adoption Survey of Companies listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange
著者 Okura Yujiro
journal or
publication title
Kansai University review of business and commerce
volume 7
page range 23‑39
year 2005‑03
URL http://hdl.handle.net/10112/12099
Kansai University Review of Business and Commerce No. 7 (March 2005), pp. 23‑39
Study based on a Consolidated Tax System adoption Survey o f Companies l i s t e d on the Tokyo Stock Exchange
Y u j i r o Okura
For companies listed on the First Section Market of the Tokyo Stock Exchange, we conducted a research for the ten‑ dency that companies adopt a consolidated income tax sys‑ tem introduced to Japan starting from a financial year end‑
ing on or after March 31, 2003. This article clarifies the cur‑ rent situation and problems on the basis of the result of the research which conducted questionnaire surveys of compa‑
n,es.
Firstly, we inquired about the tendency of introducing the consolidated income tax, and approximately 40 percent of all the companies expected to introduce it.
Secondly, because the income sum approach and profit and loss transfer approach of the consolidated income tax system were not sufficiently understood in 2002, it was sole‑ ly focused to be used to offset the loss carried forward by a parent company and its subsidiary company against profit with a whole group. But it has also a positive meaning of making use tax deduction in proportion to the ratio of research expenses to sales or making use tax deduction to investment for information technology in the group compa‑
nies in all in 2003.
Thirdly, approximately 53 percent of the companies said that it was not desirable to adopt a market value basis for assets of their subsidiary companies when the consolidated income tax system was applied.
Fourth, 81 percent of the companies complained that the loss carried forward by their subsidiary company before the financial year of the consolidated income tax system was not allowed to be taken over at all, which means that the economic single entity approach is stronger than the eco‑
nomic separate entity approach in Japan.
Fifth, 60 percent of the companies said that it was not 23
desirable that no general contribution with the consolidated group was qualifying for deduction. It means that they are worried that there will be a difficulty in calculating fair value.
Keywords: consolidated income tax system, income sum approach, profit and loss transfer approach, tax allocation system, consolidated income tax system, prevention of tax avoid‑ ance, losses of consolidated subsidiary corporations, and market value basis for assets of subsidiary companies
Introduction
Two years have passed since a consolidated tax system was adopted in fiscal 2002, owing to the enactment of company re‑struc‑ ture laws concerning holding company, division, merger or the like, and in compliance with the wishes of the industrial world to strengthen competitive position in the world market. So, question‑
naire surveys of companies were carried out for a month October 2003 (September 2002, the last time) to observe companies attention to the consolidated tax system.
(1) Subject: total 1674 companies including companies listed on the TSE first section
(2) Valid answer: 270 companies (answer rate: 16.1%) (3) Company classification:
1. SEC GAAP companies (in accordance with SEC standard) 15 2. Companies listed on the TSE first section: 183
3. Companies listed on the TSE second section and over‑the‑count‑ er recorded companies: 38
4. Non‑listed companies: 34
(4) Number of domestic 100% subsidiaries:
1. medium: 15 maximum: 211 minimum: 0 median:15
2. Number of domestic 100% subsidiary companies: under 10: 184 over 10: 28 over 20: 15 over 30: 41 No answer: 2
(5) Member of the Tax Commission of the Japan Business Federation (Nippon Keidanren) Business Law Division: 48 compa‑
nies (answer rate: 36.9 %)
Findings
C ompanng with r e s u l t s o f the l a s t survey we c a r r i e d out cross tabulation analysis by making d i s t i n c t i o n o f the Tax Commission members and not members v e r t i c a l a x i s , and on t h i s a n a l y s i s we studied consolidated tax system from accounting p o i n t o f v i e w . 1
We d i d the survey l a s t year
(2002)o f
213companies l i s t e d on the TSE f i r s t s e c t i o n i n c l u d i n g GAAP companies and t h i s year
(2003)we d i d a survey o f
198companies among
270companies. We com‑
pared the findings o f the two surveys. The r a t e i n parentheses shows the r a t e o f the year
2002s u r v e y . Explanation i s done accord‑
i n g t o the
2003s u r v e y .
(1)
I n t e n t i o n o f adopting consolidated tax system and the reason F i r s t , the number o f companies which have i n t e n t i o n o f adopting consolidated tax system has increased t o
13%t h i s time (on the
2002and
2003s u r v e y s ) .
1 . Companies which have decided ( o r intended) t o adopt the s y s ‑ tem without waiting f o r a b o l i t i o n o f a d d i t i o n a l t a x :
8.6% (7.5%)2 . Companies which i n t e n d t o adopt the system when a d d i t i o n a l tax
i s a b o l i s h e d :
4.0% (3.8%)3.
Companies which expect t o adopt the system before l o n g :
18.2%(29.1%)
4.
Companies which have not decided t o adopt the system:
9.0%(15.5%)
5.
Companies which do not intend t o adopt the system:
54.5%(43.7%)
Second, t o the question what i s obstacle t o adopt consolidated tax system on the
2003s u r v e y , system complexity
<55%>and sub‑
s i d i a r y company's l o s s ‑ c a r r i e d forward which i s not handed over
<22%>
were pointed o u t . Companies system adoption i s i n a l a r g e measure the r e s u l t o f a b o l i t i o n o f consolidated a d d i t i o n a l t a x only f o r two years i n
2003.The r a t e o f p o i n t i n g out the complexity as obstacle i s no d i f f e r e n c e between the members
<56%>and non‑
members
<55%>.1.
Consolidated tax system i s complicated:
14.8% (54.8%) 2.Loss c a r r i e d forward i s not handed o v e r :
58% (21.5%)3 . When consolidated tax system i s adopted, a p p r a i s a l a t market value i s a p p l i e d : 3% ( 1 . 1 %)
4 . No company t o which consolidated tax system i s a p p l i e d : 20%
( 7 . 4 % )
5 . Consolidated tax system i s incomprehensible: 7% ( 2 . 6 % ) 6 . No answer: 34% ( 1 2 . 6 % )
T h i r d , t o the question what you t h i n k about using the adopted consolidated tax system i n Japan on the 2003 s u r v e y , 75% o f the t o t a l answers pointed out i t s complexity. The r a t e o f p o i n t i n g out i t s complexity i s no d i f f e r e n c e between the members <56%> and non‑
members <55%>.
1 . Very complex: 85% ( 3 1 . 5 % ) 2 . Complex: 11.8% ( 4 3 . 7 % )
3 . Neither complex nor s i m p l e : 50% ( 1 8 . 5 % ) 4 . Simple: 3% ( 1 . 1 % )
5 . Very s i m p l e : 0% (0%) 6 . No answer: 14% ( 5 . 2 % )
( 2 ) Findings on e l i m i n a t i o n o f i n t e r n a l transaction
F i r s t , t o the question what you t h i n k o f elimination o f i n t e r n a l t r a n s a c t i o n applied only f o r permanent a s s e t s , answer'desirable'
<33%> exceeded answer'undesirable'<16%> on the 2003 s u r v e y . 1 . Very u n d e s i r a b l e : 20% ( 7 . 4 % )
2 . Undesirable: 23% ( 8 . 5 % )
3 . Neither undesirable nor d e s i r a b l e : 12.3% ( 4 5 . 6 % ) 4 . D e s i r a b l e : 75% (27.8%)
5 . Very d e s i r a b l e : 15% ( 5 . 6 % ) 6 . No answer: 15% ( 5 . 6 % )
Second, elimination o f i n t e r n a l transaction i s not applied f o r s t o c k . On t h i s p o i n t , answer'desirable'<28%> exceeded answer 'undesirable'<21%> on the 2003 s u r v e y .
1 . Very u n d e s i r a b l e : 27% ( 1 0 . 0 % ) 2 . Undesirable: 29% ( 1 0 . 7 % )
3 . Neither undesirable nor d e s i r a b l e : 12.3% ( 4 5 . 6 % )
4 . D e s i r a b l e : 57% ( 2 1 . 1 %)
5 . Very d e s i r a b l e : 20% ( 7 . 4 % ) 6 . No answer: 14% ( 5 . 2 % )
( 3 ) General donation i n consolidated group
General donation i n consolidated group i s a l l excluded from expense and l o s s . On t h i s p o i n t , answer'undesirable'<60% (65%)>
exceeded l a r g e l y answer'desirable'<7% (6%)> on the 2003 (and 2002) s u r v e y . 70% o f the members answered'undesirable', 50% o f the non‑members answered'undesirable'. There was a d i f f e r e n c e o f 20%.
1 . Very u n d e s i r a b l e : 45.5% ( 4 6 . 0 % ) 2 . Undesirable: 14.6% (19.3%)
3 . Neither undesirable nor d e s i r a b l e : 28.3% ( 2 7 . 7 % ) 4 . D e s i r a b l e : 5.6%'(5.6%)
5 . Very d e s i r a b l e : 1.5% ( 0 . 5 % ) ( 4 ) Appraisal a t market value
Subsidiary company's assets are appraised a t market value i f consolidated t a x system i s a p p l i e d . On t h i s p o i n t , answer'undesir‑
able'increased <from 45% t o (53%)> and answer'neither u n d e s i r ‑ able nor desirable'decreased <from (47%) t o 37%> on the 2003 (and 2002) s u r v e y . On the a p p r a i s a l o f subsidiary company's assets a t market value i n consolidated tax system, 75% of the members answered'undesirable', 37% o f the non‑members answered'unde‑
s i r a b l e ' . There was a twice d i f f e r e n c e between the members and the non‑members.
1 . Very u n d e s i r a b l e : 34.8% ( 2 8 . 2 % ) 2 . Undesirable: 17.7% (16.4%)
3 . Neither undesirable nor d e s i r a b l e : 36.7% (46.9%) 4 . D e s i r a b l e : 4.5% ( 6 . 6 % )
5 . Very d e s i r a b l e : 1.0% ( 0 . 9 % )
( 5 ) Subsidiary company's l o s s c a r r i e d forward
Any subsidiary company's l o s s c a r r i e d forward i s not permitted
t o hand over i n the accounting period where consolidated t a x s y s ‑
tem i s adopted. On t h i s p o i n t , answer'undesirable'decreased
s l i g h t l y <from (86%) t o 81%> on the 2003 (and 2002) s u r v e y .
1 . Very u n d e s i r a b l e : 65.7% ( 6 6 . 7 % ) 2 . Undesirable: 15.2% ( 1 9 . 2 % )
3 . Neither undesirable nor d e s i r a b l e : 14.6% ( 1 2 . 2 % ) 4 . D e s i r a b l e : 0.5% (0%)
5 . Very d e s i r a b l e : 0% ( 0 . 5 % )
( 6 ) Tax m i t i g a t i o n i n consolidated tax system
I n order t o prevent tax m i t i g a t i o n using consolidated t a x
sy~tem,r u l e s f o r d e n i a l o f consolidated c o r p o r a t i o n ' s conduct o r computa‑
t i o n were s e t down. On t h i s p o i n t , answer'desirable'<25%> and answer'undesirable'<20%> were almost o f the same number on the 2003 s u r v e y . Without d e t a i l e d r u l e s f o r consolidated tax system, tax m i t i g a t i o n can be judged i n c l u s i v e l y by f i n d i n g o f f a c t case by c a s e . So these r u l e s w i l l serve a u s e f u l f u n c t i o n f o r the tax a u t h o r i t i e s ' f a c t f i n d i n g .
1 . Very u n d e s i r a b l e : 22% ( 8 . 1 % ) 2 . Undesirable: 31% ( 1 1 . 5 % )
3 . N e i t h e r undesirable nor d e s i r a b l e : 13.4% ( 4 9 . 6 % ) 4 . D e s i r a b l e : 59% (21.9%)
5 . Very d e s i r a b l e : 8% ( 3 . 0 % ) 6 . No answer: 16% ( 5 . 9 % )
( 7 ) Tax on aggregate income i n consolidated tax system
F i r s t , i n the introduced consolidated tax system i n Japan, the type o f tax on aggregate income i s adopted l i k e i n the U . S . and F r a n c e . On t h i s p o i n t , answer'desirable'accounted f o r 24% (30%) and answer'undesirable', 13% (11%) on the 2003 (and 2002) s u r v e y . And answer'neither d e s i r a b l e nor undesirable'accounted f o r 60%.
1 . Very u n d e s i r a b l e : 3.0% ( 2 . 8 % ) 2 . U n d e s i r a b l e : 9.6% ( 8 . 5 % )
3 . N e i t h e r undesirable nor d e s i r a b l e : 57.6% (56.8%) 4 . D e s i r a b l e : 22.2% ( 2 6 . 8 % )
5 . Very d e s i r a b l e : 1.5% ( 2 . 8 % ) ̲
Second, t o the question " i f the type o f p r o f i t and l o s s t r a n s f e r i s
more desirable to be adopted" on the 2003 (and 2002) survey,
answer'neither d e s i r a b l e nor undesirable'accounted f o r 60% i n the
same way as the previous question.
1 . The type of p r o f i t and loss transfer i s more desirable: 28%
( 1 0 . 4 % )
2 . Neither d e s i r a b l e nor u n d e s i r a b l e : 17.6% (65.2%)
3 . The adopted type o f t a x on aggregate income i s d e s i r a b l e : 46%
( 1 7 . 0 % )
4 . No answer: 20% ( 7 .4%)
I I Computation structure and basic concept of consolidated tax system
(1)
Computation s t r u c t u r e o f consolidated tax system
As parent and subsidiary companies b u i l d up c a p i t a l and com‑
mercial r e l a t i o n s , consolidated tax system, i n general terms, con‑
s i s t s o f three computation steps as f o l l o w s . We found problems t o be studied i n the second point of computation of group's t o t a l income and i n the t h i r d p o i n t o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a group where con‑
s o l i d a t e d t a x system i s a p p l i e d .
F i r s t , computation i s done t o c a l c u l a t e taxable income o f each consolidated c o r p o r a t i o n . Computation o f excess d e p r e c i a t i o n and t h a t o f bad debts provision i n excess o f carry‑over l i m i t are done without o b j e c t i o n from the viewpoint o f l e g a l i n d i v i d u a l s u b j e c t con‑
c e p t .
Second, computation i s done t o c a l c u l a t e whole income o f con‑
s o l i d a t e d t a x group. I n t h i s s t a g e , i n c l u d e computation o f dividend income, e t c . excluded from revenue, t h a t o f donation excluded from expense and l o s s , t h a t o f p r o f i t and l o s s adjustment c o s t between consolidated c o r p o r a t i o n s , t h a t o f entertainment expenses excluded from expense and l o s s , which i s d i f f e r e n t from i n t e r n a l t r a n s a c t i o n using consolidated tax system. The point of consolidated tax sys‑
tem i s how t o d e a l with i n t e r n a l t r a n s a c t i o n . So, e s s e n t i a l problem l i e s i n t h i s s t a g e . And i n computing tax c r e d i t , a problem of tax allotment amount may a r i s e among deductible income t a x , f o r e i g n corporation tax and research and development expenditure.
T h i r d , there a r e computational problems on l o s s c a r r i e d forward,
appraisal a t market v a l u e , investment cost adjustment, e t c . a t the
moment of entry or withdraw from the consolidated group.
(2) Difference of basic concept between consolidated account and consolidated tax
First, consolidated account aims at appropriate disclosure, and consolidated tax aims at its equity based on neutral taxation.
Second, the underlying consolidated basic concept of consolidat‑ ed account consists of parent company concept and economic unit concept for minority stockholders. However, the subject of Japanese consolidated tax system is perfect subsidiary company without minority stockholder, we have always to consider which concept is emphasized, legal individual concept or economic unit concept, on the occasion of interpretation of every provision.
Ill Internal transaction
(1) I nternal transaction between companies
"With respect to the assets for adjustment of profit and loss due to transfer transferred by a consolidated corporation to any other consolidated corporation, in the case where there raised transfer, depreciation, revaluation, accrual of bad debts or retirement has occurred on the side of such other consolidated corporation, the amount equivalent to the profit from transfer or the loss from trans‑ fer of such assets shall be included in gross revenue or expenses in computing consolidated taxable income." (Article 81‑10, paragraph 2, the Corporation Tax Act) In consolidated tax, these assets is included in gross revenue of consolidated income even when a con‑
solidated corporation transfers these assets to another consolidated corporation.
In consolidated account, inter‑group company transfer of fixed assets is an offset item as internal transaction for it is not realized till resale is done to a third party. In consolidated tax, inter‑group com‑
pany resale 1s not an offset item as internal transaction but a taxable income as transfer profit and loss of the reseller.
There is no objection to such resale consisting of taxable income in single tax system, for resale conforms two requirements for real‑
i z i n g a p r o f i t . But t h e r e i s no r a t i o n a l i t y t o such r e s a l e i n c o n s o l i d a t ‑ ed tax from the viewpoint o f economic u n i t concept, provided t h a t t r a n s f e r p r o f i t and l o s s by r e s a l e i s not added up t o the r e s e l l e r .
( 2 ) Donation
F i r s t , as t o computation o f taxable income f o r each accounting p e r i o d , "Taxable income o f a domestic corporation f o r each account‑
i n g period s h a l l be the amount obtained by deducting the expenses i n such accounting period from the gross revenue i n such account‑
i n g p e r i o d . 2 . I n computing taxable income f o r each accounting period of a domestic corporation, the amount t o be included i n gross revenue i n the accounting period s h a l l , unless otherwise p r o ‑ v i d e d , be the amount o f revenue i n the s a i d accounting period from s a l e s o f a s s e t s , onerous o r g r a t u i t o u s t r a n s f e r o f a s s e t s , o r rendering o f s e r v i c e , or g r a t u i t o u s a c q u i s i t i o n o f a s s e t s , any t r a n s a c t i o n s other than c a p i t a l t r a n s a c t i o n s . " ( A r t i c l e 2 2 , C T A ) . The p o i n t o f t h i s p r o v i ‑ s i o n f o r p r o f i t c a l c u l a t i o n i s t h a t the p r o f i t s t o be included i n gross revenue accrue not only from onerous t r a n s a c t i o n but a l s o from g r a ‑ t u i t o u s t r a n s a c t i o n .
Second, "The amounts o f donations s h a l l , regardless o f the name such as donation, c o n t r i b u t i o n , solatium and other names, be the amounts o f money, o r the value o f a s s e t s other than money or the value of economic b e n e f i t s , a t the time these were granted, where a domestic corporation made g i f t or g r a t u i t o u s f u r n i s h i n g o f money or other a s s e t s or economic b e n e f i t s . " ( A r t i c l e 3 7 , paragraph 7 , CTA). The point o f t h i s provision f o r donation excluded from expense and l o s s bears relevance t o d e n i a l o f tax m i t i g a t i o n . " I n each consolidated accounting p e r i o d , an amount o f donation p a i d t o any other consolidated corporation having p e r f e c t c o n t r o l r e l a t i o n s h a l l not be included i n expenses." ( A r t i c l e 8 1 ‑ 6 , paragraph
2,CTA).
Donation i s excluded from expense and l o s s and o f f s e t i s not admit‑
t e d . Also "Out o f the amount o f donations having been made by a consolidated c o r p o r a t i o n , the amount o f the p a r t exceeding the con‑
s o l i d a t e d l i m i t o f i n c l u s i o n i n expenses computed on the b a s i s o f the
amount o f consolidated i n d i v i d u a l c a p i t a l , e t c . or consolidated t a x ‑
able income of the consolidated parent corporation s h a l l not be
included i n expenses." ( A r t i c l e 8 1 ‑ 6 , paragraph 3 , C T A ) . That i s , con‑
solidated corporations are integrated when computing.
The following examples fit the case:
1. When parent company transfers machine facilities to subsidiary company at a low price, the difference between the paid price and the market value
2. When parent company sells products to subsidiary company, the former offers sales rebates to the latter, more profitably than to a third party.
3. When a parent company lends money at low interest or without interest to a subsidiary company.
Th~y are considered as donation in single tax system, because there 1s an offered profit between parent and subsidiary companies concerned by profit transfer, which arise tax mitigation.
However, why are these not excluded from general donation and why is such economic profit not included in expenses in consolidat‑ ed tax system? Because consolidated company is considered as an economic unit, they are all internally offset between parent and sub‑
sidiary companies as internal transaction in consolidated account.
As consolidated parent and subsidiary companies are the same tax object in consolidated tax system, profit offering by profit transfer between concerned parties does not bring tax mitigation as distinct from the case in single tax system. Inter group companies transac‑ tion is excluded from donation and gratuitous offering, if the trans‑ action is relevant to their business and necessary item for ordinary business conduct. The expenses necessary to ordinary business conduct which correspond to profit is not used to make maximum profit of each subsidiary company but used to make that of the group, and that of the parent company as well. So if service is ren‑ dered at lower price than market value between concerned compa‑
nies, it is not taken as tax mitigation.
Third, the special taxation measures for transactions between a consolidated corporation and its foreign‑related person (Clause 88 of Article 68 of the Special Taxation Measures Law) takes transfer or service rendering in law inter independent company price as dona‑
tion to a foreign‑related person. Therefore, transfer price tax and
consolidated tax a r e seemed t h e o r e t i c a l l y compatible f o r tax m i t i g a ‑ t i o n except following p o i n t s . I n consolidated t a x , s u b s i d i a r y compa‑
ny i s o f 100%, and i n t r a n s f e r p r i c e t a x , the f o r e i g n ‑ r e l a t e d person i s o f 50% or more f o r e i g n s u b s i d i a r y company. For consolidated t a x , tax i s p a i d i n the c o u n t r y , and f o r t r a n s f e r p r i c e t a x , t a x i s paid i n the foreign c o u n t r y . Apart from such d i f f e r e n c e , they have the same concept o f market value a t i n t e r independent company p r i c e .
(3) C
o r r e c t 1 o n o f investment pnce
When s u b s i d i a r y corporation gained p r o f i t by business conduct, the p r o f i t i s t a x a b l e . So i f parent corporation t r a n s f e r s subsidiary c o r p o r a t i o n ' s s t o c k , reserved p r o f i t i n c r e a s e s a t the moment. When subsidiary corporation withdraws from group, stock book value i s corrected f o r amount equivalent t o i n d i v i d u a l r e t a i n e d earnings o f the subsidiary corporation before stock t r a n s f e r , which prevents stock t r a n s f e r p r o f i t and l o s s a r i s i n g . Their account o f corrected book value o f the s t o c k s i s amount o f i n d i v i d u a l r e t a i n e d earnings ( A r t i c l e 2 paragraph
18item 2 , CTA). This i s the same way o f t h i n k ‑ i n g as consolidated account where investment company c o r r e c t s i t s investment c o s t on every consolidated s e t t l i n g day according t o f l u c ‑ t u a t i o n s o f s u b s i d i a r y ' s n e t a s s e t s and investment company's i n t e r ‑ e s t using holding method on r e l a t e d company's s t o c k , which p r e ‑ vents double t a x a t i o n . This means t h a t when computing a l l c o n s o l i ‑ dated tax group income, t o t a l group amount and i n d i v i d u a l amount are computed simultaneously t o r e v e a l every income o f c o n s o l i d a t ‑ ed c o r p o r a t i o n s .
IV Carried over gain or l o s s accompanied with s t a r t or p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n consolidated tax payment
(1)
Appraisal a t market value
Appraisal p r i n c i p a l o f the Corporation Tax Act i s a c q u i s i t i o n c o s t
p r i n c i p l e except t a x a t i o n o f a p p r a i s a l gain or l o s s o f t r a d i n g s e c u r i ‑
t i e s a t market v a l u e . What i s the aim o f t a x a t i o n o f u n r e a l i z e d gain
or l o s s such as appraised gain o r l o s s accompanied with s t a r t or p a r ‑
t i c i p a t i o n i n consolidated tax payment ( A r t i c l e 6 1 paragraph 1 1 and
1 2 , CTA)?
F i r s t , corporation o f which gain or l o s s i s appraised a t market value i s already‑existing 100% subsidiary corporation purchased a f t e r the day f i v e years before the f i r s t day o f the f i r s t consolidated parent corporation accounting p e r i o d . I n such c a s e , a p p r a i s a l a t market value i s applied t o prevent possible tax m i t i g a t i o n . However, i n the case where there i s no p o s s i b i l i t y o f tax m i t i g a t i o n , a p p r a i s a l a t market value i s not applied even i f a corporation i s purchased a f t e r the day f i v e years before the f i r s t day o f the f i r s t consolidated parent corporation accounting p e r i o d . Such exceptions are as f o l ‑ l o w s :
1 . Consolidated parent c o r p o r a t i o n : corporation which t a k e s a l e a d ‑ i n g p a r t o f a consolidated group
2 . P e r f e c t subsidiary corporation held a l l the stocks t r a n s f e r r e d : s u b s i d i a r y excluded from a p p r a i s a l a t market v a l u e , f o r c o n s o l i ‑ dated parent corporation e s t a b l i s h e d by s t o c k t r a n s f e r a f t e r the day f i v e years before the f i r s t day o f the f i r s t consolidated parent corporation accounting period i s not a subject o f a p p r a i s a l a t market v a l u e . Because t h e r e i s no p o s s i b i l i t y o f t a x m i t i g a t i o n i n the case where new established consolidated parent and sub‑
s i d i a r y corporations t o e s t a b l i s h pure or operational holding companies a r e considered as the same one f o r a s u b s i d i a r y com‑
pany may e s t a b l i s h a parent company.
3 . 100% subsidiary company which i s h e l d a l l the issued s t o c k s by consolidated parent corporation over f i v e y e a r s : as i n t e r i m meas‑
u r e s , the day f i v e years before the f i r s t day o f the f i r s t c o n s o l i d a t ‑ ed accounting period i s regarded as January 1 , 2002, i f c o n s o l i ‑ dated accounting period s t a r t s before December 3 1 , 2006. So 100% subsidiary company established or participated before December 3 1 , 2001 i s an exception o f a p p r a i s a l a t market v a l u e , i f i t holds continuously stocks
4 . 100% s u b s i d i a r y company e s t a b l i s h e d by consolidated parent or subsidiary corporation: which i s established by parent or sub‑
s i d i a r y company a f t e r the day f i v e years before the f i r s t day o f the f i r s t consolidated accounting period
5 . P e r f e c t s u b s i d i a r y company p a r t i c i p a t i n g s t o c k exchange { i n c l u d ‑
i n g i t s 100% subsidiary company being h e l d by the p e r f e c t sub‑
sidiary) which fulfils a certain condition
6. 100% subsidiary company by stock purchasing according to the regulations: case where, after having got fractional stocks or shares from subsidiary company'stockholders as their request or purchased stocks following equity holding limit, a company has become 100% subsidiary regardless of parent company's inten‑ tion
Second, to alter from single tax payment to consolidated tax pay‑
ment, the unit is to be changed.. That is, legal unit concept in the former changes to economic unit concept in the latter payment. To participate in consolidated tax payment, latent gain or loss in single tax payment must be cleared up. Then why is built‑in loss admitted in the U.S.? Built‑in deduction is a situation where capital assets of subsidiary company has latent loss in the last individual return peri‑ od before parent company gained subsidiary company, and when the loss is realized by purchase or valuation loss, it is not deductible from consolidated taxable income. According to Limitations on built‑in deductions, it is not deductible from consolidated taxable income but from individual taxable income of the same group mem‑
ber.
Built‑in deduction in a tax payment period is subject to limita‑ tions of consolidated operating loss deductions (which is computed independently of operating loss deduction and carryforward of net operation loss of the same accounting period) [Regulation Sec.1. 1502‑21 (c)] and consolidated capital gain net income or loss (which is computed independently of capital loss deduction and carryfor‑ ward of the same accounting period) [Sec.1. 1502‑22 (c)]. If such built‑in deduction is not allocated in the same consolidated return period for the applied limitation, such deduction is treated as operat‑ ing loss or capital gain net income arose in the same accounting period. And except that such loss is treated as loss under limitation of Regulation Sec.1. 1502‑21 (c) or Sec.1. 1502‑22 (c) in the (consoli‑ dated or individual) tax payment period, consolidated operating loss or consolidated capital loss is carried forward under Regulation Sec.1. 1502‑21 (c), Sec.1. 1502‑22 (c) or Sec.1 1502‑79. For example, if a member X sold its capital assets at a loss of $1000, considered as built‑in deduction in the consolidated tax return period, such loss
is treated under limitations prescribed in Regulation Sec.1 1502‑22 (C).As a rule, loss to be admitted is only such loss which can be off‑ set by X's capital gain net income. When X has not any capital gain net income, such loss of $1000 is treated as net capital loss and car‑ ried forward five years in accordance with Regulation Sec.1 1502‑22, under limitations prescribed in Sec.1 1502‑22 (c).2
(2) Net loss carried forward
In Japan, as net loss arisen before the first consolidated account‑
ing period, carryforward deduction is admitted to only two following cases: 1. amount arisen within seven years before the first consoli‑ dated parent corporation accounting period, 2. when a perfect con‑
solidated subsidiary corporation, all the issued stocks of which are held continuously by a perfect consolidated parent corporation established through stock transfer within five years before the first day of the first consolidated corporation accounting period, amounts of net loss or consolidated net loss which have arisen within seven years before the first consolidated subsidiary corporation account‑
ing period. (Article 81‑9, paragraph 2, CTA) Because there is no pos‑
sibility of tax mitigation between consolidated parent and subsidiary corporations, integrated.
First, in the U.S., single net loss carryforward of consolidated subsidiary corporation is restricted by Limitation 382 (limitation on net operating loss carryforward and certain built‑in following owner‑
ship change) and SRLY rules of consolidated tax payment in connec‑
tion with industrial readjustment taxation. The objects of SRLY rules are to prevent tax mitigation occurred by carrying forward unlimit‑ edly to consolidated group subsidiary company's loss arisen before participation of the subsidiary company in consolidated tax payment group, and to collect realized loss as well. There is also a political intention to let companies know that adoption of consolidated tax payment system is not against their interest.
Second, this single unit approach is based on two principles. 1. For companies adopting consolidated income tax, other consolidat‑ ed company's loss should be available as if it is a department's loss in a single company. 2. Tax act should remain neutral on transfer of property. So, loss arisen in the group members is available between
members accompanying with property transfer within only limita‑ tions imposed on a single unit in the same situation.3
Third, in the group relief system in the U.K., current term loss is admitted but loss carryforward from the previous accounting period is not admitted.
V Future prospects
First, we study the future of consolidated tax system in Japan.
Taking tax object in consideration, individual company or group company, profit and loss transfer type, as in the case of the U.K., seems make taxation simple, where only net loss carried forward is transferred because a company's loss is dissolved by all companies in the group. Tax on aggregate income type was initially acquired passive meaning of dissolving an individual loss carried forward by consolidated company group in all. But it has also a positive mean‑
ing of making use tax deduction in proportion to the ratio of research expenses to sales or making use tax deduction to invest‑ ment for information technology in the group companies in all. To make the most of the system merit, we should utilize the system positively in future. But there is a problem of uncertain appraisal at market value. As interim measures, the day five years before the first day of the first consolidated accounting period is regarded as January
1 , 2 0 0 2 ,
if consolidated accounting period starts before December3 1 , 2 0 0 6 . 100%
subsidiary company established or partic‑ ipated before December3 1 , 2001
is an exception of appraisal at mar‑ket value, if it holds continuously stocks. Therefore, consolidated income tax has to be adopted before consolidated accounting period starting.before December
3 1 , 2 0 0 6 .
So it is essential and pressing problem to educate and spread accurate information of how to use the consolidated tax payment system.Second, it is necessary to create more positive aspects such as advantage of consolidated tax payment on research and develop‑
ment expenditure, and to study of adopting the international built‑in deduction or SRLY I‑imitation on tax‑loss carryforward.
Third, when adopting consolidated tax system (type of tax on
aggregate income), t h e r e a r e problems t o be addressed on i t s com‑
p l e x i t y and d i f f i c u l t y i n o p e r a t i n g . So, the development o f system o f i n t e g r a t i n g and operating together consolidated account system and consolidated t a x system must be accelerated i n f u t u r e . Even s o , c o n f o r m a b i l i t y t o the d i f f e r e n t c o n s o l i d a t i o n s c a l e o r t o t h e e x i s t i n g t a x laws i s always r e q u i r e d . 4
Notes
( P r o f e s s o r of Accounting)
E‑mail: [email protected]‑u.ac.jp
1. Details can be read in "Monographs of the Kansai University Business School"
Vol.47 No.6, Vol.48 No.2, Vol. 48 No.6, Vol.49 No.1. Beside of simple aggrega‑
tion and comparison with the precedent year, cross tabulation was carried out with listed company classification (2 types), adoption of consolidated income tax system classification (4 types), member or not member of the tax commission (2 types), domestic 100% subsidiary corporation classification (4 types) as vertical axis.
2. Regulation Sec,1.1502‑15(a)(1)
3. George L. White, Esq, op. cit. P.108 SRLY rules
4. Consolidated tax system is currently operating at Hitachi Inc. and TKC Inc., and consolidated accounting system, at some audit corporations and Diva Inc., con‑
solidated accounting system development company. These companies will fas‑ ter their cooperation from now on.
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(This paper is part of the research result of the basic research by the subsidy of sci‑ entific research expenses of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology for fiscal2002, 2003 (C) (2))
This is the text revised and corrected to the paper I had presented at the 63rd nation‑ al meeting of the Account Study Society of Japan.
The Japanese edition of this paper will be published inVol.167 .No5‑the May 2005 ‑ issu・e of the''Kaikei "(Accounting),a monthly Journal which articles in Japanese on Accounting.)