The Representation of English in Japan’s Language Policies

Abstract

In many Asian countries,English hasbeen seen asessentialforsurviving in the eraof globalization.　Many countriesform language policiesto develop theirpeople’sEnglish abilities.　Japan isno exception in thisrespect,and ithasbeen along time since English wasdiscussed in relation to globalization in Japan’slanguage policies.　Many researchers have pointed outthatalink hasbeen established between English and globalization in termsofpolicies.　Yetnone ofthem hasrevealed the way in which the symbolicequation ofEnglish with globalization wasestablished.　Consequently,there isan urgentneed to examine thissymbolicequation,because itmay have asignificantimpacton language education.　In thispaper,therefore,Iwillanalyze how English and globalization are repre- sented asone and the same in Japan’slanguage policies.　Finally,Iwillconsiderthe impli- cationsforELT in Japan in the 21stcentury.

The Repr esent at i on of Engl i sh i n J apan’ s Language Pol i ci es

Engl i s h- l a ngua ge t ea c hi ng ( ELT) i n As i a n c ount r i es , i n t he l a s t dec a de, wa s c ha r a c - t er i z ed by a s ur ge of pol i c i es t o equi p t he peopl e i n ea c h c ount r y wi t h Engl i s h a bi l i t i es ( Ts ui & Tol l ef s on, 2007) .

s s ur ge s pr a ng f r om t he r ec ogni t i on t ha t Engl i s h ha s a c c el - er at ed gl obal i z at i on, and t he pr es ence or abs ence of Engl i s h pr of i ci ency woul d deci de peopl e’ s f ut ur e a nd t he c ount r y’ s des t i ny .

Li ke ma ny ot her As i a n c ount r i es , J a pa n ha s l ooked f or wa ys t o c ope wi t h gl oba l i z a - t i on s i nc e a r ound t he t ur n of t he c ent ur y , a nd ha s s een i t a s es s ent i a l t ha t J a pa nes e peo- pl e a c qui r e pr of i c i enc y i n Engl i s h.

ny pol i c i es wer e t hus a nnounc ed bet ween 2000 a nd 2010 t o a c hi ev e t hi s obj ec t i v e.

f f er ent a s t hes e pol i c i es mi ght l ook a t f i r s t gl a nc e i n t er ms of t hei r os t ens i bl e f oci , a r epr es ent at i on of Engl i s h under l i es al l t he pol i ci es .

Tha t r epr es ent a t i on ma kes a di s c ur s i v e l i nk bet ween Engl i s h a nd gl oba l i z a t i on, s howi ng gl oba l i z a t i on a s a n i nev i t a bl e pr oc es s f or J a pa n.

a r es ul t , Engl i s h i s r epr es ent ed a s i nev i t a bl e f or J a pa n t o s ur v i v e i n t he er a of gl oba l i z a t i on.

Howev er , gi v i ng a pr i v i l eged s t a t us t o one l a ngua ge ma y l ea d t o l ower i ng t he s t a t us

Koj i r o Mur a ka wa

(Received on May 31,2012)

of ot her l a ngua ges .

Ya ma da ( 2008) poi nt s out , f ur t her mor e, t hos e pol i c i es beg t he ques t i on a s t o whet her or not t he pos i t i on of t hos e who f a i l ed i n ma s t er i ng Engl i s h i n t he s ys t em i s cons i der ed.

e i s r oom f or doubt about whet her s uch pol i ci es devel op J a pa nes e peopl e’ s Engl i s h a bi l i t i es wi t hout s a c r i f i c i ng i ndi v i dua l s ’ di v er s e i nt er es t s i n l a n- gua ge a nd i nt r i ns i c mot i v a t i on f or l ea r ni ng Engl i s h.

es ent i ng a pa r t i c ul a r l a ngua ge a s i f i t wer e t he onl y medi um f or gl oba l i z a t i on ma y r es ul t i n l ooki ng a t t he wor l d f r om a l i mi t ed v i ew.

s s ugges t s t ha t r ec ent J a pa n’ s ELT pol i c i es be exa mi ned f r om a c r i t i c a l per s pec t i v e.

I n t hi s pa per , t her ef or e, I wi l l a na l yz e how Engl i s h i s r epr es ent ed i n J a pa n’ s l a ngua ge pol i c i es , a nd c ons i der wha t i mpl i c a t i ons t he r epr es ent a t i on ha s f or J a pa n’ s ELT i n t he 21s t c ent ur y.

t hi s end, I wi l l f i r s t dev el op t he c onc ept of gl oba l i z a t i on.

es ent a t i on i s a ma t t er of di s c our s e ( Fa i r c l ough, 2003) , a nd r ef er s t o mea ni ng pr oduc t i on by t he a r bi - t r ar y r el at i ons hi p bet ween wor ds and i deas ( Hal l , 1997) .

di ng t o Bl ommaer t ( 2005) , “ I n a n er a of gl oba l i z a t i on, t he t hr es hol d of c ont ext ua l i z a t i on i n di s c our s e a na l ys i s can no l onger be a s i ngl e s oci et y but needs t o i ncl ude r el at i ons hi ps bet ween di f f er ent s oc i et i es a nd t he ef f ec t of t hes e r el a t i ons hi ps on r eper t oi r es of l a ngua ge us er s ” ( p. 15) .

Gi v en t hi s , whi l e I f oc us on t he di s c ur s i v e pr oduc t i on of t he mea ni ng of Engl i s h i n J a pa n, I need t o s i t ua t e i t i n t he c ont ext of gl oba l i z a t i on a s a n exi s t i ng wor l d s ys t em.

wi l l pa r - t i c ul a r l y a t t end t o def i ni ng gl oba l i z a t i on a s t he r e- or ga ni z a t i on of s pa c e, a nd c onc ept ua l i z e J a pa n’ s l a ngua ge pol i c i es a s a pol i t i c a l s c ena r i o r es pond t o t he s pa t i a l r e- or ga ni z a t i on.

Di s c our s es a r e s ha ped by s oc i a l s t r uc t ur e, but a t t he s a me t i me t hey ha v e a n a ut ono- mous s t r uc t ur e wi t hi n t hems el v es ( Fa i r c l ough, 2001, 2003) .

n ot her wor ds , on t he one ha nd, di s c our s e a na l ys t s need t o s how how s oc i a l s t r uc t ur e i nf l uenc es t he pr oduc t i on of di s c our s es , but on t he ot her , t hey ha v e t o a na l yz e t he s t r uc t ur e pec ul i a r t o t he s emi ot i c l evel .

s cour s e anal ys t s t hen have t o exami ne what i mpact f or mal pr oper t i es of di s - cour s es may have on s oci et y .

anal yz i ng t he f or mal pr oper t i es of J apan’ s l anguage pol i c i es , t her ef or e, I wi l l r ev ea l t he wa y i n whi c h Engl i s h i s r epr es ent ed a s i nev i t a bl e f or t he J a pa nes e, a nd c ons i der wha t i mpa c t t he r epr es ent a t i on ha s on t he ma t t er s of l a ngua ge.

Fi na l l y , I wi l l c ons i der i mpl i c a t i ons f or J a pa n’ s ELT i n t he er a of gl oba l i z a t i on.

Gl obal i z at i on as t he Re- or gani z at i on of Space

Whi l s t t he not i on of gl obal i z at i on has s pr ead acr os s t he wor l d’ s maj or l anguages ,

gl oba l i z a t i on l a c ks pr ec i s e def i ni t i on ( Hel d, Mc Gr ew, Gol dbl a t t & Per r a t on, 1999) .

f - f er ent r es ea r c her s ha v e di f f er ent v i ews on gl oba l i z a t i on.

i t i s pos s i bl e t o ext r a c t a c ommon denomi na t or f r om v a r i ous def i ni t i ons of gl oba l i z a t i on.

As s een i n t he di s c us s i on of Mc dona l di z a t i on ( Ri t z er , 1993) , j i ha d a ga i ns t gl oba l c a pi - t al i s m ( Bar ber , 1995) , and t he cl as h bet ween di f f er ent cul t ur es ( Hunt i ngt on, 1996) , gl oba l i z a t i on i s f r equent l y c onc ept ua l i z ed wi t hi n t he f r a mewor k of t he di c hot omy bet ween t he gl obal and t he l ocal .

s ki nd of concept ual i z at i on s ees bot h t he gl obal and t he l oc a l a s uni t a r y wi t hi n t hems el v es , l a c ki ng t he per s pec t i v e of mul t i pl i c i t y i nher ent i n ea c h of t hos e.

eov er , t he pos s i bi l i t y t ha t t he gl oba l a nd t he l oc a l a r e a r t i c ul a t ed i s t ot a l l y out of c ons i der a t i on due t o t he l a c k of t he per s pec t i v e of s pa c e.

Har vey ( 1989, 1993) t ook t he i ni t i at i ve of i nves t i gat i ng gl obal i z at i on i n t er ms of s pa c e, s eei ng i t a s s oc i a l l y c ons t r uc t ed.

a t t r i but es t he r e- or ga ni z a t i on of s pa c e t o t he emer genc e of t he gl oba l pa t t er ns of c a pi t a l a c c umul a t i on.

s pa t i a l ba r r i er s wer e ov er - c ome i n t he 1970s , peopl e, s t uf f , a nd c a pi t a l bega n t o c r os s bor der s ea s i l y.

t i es t hen c ompet ed a ga i ns t one a not her f or c a pi t a l , a nd t hey di f f er ent i a t ed t hems el v es f r om ot her s i n or der t o ma ke di f f er enc es whi c h l ook f a s c i na t i ng f r om t he c a pi t a l i s t s ’ v i ewpoi nt , bec a us e pr of i t s wer e yi el ded t hr ough di f f er enc es .

n ot her wor ds , gl oba l i z a t i on der i v es f r om t he dyna mi c s c a us ed by t he i nt er a c t i ons bet ween t he gl oba l - s c a l e r e- or ga ni z a t i on of s pa c e by c a pi t a l i s m a nd s oc i a l pr a c t i c es by t he l oc a l t o r es pond t o t he gl oba l mov ement .

I n t he s a me v ei n, Ha l l ( 1991) s a ys “ Gl oba l a nd l oc a l a r e t he t wo f a c es of t he s a me movement f r om one epoch of gl obal i z at i on, t he one whi ch has been domi nat ed by t he na t i on- s t a t e, t he na t i ona l ec onomi es , t he na t i ona l c ul t ur a l i dent i t i es , t o s omet hi ng new”

( p. 27) .

or ga ni z a t i on of s pa c e wa s t r a di t i ona l l y s een a s a pr a c t i c e t o bui l d up t he s t a - bl e i n t he t r a ns i t or i nes s of f l eet i ng t i me ( Ha r v ey, 1989) .

na t i on- s t a t e, whi c h ha s t er r i - t or y wi t hi n a c l ea r l y def i ned bounda r y , wa s c ons i der ed a s a ma ni f es t a t i on of t he s t a bl e.

Howev er , t he ba s i s of t he na t i on- s t a t e ha s r ec ent l y been er oded by t r a ns na t i ona l f l ows of

t he ma t er i a l a nd t he non- ma t er i a l ( Appa dur a i , 1996) .

er mea s ur es a ga i ns t t he f l uc -

t uat i on of t he s t abl e has t o do wi t h t he l ocal , becaus e as Hal l ( 1991) s ays , t he l ocal i s

s pace wher e movement s agai ns t t he gl obal f or ces t hat ar e t r yi ng t o r emake t he wor l d

emer ge a s a pol i t i c a l s c ena r i o.

t i ng i t a not her wa y, l i ke wor ks of i nt er l oc ki ng wooden

bui l di ng bl oc ks , t he gl oba l a nd t he l oc a l get i nt er t wi ned by t he bl oc ks of c ul t ur e, ec onom-

i c s , educ a t i on, a nd pol i t i c s .

s a ppa r ent l y c ont r a di c t or y r el a t i on f or ms gl oba l i z a t i on.

J apan’ s Language Pol i ci es as a Local Pol i t i cal Scenar i o

Gi v en t he a bov e c onc ept ua l i z a t i on of gl oba l i z a t i on, t he r epr es ent a t i on of Engl i s h i n J a pa n’ s l a ngua ge pol i c i es i s not s i mpl y a ma t t er of expr es s i on, but ha s t o do wi t h t he pol i - t i c s t o r e- or ga ni z e J a pa n a s l oc a l s pa c e.

a pa n wa s def ea t ed i n t he Sec ond Wor l d Wa r i n 1945, but under t he pr ot ec t i on of t he US a nd owi ng t o t he s pec i a l pr oc ur ement s by t he Kor ea n Wa r , J a pa n’ s ec onomy got ba c k on t he t r a c k t o r ec ov er y i n t he l a t e 1950s .

o- nomi c gr owt h pol i c i es wer e f ur t her pus hed t o t he f r ont i n t he 1960s , a nd by t he 1970s J a pa n’ s ec onomi c power ha d bec ome t oo s t r ong t o be i gnor ed.

ec onomi c dev el op- ment di d not s how s i gns of decl i ne t hr oughout t he 1980s , and r eached i t s peak i n t he Pl a z a Ac c or d i n 1985.

f ea r t ha t t he s t r engt hened yen by t hi s a c c or d woul d c a us e a r ec es s i on i n J a pa n ga v e a n i nc ent i v e f or t he c ont i nuous enf or c ement of l ow- i nt er es t pol i - c i es whi c h r es ul t ed i n t he J a pa nes e a s s et pr i c e bubbl e bet ween t he l a t e 1980s a nd ea r l y 1990s .

J a pa n’ s ec onomy wa s gr owi ng t hr oughout t he 1970s a nd 1980s , i t wa s i ns i s t ed l oudl y i n t he f i el d of pol i t i cs t hat J apan s houl d be gi ven a pos i t i on i n t he wor l d whi ch r ef l ec t ed i t s ec onomi c power .

s wa s a pol i t i c a l a mbi t i on by J a pa n whi c h r ega i ned c on- f i dence t hr ough t he economi c r ecover y .

, t he economi c bubbl e- bur s t cr i s i s ea r l y i n t he 1990s c a us ed t he dec l i ne of l a nd pr i c es , expa ns i on of nonper f or mi ng l oa ns , c ol l a ps e of f i na nc i a l i ns t i t ut i ons , a nd r educ t i on i n empl oyment .

equent l y , J a pa n’ s pol i t i cal ambi t i on f or a l eader s hi p pos i t i on was obl i ged t o be s us pended, and J apan needed t o r e- or gani z e i t s el f .

ot her t hi ngs , i t was an ur gent need f or J apan t o hol d i t s gr ound i n t he r a pi dl y c ha ngi ng wor l d by t he gl oba l s pr ea d of neol i ber a l i s m under t he l ea der s hi p of t he US a nd t he UK.

Appa dur a i ( 1996) s ees s uc h a r a pi dl y c ha ngi ng wor l d a s a s et of di s j unc t i v e r el a t i ons bet ween t he gl oba l f l ows of peopl e, i ma ges , t ec hnol ogy , c a pi t a l , a nd i deol ogy .

c a l l s t hes e f i v e f l ows et hnos c a pes , medi a s c a pes , t ec hnos c a pes , f i na nc es c a pes , a nd i deos c a pes , r es pec t i v el y .

r ea s on f or hi s us i ng ‘ - s c a pe’ f or t hes e f l ows i s t ha t by t hi s s uf f i x, he t r i es t o r epr es ent t he i ndet er mi na t e r el a t i ons bet ween t hes e l a nds c a pes t ha t a r e i nf l ec t ed by di f f er ent per s pect i ves of di f f er ent act or s wi t h di f f er ent backgr ounds .

l i nes bet ween t he r ea l i s t i c a nd t he f i c t i ona l l a nds c a pes t hus bec ome bl ur r ed, a nd i t f ol l ows t ha t act or s ar e l i kel y t o cons t r uct i magi ned wor l ds .

ai ( 1996) t hen r emar ks t hat ,

“ The i ma gi na t i on…ha s a pr oj ec t i v e s ens e a bout i t , t he s ens e of bei ng a pr el ude t o s ome

s or t of expr es s i on” ( p. 7) , and t hat “ t he i magi nat i on, es peci al l y when col l ect i ve, can bec ome t he f uel f or a c t i on” ( p. 7) .

Fol l owi ng Ha l l ( 1991) a nd Appa dur a i ( 1996) , J a pa n’ s l a ngua ge pol i c i es , whi c h wer e a nnounc ed i n t he mi ds t of t he r e- or ga ni z a t i on of t he wor l d, c oul d be c ons i der ed a s a l oc a l pol i t i c a l s c ena r i o env i s i oned by t he c ol l ec t i v e i ma gi na t i on of t hos e who pi c t ur ed t o t hem- s el v es J a pa n c a t c hi ng up wi t h, hol di ng gr ound i n, a nd di s pl a yi ng l ea der s hi p i n t he wor l d.

The f ol l owi ng i l l us t r a t es t hi s poi nt :

J a pa n mus t r ebui l d i t s el f whi l e knowi ng t he wor l d, a s s oc i a t i ng wi t h t he wor l d, a nd enga gi ng wi t h t he wor l d.

s i s not a n a ge t ha t per mi t s i s ol a t i on.

mus t not l a ps e i nt o a c r a mped ment a l i t y .

n t hi s a ge of gl oba l i z a t i on, we need t o r es ur r ec t t he met hod t ha t wor ked f or ea r l y moder n J a pa n – new domes t i c c ons t r uc t i on r es ul t - i ng f r om knowl edge of t he out s i de wor l d ( Pr i me Mi ni s t er ’ s Commi s s i on on J a pa n’ s Goa l s i n t he 21s t Cent ur y [ PMC] , 2000, c ha p. 6, p. 1) .

I t s houl d be not ed, howev er , t ha t “ Wha t c ount s a s l oc a l r equi r es a n under s t a ndi ng i n r el a - t i ona l t er ms ” ( Pennyc ook, 2010, p. 7) .

J a pa n, a s a pa r t of t he wor l d s ys t em, c on- f r ont s t he wor l d, i t i s ‘ l oc a l ’ i n t he s ens e t ha t i t or ga ni z es a nd t ur ns mov ement s a ga i ns t gl oba l f or c es i nt o a pol i t i c a l s c ena r i o.

J a pa n, a s a s ys t em of gov er nment f or t he nat i on, t ur ns t o t he i nt er i or of i t s el f , however , i t wor ks as ‘ power ’ t o cont r ol J apanes e s oc i et y.

e i s a mul t i l a yer ed s t r uc t ur e i n t he l oc a l , a nd t he oppor t uni t i es f or t he exer - ci s e of power exi s t acr os s di f f er ent soci al pr act i ces i n l ocal s pace ( Foucaul t , 1972;

Gi ddens , 1985) .

As Pa v l enko ( 2003) i l l us t r a t es , s hi f t i ng na t i ona l i dent i t y i nf l uenc es f or ei gn l a ngua ge educ a t i on, s i nc e i t i s s een a s a mea ns t o expa nd na t i ona l power .

t he f ol l owi ng s hows , t he r epr es ent a t i on of Engl i s h i n J a pa n’ s l a ngua ge pol i c i es s houl d t hen be under s t ood a s a pol i t i c a l s c ena r i o f or r e- or ga ni z a t i on J a pa n:

Achi evi ng wor l d- cl as s excel l ence demands t hat …al l J apanes e acqui r e a wor ki ng knowl edge of Engl i s h. . . . knowl edge of Engl i s h as t he i nt er nat i onal l i ngua f r anca equi ps one wi t h a key s ki l l f or knowi ng a nd a c c es s i ng t he wor l d.

PMC, 2000, p.

10) .

Thi s r epr es ent a t i on wa s br ought i nt o bei ng by i deol ogi c a l l y- l oa ded wa ys of us i ng wor ds , whi c h a r e ba c ked up by t he s uper s t r uc t ur e of t he di s pos i t i on of power i nher ent i n t he mul - t i l a yer ed s t r uc t ur e of t he l oc a l .

need t o exa mi ne wha t i mpa c t t hi s ki nd of r epr es en- t a t i on ma y ha v e on t he ma t t er s of l a ngua ge, by us i ng a met hodol ogy whi c h dec ons t r uc t s t he pa r t i c ul a r wa ys of us i ng wor ds i n t er ms of power r el a t i on.

Met hodol ogy

The s el ect i on of met hodol ogy has t o do wi t h t he cons t i t uent s of s pace.

ebvr e ( 1991) l i s t s ma t er i a l s pa t i a l pr a c t i c es , r epr es ent a t i ons of s pa c e, a nd s pa c es of r epr es ent a - t i on a s pr oper t i es of s pa c e.

t er i a l s pa t i a l pr a c t i c es r ef er t o how s pa c e i s exper i enc ed.

Repr es ent a t i ons of s pa c e ha v e t o do wi t h how s pa c e i s di s c ur s i v el y c ons t r uc t ed.

c es of r epr es ent a t i on a t t end t o how s pa c e i s us ed a s a s ymbol i c r epr es ent a t i on.

t t hi s ma t r i x s ugges t s i s t he di a l ec t i c a l r el a t i ons hi p bet ween pr a c t i c es a nd di s c our s es ( Ha r v ey , 1989) .

a c t i c es a s s ume t he exi s t enc e of t he t wo t ypes of per s pec t i v es .

i s t he t op- down per s pec t i v e t ha t t r i es t o c ont r ol s pa c e ( Ca s t el l s , 1996) , a nd t he ot her i s t he bot t om- up per s pec t i v e t ha t exper i enc es s pa c e i n di r ec t wa ys ( Appa dur a i , 1996) .

hi mi ( 2003) def i nes t he f or mer a s ‘ power ’ , a nd t he l a t t er a s ‘ body’ .

c e i s t hen c r ea t ed by i nt er a c - t i ons bet ween power and body whi ch f ace each ot her acr os s di s cour s es .

ndeed, as Ander s on ( 1991) demons t r a t es , t he na t i ona l s pa c e ha s been c ons t r uc t ed by di s c our s es ba c ked up by pr i nt c a pi t a l i s m.

mi l a r l y, pr oduc i ng t he mea ni ng of Engl i s h t hr ough r ep- r es ent a t i on i n t he f i el d of di s c our s e ha s t o do wi t h r e- or ga ni z i ng a l oc a l s pa c e.

As not ed a bov e, t he oppor t uni t i es f or t he exer c i s e of power a r e s pr ea d a c r os s s oc i a l pr a c t i c es i n s pa c e.

r a r y t o t he s t er eot ype, t her ef or e, power i s not nec es s a r i l y oppr es - s i v e ( Gi ddens , 1985) .

l ec t i v e a c t i on a s a s oc i a l pr a c t i c e v es t s power i n i ndi v i dua l s , t her eby enabl i ng a gr oup of i ndi vi dual s t o wor k on s oci al s t r uct ur e ( Gi ddens , 1984) .

Gi ven t he t ot al amount of el i t es ’ di f f er ent t ypes of capi t al ( Bour di eu, 1991) , however , el i t es ha v e ea s i er a c c es s t o power .

wi l l t hen f oc us on el i t es ’ power , a nd expl or e how t hey r epr es ent Engl i s h i n l a ngua ge- pol i c y di s c our s es f or t he pur pos e of r e- c ons t r uc t i ng J a pa n.

As Ha l l ( 1997) s a ys , t he dev el opment of a t heor et i c a l f r a mewor k i n r epr es ent a t i on

owes a gr eat deal t o Sas s ur e.

Swi s s l i ngui s t s aw l anguage as a s ys t em of s i gns .

The s ys t em i s made up of a bundl e of a di s t i nct i ve r el at i ons hi p bet ween a f or m ( e. g.

s ounds , wr i t t en wor ds , i ma ges , et c . ) a nd a n i dea t ha t t he f or m r ef er s t o.

t i s t hr ough t hi s di s t i nc t i v e r el a t i ons hi p t ha t a wor d a c qui r es a mea ni ng pec ul i a r t o i t s el f .

put i t a not her wa y , t he mea ni ng of a wor d i s det er mi ned by wha t we t hi nk of when we hea r or s ee t he wor d.

Sa s s ur e s a w t he r el a t i ons hi p bet ween t he f or m a nd t he i dea a s a r bi t r a r y.

t t hen f ol - l ows t hat t he unf i xed r el at i ons hi p pr ovi des i ndi vi dual s wi t h many pos s i bl e opt i ons f or mea ni ng pr oduc t i on.

t he a r bi t r a r y r el a t i ons hi p does not hi nder i ndi v i dua l s f r om c ommuni c a t i ng wi t h ea c h ot her i s t ha t t he r el a t i ons hi p c onf or ms t o l i ngui s t i c c onv ent i ons s har ed by member s of a par t i cul ar cul t ur e.

t s houl d be not ed, however , t hat wor ds ma ke t he out l i nes of t hei r mea ni ngs f l ui d under pa r t i c ul a r hi s t or i c a l a nd s oc i a l c i r c um- s t a nc es ( Ha l l , 1997) .

Dev el opi ng Sa s s ur e’ s i dea f ur t her , Der r i da ( 1981) r ema r ks t ha t t he f i na l mea ni ng of a wor d c ont i nues t o be def er r ed, a nd nev er f i nds i t s pl a c e.

wor d t hus nev er f i t s t he obj ec t i t r ef er s t o, a nd a l wa ys i nc l udes a c er t a i n obs c ur i t y whi c h a l l ows di v er s e s ens es of v a l ues t o s l i p i nt o t he wor d.

s i s why we br i ng mul t i pl e mea ni ngs t o a wor d when we s ee or hea r i t .

Ha l l ( 1997) s a ys t ha t t he r el a t i on bet ween t he f or m, t he i dea , a nd l a ngua ge a s a s ys - t em of s i gns pl a ys c r uc i a l r ol es i n mea ni ng pr oduc t i on.

c a l l s t he pr oc es s t o l i nk t he t hr ee ‘ r epr es ent a t i on’ .

l owi ng Sa s s ur e’ s a nd Der r i da ’ s i dea s on l a ngua ge a nd mea n- i ng, f ur t her mor e, he a r gues t ha t mea ni ng a nd r epr es ent a t i on a r e s ubj ec t t o hi s t or y a nd c ha nge.

n ot her wor ds , r epr es ent a t i on i s expos ed “ t o t he c ons t a nt ‘ pl a y’ or s l i ppa ge of mea ni ng, t o t he c ons t a nt pr oduc t i on of new mea ni ngs , new i nt er pr et a t i ons ” ( Ha l l , 1997, p.

32) .

Fa i r c l ough ( 2003) r ega r ds r epr es ent a t i on a s a di s c our s a l ma t t er , def i ni ng di s c our s es

as “ par t i cul ar ways of r epr es ent i ng par t of t he wor l d” ( p. 26) .

n common wi t h Hal l ’ s

( 1997) v i ews on r epr es ent a t i on, Fa i r c l ough ( 2001, 2003) s a ys t ha t di s c our s es s ha pe a n d

a r e s ha ped by s oc i et y , a t t endi ng t o t he i mpa c t t ha t f or ma l pr oper t i es of di s c our s es ha v e

on s oc i et y .

i t i c a l Di s c our s e Ana l ys i s ( CDA) , whi c h Fa i r c l ough pl a ys a l ea di ng r ol e i n

es t a bl i s hi ng a s a n a ppr oa c h of di s c our s e a na l ys i s , c ons i der s t ha t “ di s c our s e ma y…t r y t o

pa s s of f a s s umpt i ons ( of t en f a l s i f yi ng ones ) a bout a ny a s pec t of s oc i a l l i f e a s mer e c om-

mon s ens e” ( Fai r cl ough & Wodak, 1997, p. 258) .

deol ogy- l aden ways of us i ng l an-

guage, whi ch under pi n f al s i f yi ng as s umpt i ons and r epr es ent t hes e as t r ut h, ar e of t en

i nv i s i bl e.

ough l i ngui s t i c a na l ys es of di s c our s es , t her ef or e, “ CDA a i ms t o ma ke mor e

v i s i bl e t hes e opa que a s pec t s of di s c our s e” ( Fa i r c l ough & Woda k, 1997, p. 258) , a nd t r i es t o r ev ea l t he wa ys i n whi c h f or ma l pr oper t i es of di s c our s es wor k on s oc i et y .

Gl oba l i z a t i on, due t o t he di f f i c ul t y of gr a s pi ng i t s ov er a l l pi c t ur e, ma de t he r epr es en- t a t i on of Engl i s h i n J a pa n’ s l a ngua ge pol i c i es a l l ow f or t he c ons t a nt s l i ppa ge of mea ni ng.

Yet t he mea ni ng of Engl i s h nev er f i nds i t s pl a c e, a nd Engl i s h ha s been ov er l oa ded wi t h mul t i pl e mea ni ngs .

s mi ght ha v e f a r - r ea c hi ng i nf l uenc e ov er t he ma t t er s of l a ngua ge, becaus e “ l anguage and l anguage pol i cy bot h exi s t i n. . . hi ghl y compl ex, i nt er act i ng and dyna mi c c ont ext s , t he modi f i c a t i on of a ny pa r t of whi c h ma y ha v e c or r el a t ed ef f ec t s ( a nd c a us es ) on a ny ot her pa r t ” ( Spol s ky , 2004, p. 6) .

i ng CDA a s a met ho d, t her ef or e, I wi l l a na l yz e f or ma l pr oper t i es of J a pa n’ s l a ngua ge pol i c i es , a nd exa mi ne how Engl i s h i s r epr es ent ed i n l a ngua ge- pol i c y di s c our s es .

wi l l pa r t i c ul a r l y a t t end t o t he wa y i n whi c h Engl i s h i s r epr es ent ed as i nevi t abl e f or t he J apanes e by s ymbol i cal l y equat i ng i t wi t h gl oba l i z a t i on.

The Symbol i c Equat i on of Engl i sh wi t h Gl obal i z at i on

The s ymbol i c equa t i on of Engl i s h wi t h gl oba l i z a t i on c a n be s een i n t wo doc ument s :

( Pr i me Mi ni s t er ’ s Commi s s i on on J a pa n’ s Goa l s i n t he 21s t Cent ur y [ PMC]

2000) and

“

” ( Mi ni s t r y of Educat i on, Cul t ur e, Spor t s , Sci ence and Technol ogy

[ MEXT] 2003) .

r ea s on f or c hoos i ng t hes e doc ument s i s bec a us e t hey a r e s een t o

ha v e exer c i s ed a n ef f ec t on J a pa n’ s ELT i n t he s ens e t ha t t hey a ddr es s ed ELT i n s t r a t egi c

ways f or t he f i r s t t i me i n J apan’ s hi s t or y .

a mat t er of f act , many r es ear cher s have

exami ned t hes e t wo document s i n t er ms of t hei r i mpact on s oci et y .

t hough t hes e

r es ea r c her s poi nt out t ha t Engl i s h i s di s c us s ed i n r el a t i on t o gl oba l i z a t i on, howev er , none

of t hem ha s a na l ys ed how Engl i s h a nd gl oba l i z a t i on a r e r epr es ent ed a s one a nd t he s a me,

a nd by ext ens i on, a s i nev i t a bl e f or J a pa n.

ha v e t hey c ons i der ed wha t ef f ec t s t he r ep-

r es ent a t i on br i ngs a bout t o t he t ea c hi ng a nd l ea r ni ng of l a ngua ge.

a na l ys i ng PMC

( 2000) and MEXT ( 2003) f r om a di f f er ent per s pect i ve, t her ef or e, I wi l l appr oach t hes e

i s s ues .

TheRepresentation ofGlobalization

Let us l ook at how gl obal i z at i on i s r epr es ent ed J apan’ s l anguage pol i ci es .

( 2000) gi v es t he f ol l owi ng:

Gl oba l i z a t i on ha s pr ogr es s ed beyond t he s t a ge of bei ng a “ pr oc es s ” . . . .

f enc es bet ween c ount r i es ha v e bec ome l ower , a nd t he ef f ec t s of dev el opment s i n one pa r t of t he wor l d ar e i mmedi at el y bei ng f el t el s ewher e; t he wor l d i s i ndeed becomi ng an ev er s mal l er pl a c e. . . .

a r es ul t , t he uni v er s a l i t y a nd ut i l i t y of s ys t ems a nd s t a n- da r ds i n v a r i ous f i el ds , i nc l udi ng t he ec onomy , s c i enc e, a nd a c a demi c t r a i ni ng, wi l l be hel d up t o gl oba l ya r ds t i c ks f or ques t i oni ng a nd ev a l ua t i on.

er y c ount r y wi l l ha v e t o r ev i ew, r eev a l ua t e, a nd a dj us t i t s exi s t i ng s ys t ems a nd pr a c t i c es on t he ba s i s of a gl oba l per s pec t i v e….

oba l i z a t i on wi l l a c c el er a t e t he pr oc es s of di v er s i f i c a t i on, bot h domes t i c a l l y a nd i nt er na t i ona l l y . . . . .

oba l i z a t i on ha s r a i s ed a v a r i et y of i s s ues f or J a pa n, s uc h a s t he need t o c ope wi t h t he s peed of dev el opment s , t o pa r t i c i pa t e i n r ul e ma ki ng a nd t o empower i ndi v i dua l s .

PMC, 2000, p. 3)

MEXT ( 2003) r epr es ent s gl oba l i z a t i on a s f ol l ows :

Recent l y , gl obal i z at i on i n var i ous f i el ds of t he e conomy and s oci et y has advanced r a pi dl y . . . .

oba l i z a t i on ext ends t o v a r i ous a c t i v i t i es of i ndi v i dua l s a s wel l a s t o t he bus i nes s wor l d.

MEXT, 2003)

What s t ands out i n t hes e pol i ci es i s t hat gl obal i z at i on i s cons t ant l y r epr es ent ed as an

ent i t y as i f i t coul d act as an agent .

r cl ough ( 2001, 2003) cal l s t hi s nomi nal i z at i on,

t hr ough whi c h a pr oc es s i s c onv er t ed i nt o a noun- l i ke ent i t y.

a c ons equenc e of nomi -

na l i z a t i on, pa r t i c ul a r a gent s who i ni t i a t e a nd a r e r es pons i bl e f or gl oba l i z a t i on ( e. g. mul t i na -

t i ona l c or por a t i ons , t r a ns na t i ona l or ga ni z a t i ons , a nd gov er nment s ) a r e a bs ent f r om t he

t ext s .

obal i z at i on i s t hus r epr es ent ed as uni ver s al i n t er ms of pl ace ( ‘ t he wor l d i s

i ndeed becomi ng an ever s mal l er pl ace’ ) and as an i nevi t abl e pr oces s whi ch mus t be

r es ponded t o i n pa r t i c ul a r wa ys ( ‘ Ev er y c ount r y wi l l ha v e t o r ev i ew, r eev a l ua t e, a nd a dj us t

i t s exi s t i ng s ys t ems a nd pr a c t i c es on t he ba s i s of a gl oba l per s pec t i v e’ ) .

a pa n i s under

t he i nf l uence of gl obal i z at i on, becaus e accor di ng t o PMC ( 2000) , J apan i s r equi r ed t o

r es pond t o t he i nev i t a bl e pr oc es s ( ‘ Gl oba l i z a t i on ha s r a i s ed a v a r i et y of i s s ues f or J a pa n’ ) .

TheRepresentation ofEnglish

A not a bl e c ha r a c t er i s t i c i n t he r epr es ent a t i on of Engl i s h i s t ha t wor ds whi c h r emi nd us of t he ‘ ea r t h’ a r e us ed r epea t edl y t o des c r i be Engl i s h.

n PMC ( 2000) , f or i ns t a nc e,

‘ i nt er na t i ona l ’ i s c ons t a nt l y us ed.

The advance of gl obal i z at i on and t he i nf or mat i on- t echnol ogy r evol ut i on cal l f or a wor l d- c l a s s l ev el of exc el l enc e.

hi ev i ng wor l d- c l a s s exc el l enc e dema nds t ha t , i n a ddi t i on t o ma s t er i ng i nf or ma t i on t ec hnol ogy , a l l J a pa nes e a c qui r e a wor ki ng knowl - edge of Engl i s h. . . . . . . knowl edge of Engl i s h a s t he

l i ngua f r a nc a equi ps one wi t h a key s ki l l f or knowi ng a nd a c c es s i ng t he wor l d.

PMC, 2000, p. 10 empha - s i s a dded)

The s a me i s s een i n MEXT ( 2003) a s wel l .

Engl i s h ha s pl a yed a c ent r a l r ol e a s t he c ommon

l a ngua ge i n l i nki ng peopl e who ha v e di f f er ent mot her t ongues .

MEXT, 2003, empha s i s a dded)

Thes e a r e onl y a f ew i ns t a nc es out of ma ny , a nd t he s a me des c r i pt i on c a n be f ound s c a t - t er ed i n t hes e pol i c i es .

n PMC ( 2000) , f ur t her mor e, ‘ gl oba l ’ a nd ‘ wor l d’ a r e us ed i n r el a - t i on t o Engl i s h.

Gl oba l i z a t i on a l s o mea ns t he a dv ent of a n a ge i n whi c h peopl e wi l l not be ov er l y c on- cer ned wi t h es t abl i s hed s ys t ems , cus t oms , and ves t ed i nt er es t s .

wi l l have br oad access t o oppor t uni t i es f or new under t aki ngs not l i mi t ed by nat i onal bounda r i es .

a c c ompl i s h t hi s , howev er , peopl e mus t pos s es t he a bi l i t y t o a c c es s and conver s e wi t h t he r es t of t he

. . . .

pos s es s i on or l ack of t hi s abi l i t y , whi c h we ma y c a l l “

l i t er a c y” , wi l l det er mi ne whet her or not one wi l l enj oy a bet t er l i f e i n t he wor l d of t he t went y - f i r s t c ent ur y . . . .

ba s i c c omponent s of t hi s new l i t er a c y a r e t he ma s t er y of i nf or ma t i on- t ec hnol ogy t ool s , s uc h a s c omput er s a nd t he I nt er net , a nd t he ma s t er y of Engl i s h a s t he i nt er na t i ona l l i ngua f r a nc a .

PMC, 2000, p. 4 empha s i s a dded)

I n t hi s exa mpl e, Engl i s h i s gi v en a s pec i a l s ki l l s uc h a s ‘ gl oba l l i t er a c y’ , a nd t he s ki l l i s

us ed t o ‘ c onv er s e wi t h t he r es t of t he wor l d’ .

t hes e ext r a c t s s how, t he der i v ed wor ds t ha t s ha r e t he s a me mea ni ng a r e us ed t o r epr es ent Engl i s h.

A Relation ofEquivalencebetween English and Globalization

I nt er es t i ngl y , t hes e wor ds ( i . e. i nt er na t i ona l , gl oba l , a nd wor l d) a r e us ed t o des c r i be gl oba l i z a t i on a c r os s t hes e l a ngua ge pol i c i es .

f ol l owi ng i s a n exa mpl e.

Gl obal i z at i on ext ends t o var i ous act i vi t i es of i ndi vi dual s as wel l as t o t he bus i nes s wor l d.

i ndi vi dual has i ncr eas i ng oppor t uni t i es t o come i n cont act wi t h t he

mar ket and s er vi ces , and par t i ci pat e i n

act i vi t i es .

t has become pos s i bl e f or anyone t o become act i ve on a

l evel .

MEXT, 2003, empha s i s a dded)

Accor di ng t o Fai r cl ough ( 2001) , over wor di ng wor ks as an i ndi cat or of an i deol ogi cal s t r uggl e.

t i s s t r i ki ng i n t he ov er wor di ng a bov e i s t ha t t her e i s a s ema nt i c r el a t i on- s hi p bet ween Engl i s h a nd gl oba l i z a t i on.

ough r ewor di ng t he di f f er ent wor ds t ha t a r e r educi bl e t o t he s ame meani ng, “ a r el at i on of equi val ence, or s ynonymy” ( Fai r cl ough, 2003, p. 127) i s t ext ur ed bet ween Engl i s h a nd gl oba l i z a t i on.

n ot her wor ds , Engl i s h a nd gl oba l i z a t i on a r e s ema nt i c a l l y pos i t i oned a s a hyponym of ‘ ea r t h’ , a l ongs i de ot her c o- hypo- nyms s uch as ‘ i nt er nat i onal ’ , ‘ gl obal ’ , and ‘ wor l d’ ( Fai r cl ough, 2003) ( s ee Fi gur e 1) .

Showi ng t hi s s chema r epeat edl y t hr oughout t he t ext s , as i f “ a cas cade can over whel m one wi t h t he f or c e of wa t er ” ( Fa i r c l ough, 2001, p. 212) , t hes e pol i c i es ma y ha v e a c umul a -

Figure 1

t i v e ef f ec t by whi c h Engl i s h a nd gl oba l i z a t i on a r e di s c our s ed a s one a nd t he s a me.

demons t r a t ed a bov e, gl oba l i z a t i on i s r epr es ent ed a s a n i nev i t a bl e pr oc es s f or J a pa n.

l ong a s gl oba l i z a t i on a nd Engl i s h a r e one a nd t he s a me, i t i s i nev i t a bl e f or t he J a pa nes e t o l ea r n Engl i s h i n t he er a of gl oba l i z a t i on.

DialecticalRelationship between Representation and Society

When we exami ne di scour ses as ways of r epr esent at i on, we need t o t ake i nt o a c c ount t ha t t her e i s a di a l ec t i c a l r el a t i ons hi p bet ween di s c our s es a nd s oc i a l s t r uc t ur e ( Fa i r c l ough 2001) .

s c our s es a r e s oc i a l l y det er mi ned, but a t t he s a me t i me t hey ha v e c a us a l ef f ec t s on t he ma t er i a l wor l d.

s i s t r ue of ELT i n J a pa n.

n 2002, f or ei gn l a n- gua ge bec a me a r equi r ed s ubj ec t f or t he f i r s t t i me i n t he pos t wa r er a , but no l a ngua ges ot her t ha n Engl i s h a r e of f er ed i n j uni or hi gh s c hool .

n t he s a me yea r , i t bec a me pos s i - bl e t o t ea c h Engl i s h a t el ement a r y s c hool , a nd t he t ea c hi ng of Engl i s h wa s f or ma l l y i nt r o- duc ed i nt o t he el ement a r y s c hool c ur r i c ul um i n 2011.

om 2003 t o 2005, i n a ddi t i on, 100 hi gh s c hool s wer e des i gna t ed a s Super Engl i s h La ngua ge Hi gh Sc hool s , whi c h s et a s t hei r obj ec t i v e t ea c hi ng a pa r t of t hei r c ur r i c ul um i n Engl i s h.

r epr es ent a t i on of Eng- l i s h a bov e i s s ha ped by t he hi gh s t a t us of Engl i s h i n t he ma t er i a l wor l d, but a t t he s a me t i me i t c ont r i but es t o s t r engt heni ng t he s t a t us of Engl i s h i n t he ma t er i a l wor l d.

The Pr i nci pl e of J apan’ s ELT i n t he Fi r st Decade of t he 21st Cent ury and I t s Pr obl ems

I n 2009, MEXT a nnounc ed a c ompr ehens i v e pl a n f or ELT r ef or m f or t he pur pos e of ef f ec - t i v e i mpl ement a t i on of ELT a t el ement a r y s c hool .

s pl a n s umma r i z es t he gi s t of i t s obj ec t i v es a s f ol l ows :

I n t he mi ds t of gl oba l i z a t i on i n t he f i el ds of ec onomy a nd s oc i et y , i n or der f or c hi l - dr en t o s ur v i v e i n t he 21s t c ent ur y , t hey need t o a c qui r e c ommuni c a t i on a bi l i t i es i n Engl i s h a s t he i nt er na t i ona l l i ngua f r a nc a .

s i s a c r i t i c a l i s s ue f or t he f ut ur e of chi l dr en as wel l as f or t he f ur t her devel opment of our count r y .

MEXT, 2009, [ t r a ns l a t ed by t he a ut hor f r om t he J a pa nes e or i gi na l ] )

Gi v en t hi s s t a t ement , t hi s pl a n s eemed t o t a ke ov er t he s pi r i t of PMC ( 2000) a nd MEXT

( 2003) .

a dher enc e t o Engl i s h under pi nned J a pa n’ s l a ngua ge pol i c y dur i ng t he f i r s t dec a de of t he 21s t c ent ur y .

Thi s ki nd of r epr es ent at i on may uni f y i ndi vi dual s ’ di ver s e i nt er es t s i n di f f er ent l a ngua ges i nt o a n i ns t r ument a l mot i v a t i on f or Engl i s h f or t he s t a t e’ s pur pos e.

us t a s ‘ a l a ngua ge i s a di a l ec t wi t h a n a r my a nd a na v y ’ s hows , s o gi v i ng a s pec i a l s t a t us t o one l a ngua ge l ea ds t o l ower i ng t he s t a t us of ot her l a ngua ges .

f Engl i s h i s gi v en s uc h a hi gh s t a t us , who wi l l go t o t he t r oubl e of l ea r ni ng l a ngua ges wi t h l ower s t a t us ? Ev en i f t her e a r e i ndi v i dua l s who dec i ded t o l ea r n s uc h l ow- s t a t us l a ngua ges , wha t l ea r ni ng env i r on- ment a r e t hey t o s t udy under ?

f Engl i s h i s t he l a ngua ge t ha t needs t o be l ea r nt bef or e a nyt hi ng el s e, wha t s uppor t c a n mi nor i t y c hi l dr en whos e f i r s t l a ngua ge i s not Engl i s h get t o ma i nt a i n t hei r f i r s t l a ngua ge?

l e MEXT ( 2009) s et s bot h ‘ t he f ut ur e of c hi l dr en’

and ‘ t he f ur t her devel opment of our count r y’ as i t s obj ect i ves , t he r epr es ent at i on of Engl i s h a bov e ma y l ea d t o i gnor i ng t he wi s hes of i ndi v i dua l s t o l ea r n di f f er ent l a ngua ges , whi ch s houl d be of hi gh pr i or i t y i n a democr acy , t o meet t he demand of t he s t at e f or na t i ona l dev el opment .

Yamada ( 2008) even s ees an ear l y s i gn of t ot al i t ar i ani s m i n t he r epr es ent at i on of Engl i s h.

c or di ng t o Ya ma da , s t i r r i ng up i n t he popul a c e a s ens e of unea s e i s a us ua l meas ur e f or a t ot al i t ar i an s t at e.

s ees t he r epr es ent at i on of Engl i s h as a s our ce of unea s i nes s , by whi c h t he J a pa nes e a r e c ompel l ed t o l ea r n a s i ngl e l a ngua ge.

n t he er a of gl oba l i z a t i on i n whi c h i nt er dependenc e, c onf l i c t , a nd s t r a t i f i c a t i on t a ke pl a c e s i mul t a ne- ous l y i n c ompl ex wa ys , wha t democ r a c y s houl d be l i ke needs t o be r e- c ons i der ed ( Hel d, 1995) .

t i s doubt f ul whet her ELT, whi c h s hows a s i gn of t ot a l i t a r i a ni s m, i s a ppr opr i a t e a s democ r a t i c educ a t i on.

What Yamada ( 2008) f eel s mos t appr ehens i ve of i s whet her or not t he pos i t i on of t hos e who f a i l ed i n t he l ea r ni ng of Engl i s h i n s uc h a s ys t em i s c ons i der ed.

n J a pa n’ s l a n- guage pol i ci es , as s hown above, Engl i s h i s r epr es ent ed as i nevi t abl e f or t he J apanes e.

Mor eov er , MEXT ( 2009) ev en s a ys t ha t c ommuni c a t i on a bi l i t i es i n Engl i s h a s es s ent i a l

f or s ur v i v i ng i n t he 21s t c ent ur y .

t hes e pol i c i es a ppea r t o be open t o ques t i on.

t hes e pol i c i es a s s ume t ha t a l l J a pa nes e pl a y a n a c t i v e pa r t i n t he i nt er na t i ona l s oc i et y i n

Engl i s h? I f s o, what s houl d t hos e who gave up l ear ni ng Engl i s h or ar e poor Engl i s h-

l a ngua ge l ea r ner s do?

t a l t er na t i v e pl a ns wi l l be gi v en t o t hem?

f t hes e pol i c i es

c a nnot gi v e a ns wer s t o t hes e ques t i ons , a s Ya ma da s a ys , J a pa n’ s ELT wi l l be not hi ng but

a t hr ea t .

a t i on f or l a ngua ge s houl d not t a ke t hr ea t a s mot i v a t i on f or l ea r ni ng.

l ea r ni ng of l a ngua ge ga i ns s uc c es s when l ea r ner s a r e i nt r i ns i c a l l y mot i v a t ed t o l ea r n t he t a r get l a ngua ge f or i t s own s a ke ( Br own, 2001) .

n ot her wor ds , di s c ov er i ng how i nt er - es t i ng l a ngua ge i s l ea ds t o bei ng a s uc c es s f ul l a ngua ge l ea r ner .

a pa n’ s ELT needs t o be r e- c ons i der ed a l ong t hi s l i ne.

Concl usi on

Thi s pa per ha s f oc us ed on t he t op- down per s pec t i v e r a t her t ha n t he bot t om- up per - s pec t i v e i n J a pa n’ s ELT pol i c i es .

s does not mea n t ha t ea c h ELT pr a c t i t i oner ’ s a gen- c y , ef f or t , a nd pr a c t i c e a r e mea ni ngl es s .

ma t t er how gr ea t power i s , t her e i s a l wa ys s pace i n whi ch i ndi vi dual s can under t ake r ef or m t hr ough col l ect i ve act i on ( Gi ddens , 1984, 1985) .

t hi s pa per does , i nv es t i ga t i ng t op- down per s pec t i v es s houl d be s een a s a f i r s t s t ep f or s uc h a r ef or m.

The f ol l owi ng wor ds by Ba uma n ( 2004) gi v e a n i ns i ght i nt o J a pa n’ s ELT:

The huma n wor l d. . . i s s a t ur a t ed wi t h ‘ Sol l en’ [ ‘ s houl ds ’ ] - t he s or t of i dea t ha t ‘ wa nt t o become r eal i t y t hems el ves ’ : t hey ‘ have an i nbor n dr i ve t o r eal i z e t hems el ves ’ .

( Ba uma n, 2004, p. 9)

The mas t er y of Engl i s h i s a ‘ s houl d’ f or t he J apanes e, and t he s ymbol i c equat i on of Engl i s h wi t h gl oba l i z a t i on ha s f ur t her ed t hi s i dea .

t i s t r ue t ha t Engl i s h i s wi del y us ed i n t he wor l d, but we need t o be c a ut i ous of t a ki ng f or gr a nt ed t ha t t her e i s a nec es s a r y l i nk bet ween Engl i s h a nd gl oba l i z a t i on.

v en t ha t ev er y a c t i on a n i ndi v i dua l t a kes i n her /hi s da i l y r out i ne ha s pot ent i a l f or a c c el er a t i ng t he pr oc es s of gl oba l i z a t i on ( Gi ddens 1990) , ever y l anguage s houl d be abl e t o pl ay a r ol e as a medi um f or gl obal i z at i on.

Ra t her t ha n r epr es ent i ng Engl i s h a s a ‘ s houl d’ i n t he er a of gl oba l i z a t i on t hr ough s ym- bol i c ma ni pul a t i on, i t i s mor e us ef ul t o dec ons t r uc t t he i deol ogi es of Engl i s h, t o r eexa m- i ne t he r ol es of Engl i sh educat i on as a par t of school i ng, and t o f ocus on l ayi ng a f ounda t i on f or i ndi v i dua l s ’ f ut ur e needs .

Cons equent l y , t he r ol e of t he s t a t e needs r e- c ons i der a t i on, bec a us e t he s t a t e hol ds

a ut hor i t a r i a n power ov er educ a t i ona l p ol i c i es .

c or di ng t o Ka ng a nd Yos hi mi ( 2003) , i n

J a pa n i n t he per i od a f t er t he Sec ond Wor l d Wa r i nt er medi a t e c ommuni t i es bet ween t he

na t i on a nd t he s t a t e, s uc h a s c ompa ni es , l a bor uni ons , a nd l oc a l i t i es , pl a yed l ea di ng r ol es

i n t he f or ma t i on of or der , t hus f r eei ng J a pa n f r om mi l i t a r i s m.

neol i ber a l i s m a dv a nc ed i n t he f i el d of economy , however , t he i nt er medi at e communi t i es coul d not wor k ef f ec - t i vel y t o deal wi t h t he mar ket becaus e of t hei r l i mi t ed power .

a r es ul t , t he s t at e bega n t o r ea s s er t i t s el f i n t he ec onomi c a nd ot her f i el ds , a nd t hi s t endenc y be c a me mos t not i c ea bl e dur i ng a nd a f t er t he ec onomi c bubbl e bur s t i n t he 1990s .

ef or e, t he f i r s t dec a de of t he 21s t c ent ur y wa s t he er a i n whi c h pol i c i es det er mi ned by t he s t a t e a nd t hei r ef f ec t s wer e obs er v ed.

The r epr es ent a t i on of Engl i s h a bov e t a kes t he s a me l i ne a s t hi s mov ement a f t er t he economi c cr i s i s i n t he 1990s .

t s hows t hat t he J apanes e s t at e f ound an anchor age i n Engl i s h t ha t l i nked J a pa n t o gl oba l l a nds c a pes ( Appa dur a i , 1996) .

not ed a bov e, how- ev er , t hes e l a ngua ge pol i c i es ent a i l t he da nger of t ot a l i t a r i a ni s m, onl y r es ul t i ng i n enha nc - i ng i ns t r ument a l v i ews on l a ngua ge ( e. g. get t i ng a hi gh s c or e on s t a nda r di z ed t es t s ) a t t he expens e of i ndi v i dua l s ’ di v er s e i nt er es t s .

For t he t ea c hi ng a nd l ea r ni ng of Engl i s h i n t he 21s t c ent ur y, I woul d l i ke t o pr opos e t ha t J a pa n’ s ELT go ba c k t o t he pr i nc i pl es of l a ngua ge l ea r ni ng.

own ( 2001) s umma - r i z es wha t he c a l l s “ t he I nt r i ns i c Mot i v a t i on Pr i nc i pl e” ( p. 59) a s f ol l ows :

The mos t power f ul r ewar ds ar e t hos e t hat ar e i nt r i ns i cal l y mot i vat ed wi t hi n t he l ea r ner .

a us e t he beha v i or s t ems f r om needs , wa nt s , or des i r es wi t hi n ones el f , t he beha v i or i t s el f i s s el f - r ewa r di ng; t her ef or e, no ext er na l l y a dmi ni s t er ed r ewa r d i s nec es s a r y ( Br own, 2001, p. 59) .

I f l ea r ner s a r e i nt r i ns i c a l l y mot i v a t ed t o l ea r n Engl i s h bei ng f a s c i na t ed by s t r uc t ur a l di f f er - enc es bet ween t hei r f i r s t l a ngua ge a nd Engl i s h, f or i ns t a nc e, ext er na l r ewa r ds , s uc h a s good out war d appear ance of cur r i cul um vi t ae, pr omot i on, and r i s e i n s al ar y , ar e not nec es s a r y.

r i c ul ums , met hods , a nd ma t er i a l s s houl d be des i gned t o a r ous e l ea r ner s ’ i nt el l ec t ua l c ur i os i t y a bout l a ngua ge.

Lea r ner s t hen needs t o be gi v en oppor t uni t i es i n whi c h t o i nv es t t hei r knowl edge of t he t a r get l a ngua ge, s i nc e s uc c es s f ul l ea r ni ng of t he s ec ond l a ngua ge depends on t hei r

“ per s ona l i nv es t ment of t i me, ef f or t , a nd a t t ent i on t o t he s ec ond l a ngua ge i n t he f or m of a n i ndi v i dua l i z ed ba t t er y of s t r a t egi es f or c ompr ehendi ng a nd pr oduc i ng t he l a ngua ge”

( Br own, 2001, p. 60) .

t hi s end, I woul d pr opos e t ha t J a pa n’ s ELT gi v e mor e a t t ent i on

t o l ocal voi ce, si nce my on- goi ng r esear ch i n Hi r oshi ma demonst r at es t hi s poi nt .

Chi l dr en a t a n el ement a r y s c hool i n t he c i t y s howed gr ea t i nt er es t i n s endi ng a pea c e mes - s a ge t o t he wor l d i n Engl i s h f r om t hei r l oc a l i t y .

wi s hed t o c ommuni c a t e wi t h t he wor l d di r ect l y t o di s cus s peace t oget her wi t h peopl e al l over t he wor l d.

i ng t he needs of t he l oc a l r a t her t ha n t he s t a t e ma y l ea d t o s uc c es s f ul ELT.

As t he di s c us s i on a bov e s hows , a c r i t i c a l i nqui r y i nt o t he r epr es ent a t i on of Engl i s h enabl es us t o cons i der J apan’ s ELT f r om a di f f er ent per s pect i ve and t o i magi ne ELT t hr ough whi c h i ndi v i dua l s , gr oups , a nd s c hool s i n pa r t i c ul a r l oc a l i t i es di r ec t l y c ommuni - c a t e wi t h t he wor l d wi t hout s t a t e a ppr ov a l i n t he ma nner t ha t t he l oc a l i t i es r eques t .

Sa i d ( 1994) s a ys c onc er ni ng t he i nt el l ec t ua l , ELT pr a c t i t i oner s s houl d open up t o i nnov a - t i on a nd exper i ment r a t her t ha n t o t he exi s t i ng c ondi t i on gi v en f r om a bov e by a ut hor i t y .

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