t a ‑ d r i v e n p r o c e s s i n g c o n s t r u c t e d f r o m t h e i n d i v i d u a l r e a d i n g o f Kana s y l l a b i c s ; b u t i n t h e c a s e o f t h e l a t t e r t h e t a r g e t must b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d from t h e o t h e r words i n t h e s e n t e c e , s o from t h e o u t s e t i t i s d i f f i c u l t f o r S s t o p r o c e s s Kana s c r i p t s e q u e n c e s by d a t a ‑ d r i v e n p r o c e s s i n g a l o n e . F u r t h e r m o r e c o n c e p t u a l l y ‑ d r i v e n p r o c e s s i n g seem t o b e more e f f e c t i v e i n t h i s c a s e t h a n i n t h a t o f word c o n d i t i o n , s o t h e number of Kana s y l l a b i c s may n o t b e a c r i t i c a l f a c t o r a f f e c t i n g t h e l a t e n c y of Kana s c r i p t .
EXP.Il
As K a n j i a r e a d i f f e r e n t s c r i p t , when embedded a s a t a r g e t i n a s e n t e n c e , w h e r e
t h e y a r e s u r r o u n d e d by K a n a , t h e y show i m m e d i a t e h i g h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n p o t e n t i a l ,
w h e r e a s a Kana s c r i p t t a r g e t , b e i n g homogeneous w i t h t h e s u r r o u n d i n g Kana
s y l l a b i c s , shows low d i s c r i m i n a t i o n p o t e n t i a l w i t h o u t f u r t h e r a i d s t o d i s c r i m i n a ‑
t i o n . T h i s i s b e c a u s e a J a p a n e s e c l a u s e o r c l a u s e g r o u p i s w r i t t e n a s a n u n b r o k e n
s e q u e n c e o f l e t t e r s . T h e r e f o r e i f t h e d e g r e e o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n p o t e n t i a l o f t a r g e t s
embedded i n s e n t e n c e s i s m a n i p u l a t e d by o t h e r a i d s t o d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , t h a t i s ,
i f a l i n e f r a m e a r o u n d t h e t a r g e t s e m a n t i c u n i t i s a d d e d t o h e i g h t e n d i s c r i m i n a t i o n
p o t e n t i a l , t h e f o l l o w i n g h y p o t h e s e s s u g g e s t t h e m s e l v e s . We a s s u m e d t h a t t h e
r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d would b e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e o b t a i n e d f o r s e m a n t i c u n i t s p r e s e n t e d w i t h t h e h i g h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n p o t e n t i a l a f f o r d e d by i s o l a t i o n , b u t t h a t w i t h o u t t h i s h e i g h t e n i n g o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n p o t e n t i a l , t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d would n o t d i f f e r from t h o s e o f E x p . I .
METHOD S u b j e c t
The S s w e r e 24 u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s o f K a n s a i U n i v e r s i t y who c h o s e t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h i s e x p e r i m e n t v o l u n t a r i l y . Those S s w e r e d i v i d e d i n t o two g r o u p s i n t h e same manner u s e d i n E x p . I .
M a t e r i a l and A p p a r a t u s
The s e n t e n c e u s e d i n t h i s E x p . w e r e t h e same a s t h o s e u s e d i n E x p . I b u t t h i s t i m e a l i n e f r a m e a r o u n d t h e t a r g e t s e m a n t i c u n i t was a d d e d t o h e i g h t e n d i s c r i m i ‑ n a t i o n p o t e n t i a l :
私はやまへ行く,私は山へ行く,t h a ti s b o t h 2 5 s e t s o f s e n t e n c e s u s e d i n E x p . I and t h e o t h e r 2 5 s e t s o f s e n t e n c e s w i t h l i n e f r a m e were u s e d i n t h i s E x p . J I . A l l t h i s m a t e r i a l was p r e s e n t e d a s i n E x p . I .
P r o c e d u r e
The d e s i g n was t h e same a s i n E x p . I e x c e p t f o r a n o t h e r b e t w e e n ‑ s u b j e c t s f a c t o r s : t h e p r e s e n c e o r a b s e n c e o f a l i n e f r a m e a r o u n d t h e t a r g e t i n e a c h s e n ‑ t e n c e . The o t h e r p r o c e d u r e s w e r e t h e same a s t h o s e employed i n E x p . I e x c e p t f o r t h e i n s t r u c t i o n ; i n t h i s e x p e r i m e n t , w h i l e S s were t o l d t o r e a d o n l y t h e t a r g e t embedded i n t h e s e n t e n c e , t h e y w e r e a l s o i n s t r u c t e d t o comprehend t h e t o t a l meamng.
R e s u l t s and D i s c u s s i o n
The mean l a t e n c y o f a l l c o n d i t i o n s o b t a i n e d from t h i s E x p . i s shown i n F i g . 2 . T h e r e i n t h e l a t e n c i e s i n c a s e s o f v o i c e key f a i l u r e and of m i s r e a d i n g h a v e b e e n o m i t t e d ; t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f e x c e p t i o n i s l e s s t h a n 4.6% o f t h e t o t a l r e s p o n s e s , a n d t h e s e r e s p o n s e s w e r e n o t c o n s p i c u o u s l y f r e q u e n t f o r a n y p a r t i c u l a r c o n d i t i o n . The mean l a t e n c y was a n a l y s e d a s i n E x p . I . The a n a l y s i s o f l a t e n c y d a t a r e v e a l e d s i g n i f i c a n t main e f f e c t o f t h e number of l e t t e r s i n t a r g e t ( F = 4 . 7 7 3 , d f = 1 / 2 2 , p<. 0 5 ) , . a n d f u r t h e r m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t f i r s t o r d e r i n t e r a c t i o n s between t h e number of l e t t e r s a n d t h e w r i t i n g s y s t e m ( F = 5 . 2 1 9 , d f = l / 2 2 , p < . 0 5 ) , a n d t h e w r i t i n g s y s t e m and t h e d e g r e e o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n p o t e n t i a l (F= 1 7 . 6 5 3 , d f = 1 / 2 2 ,
‑ 8 ‑
p<. 0 0 1 ) . The f o r m e r may b e d u e t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e a d i n g o f a p a i r o f K a n j i i s f a s t e r t h a n t h a t o f a s i n g l e K a n j i , b u t t h e r e i s no d i f f e r e n c e f o r Kana s c r i p t . The l a t e n c y r e s u l t may b e d u e t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e a d i n g o f K a n j i i s f a s t e r t h a n t h a t o f Kana s c r i p t i n t h e low d i s c r i m i n a t i o n p o t e n t i a l c o n d i t i o n , b u t t h a t t h e r e a d i n g o f Kana s c r i p t i s f a s t e r t h a n t h a t o f K a n j i i n t h e h i g h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n p o t e n t i a l c o n d i t i o n .
The t y p e o f r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d from t h e low
800
750
゜
6 50 0
7
(3翼
E)
習号
aI
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an
二
high discrimination potential
O O oneKanji
• • twoKanji
し ~~!~:f'ination
Kana script Kanji Kana script Kanji
Fig. 2 Mean latency of reading the target semantic unit embedded in a meaningful sentence. Data shown with filled circles are based on two Kanji condition, and those with open circles are based on one Kaaji condition.
d i s c r i m i n a t i o n p o t e n t i a l c o n d i t i o n a r e a l m o s t t h e same a s t h o s e f o r t h e s e n t e n c e c o n d i t i o n p h a s e i n E x p . I e x c e p t f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g f a c t : t h e mean l a t e n c y o f t h i s E x p . i s a b o u t 1 0 0 msec f a s t e r t h a n t h a t o f E x p . I . T h i s i s b e c a u s e t h e S s i n E x p . I w e r e i n s t r u c t e d t o r e a d t h e whole s e n t e n c e , w h e r e a s i n t h i s E x p . t h e S s w e r e i n s t r u c t e d t o r e a d o n l y s e m a n t i c u n i t embedded i n s e n t e n c e s . T h i s r e s u l t may b e due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e S s r e a d s e m a n t i c u n i t s i n t h e l i g h t o f t h e o t h e r words i n t h e s e n t e n c e .
The most i n t e r e s t i n g r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d from t h i s E x p . w e r e t h a t , w i t h r e g a r d t o
t h e Kana s c r i p t , t h e l a t e n c y o f r e a d i n g i n t h e h i g h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n p o t e n t i a l i s
f a s t e r t h a n t h a t o f r e a d i n g i n t h e low d i s c r i m i n a t i o n p o t e n t i a l , w h e r e a s t h e r e
was no d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n them r e g a r d i n g t h e K a n j i r e a d i n g . Furthermo~e t h e
t y p e o f r e a d i n g o f K a n j i i s j u s t same a s t h o s e o f t h e s e n t e n c e c o n d i t i o n p h a s e
o f E x p . I r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e h i g h o r low d e g r e e o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n p o t e n t i a l . T h e s e
r e s u l t s may b e due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e l a t e n c y o f r e a d i n g o f Kana s c r i p t v a r i e s
a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p r e s e n c e o r a b s e n c e o f a l i n e f r a m e a r o u n d t h e s e m a n t i c u n i t ,
w h e r e a s t h e r e a d i n g of K a n j i i s n o t i n f l u e n c e d by t h e s e l i n e f r a m e s . T h i s i s b e ‑
c a u s e , w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e r e a d i n g o f Kana s c r i p t , t h e h i g h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n p o t e n t i a l
may promote d a t a ‑ d r i v e n p r o c e s s i n g , w h i l e low d i s c r i m i n a t i o n p o t e n t i a l may n o t . I n t h e l a t t e r c a s e , t h e S s must f i r s t of a l l d i s t i n g u i s h t h e s e m a n t i c u n i t from t h e o t h e r words i n t h e s e n t e n c e s , a n d t h e n r e a d t h e t a r g e t by b o t h d a t a ‑ d r i v e n p r o ‑ c e s s i n g a n d c o n c e p t u a l l y ‑ d r i v e n p r o c e s s i n g . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , a s K a n j i a r e c l e a r l y d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e f r o m t h e o t h e r words i n t h e s e n t e n c e r e g a r d l e s s of t h e p r e s e n c e o r a b s e n c e of a l i n e f r a m e a r o u n d t h e t a r g e t , no e f f o r t i s n e e d t o d i s ‑ t i n g u i s h t h e t a r g e t from t h e o t h e r words i n t h e s e n t e n c e . T h e r e f o r e t h e p r o n u n c i a ‑ t i o n o f K a n j i , from t h e o u t s e t , s e e m s t o be g e n e r a t e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e i r mean‑
i n g which i s e x t r a c t e d by b o t h d a t a ‑ d r i v e n a n d c o n c e p t u a l l y ‑ d r i v e n p r o c e s s i n g .
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Nomura, Y . 1 9 7 8 The i n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g o f C h i n e s e c h a r a c t e r s ( K a n j i ) : C h i n e s e r e a d i n g , J a p a n e s e r e a d i n g a n d t h e a t t a c h m e n t o f m e a n i n g . The J a p a ‑ n e s e J o u r n a l of P s y c h o l o g y , 4 9 , 190‑197 ( I n J a p a n e s e w i t h E n g l i s h A b s t r a c t ) Nomura, Y . 1 9 8 1 a The i n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g of K a n j i , Kana script — The
e f f e c t s o f d a t a ‑a n d c o n c e p t u a l l y ‑ d r i v e n p r o c e s s i n g on r e a d i n g . The J a p a n e s e J o u r n a l of P s y c h o l o g y 5 1 , 3 2 7 ‑ 3 3 4 . , ( I n J a p a n e s e w i t h E n g l i s h A b s t r a c t ) Nomura, Y . 1 9 8 1 b D a t a ‑ d r i v e n a n d c o n c e p t u a l l y ‑ d r i v e n p r o c e s s i n g i n t h e r e a d i n g
o f K a n j i a n d Kana s c r i p t . P s y c h o l o g i a , 24,65‑74.
Norman, D . A . 1 9 7 6 Memory and a t t e n t i o n ( s e c o n d e d i t i o n ) . New Y o r k : John W i l e y
Ogawa, T a , . n d I n a m u r a , Y . 1 9 7 3 An a n a l y s i s o f word a t t r i b u t e s 皿 a g e r y ,c o n ‑ c r e t e n e s s , m e a n i n g f u l n e s s a n d e a s e of l e a r n i n g f o r J a p a n e s e n o u n s . The J a p a ‑ n e s e J o u r n a l of P s y c h o l o g y , 4 4 , 317‑327 ( I n J a p a n e s e w i t h E n g l i s h A b s t r a c t ) S a i t o , H . , I n o u e , M . , a n d Nomura, Y . 1 9 7 9 I n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s m g o f K a n j i ( C h i n e s e C h a r a c t e r s ) a n d Kana ( J a p a n e s e C h a r a c t e r s ) : The c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p among g r a p h e m i c , p h o n e m i c , a n d s e m a n t i c a s p e c t s . P s y c h o l o g i a , 2 2 , 195‑206.
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