Middle Classes in the Philippines
著者名(英)
Masatoshi IKEDA
journal or
publication title
The Bulletin of Faculty of Sociology,Toyo
University
volume
39
number
3
page range
39-89
year
2002-03
URL
http://id.nii.ac.jp/1060/00002268/
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Democracy and the Emergence of Urban New Middle Classes in the Philippines／Masatoshi IKEDA
Democracy and the Emergence of Urban
New Middle Classes in the Philippines
Masatoshi IKEDA
lntroduction
In early 1990’s， with the upswing of Asian economy， the making of the new rich issaid to be a social phenomenon in Asia． According to a Japanese cultural
anthropologist， although their income， and educational attainment varies from region to region， there are things that they have in common， particularly， in terms of hobby， life style， and the international development of their business activities． For example， their lifestyle and social consciousness are different from their parent’s． Their monthly income exceeds US＄2，500・a・month． The Philippines（once dubbed as the“sick man in Asia”）may not be an exception． Since the latter part of the 1980’s particularly during the Ramos administration， the progress of the㎞owledge−intensive industrial structure， coupled with the growth of the educational attainment among the people brought about the existence of a mass of formerly unknown people which are now known as the new rich middle class． This paper has three main foci：first， to clarify the social characteristics of the urban new middle classes；second， to analyze their basic political attitude；and third， to examine the relevance of this strata to the democratization process in the Philippines．Research Outline
This research was conducted at Don Bosco Institute Makati， the largest financial center in the Philippines． Don Bosco lnstitute Makati is well known as an expensiveprivate school where most students are from the upper middle class family．
questionaires were distributed to the parents of the first grade pupil to the sixth grade pupil through class room teachers． From 500 questionaires， originally distributed，455 0f them were retrieved from the teacher． The targetted parson was the householdhead． Actually 94．7 90 of respondents were household head． Table 1 Age Distribution by Sex in％（n） 一29 30−39 40−49 50−59 60一 Total
Men
Women
1．3（4） 5。9（9） 41．1 （122） 56．6 （ 86） 48．8 （145） 36．8 （ 56） 8．1（24） 0．7（1） 0．7（2） O．O（0） 100．0 （297） 100．0 （152） Total 2．9（13） 46．3 （208） 44．8 （201） 5．6（25） 0．4（2） 100．0 （449） As shown in table12970ut of 449 respondents are men． In short， the ratio of men to women is 2：1． The median age for both sexes is 40， to be specific 40．2 fbr men and 40f（）r women． The reason why respondents are relatively young is that they are parents of elementary school pupil． Analitical point of view As societies are stratified along the line of occupation， in this study occupation is adopted as a key variable for the analysis of above mentioned undertaking． Table 2 Occupational Distribution Occupation n ％ Administrative！Managerial Business operator Professiona］ノTechnical Middle management worker8 Cle亘cal Sales related workers Production process workers Others0068166228797171
4．5 17．8 16．9 21．8 15．8 3．6 16．9 2．7 Total 449 100．0 Table2 shows the distribution of the occupation of our respondents． Administrative／managerial worker， business operators， professional／technical workers， clerical
workers， sales−related workers and people who work for the middle management are the core occupational groups of middle classes． The combined share of these employed white collar groups accounts for 61．0％． By combining administrative， managerial worker， professional technical worker， people who work fbr the middle management， we can obtain a category of the upper middle class． On the other hand， we can obtainDernoeracy and the Emergence of Urban New Middle Classes in the Philippines／Masatoshi IKEDA acategory of the lower middle class by combining categories clerical workers， sales
relatedworkers， production process workers and other workers． This lower middle
class accounts fbr 39％． Thus， in our sample the upper middle class out−numbers the lower middle class in number． In the fbllowing analysis， these two categories are used as pivotal ones in analyzing the social− political characteristics of middle classes．1．The Demographic Characteristics of the Urban New Middle Class
1．Gender
Table 3 Gender Distribution by Social Strata in％（n）Men
Women
TotalUpper middle Lower middle 74．6 （203） 55．0 （ 88） 25．4 （ 69） 45．0 （ 72） 100．0 （272） 100．0 （160） Total 67．4 （291） 32．6 （141） 100．0 （432） p＜0．05 According to table3 while men account for 74．6％in the upper middle class， they account fbr 55．0％in the lower middle class． this difference is statistically significant at the 5％leve1． As our respondents were household head， this table indicates that the upper middle class is more male dominated stratum than the lower middle class．
2．Age
Table4 shows the age distribution of our respondents Table 4 Age Distribution by Social Strata in％（n） 一29 30−39 40−49 50一 TotaI UpPer middle Lower middle Total 2．2（6） 4．3（7） 3，0（13） 3．4 （119） 49．7 （ 80） 45．7 （199） 47．1 （129） 40．4 （ 65） 44．6 （194） 7．3（20） 5．6（9） 6．7（29） 100．0 （274） 100．0 （161） 100．0 （435） The median age of the middle class is 40．3 fbr both strata． To be speci丘c it is 41 fbr the upper middle class and 31 fbr the lower middle class． This suggests that in order to attain higher social status， it is necessary fbr people to have a long businessexperience／career．
3．Ethnic characteristics of the middle class
Table 5 Do you have Chinese Ancestors on Your Side or Spouse’s Side？
Yes
None
TotalUpper middle Lower middle 79．9 （219） 82．6 （133） 20．1 （55） 17．4 （28） 100．0 （274） 100．0 （161） Tota1 80．9 （352） 19．1 （83） 100．0 （435） X2＝0．46567 v＝0．0681 n．8． According to table5 80．9％of the middle class people is ethnic Chinese． To be specific， it is 79．9％among the upper middle class and 82．6％among the lower middle class． This figure is very high when compared to the national average． This means that being ethnic Chinese is very advantageous for one to belong to the middle class． But， As small Cramer’s contingency coef五cient suggests， being ethnic chinese or not doesn’t matter in determining his／her status in the middle class． 4．Place of birth Why are middle class called urban middle class？ Table 6 The Place of Bi rth of the Present Generation in％（n） Myself Spouse
Upper middle Lower middle Upper middle Lower middle Metro−Manila Rural I．uzon Urban Visayas Rural Visayas Urban Mindanao Rural mindanao 60．4 （162） 27．2 （ 73） 4．9（13） 3．0（ 8） 1．9（ 5） 2．6（ 7） 54．7（ 35．4（ 5．0（ 3．7（ 1．2（ 1．2（
︶︶︶︶︶︶
878623
85
52．4 （133） 37．8 （ 96） 5．5（14） 2．0（ 5） 1．2（ 3） 2．7（ 4） 46．7（ 36．7（ 8．7（ 2．7（ 2．7（ 70） 55） 13） 4） 4） Total 100．0 （268） 100．0 （161） 100．0 （254） 100．0 （150） Table6 shows the place of birth of household heads and his／her spouse by social strata． Indication is that the upper middle class is more coming from urban area Metro− Manila in particular than the lower middle class． This can be said of household heads themselves and their spouses． This findings lead to the following con61usion to the effect that Being the urbanites is advantageous for one to belong to the upperDemocracy and the Emergence of Urban New Middle Classes in the Philippines／MasatOshi IKEDA
middle class． This suggests that chances are given more in cities than in rural areas．
More men than women move to cities Metro−Manila in particular．
table 7 The Place of Birth of the Parents in％（n）
Father
Mother
Upper皿iddle Lower middle Upper middle L，ower middle
Metro・ Manila Rural Luzon Urban Visayas Rural Visayas Urban Mindanao Rural mindanao 29．8 （ 76） 53．3 （136） 9．4（ 3．5（ 2．4（ 1．6（ 24） 9） 6） 4） 22．6（ 60．3（ 9．6（ 4．8（ 1．4（ 1．4（ 33） 88） 14） 7） 2） 2）
262（
54．7 9．0（ 5．5（ 3．1（ 1．6（ 87） （140）︶︶︶︶
3484
9臼噌1 24．0（ 56．5（ 10．4（ 5．2（ 2．6（ 1．3（ 37） 87） 16） 8） 4） 2） Total 100．0 （256） 100．O （146） 100．0 （256） 100．0 （154） According to table7 the percentage of fathers who are born in Metro Manila is higher in the upper middle class than in the lower middle class． The same thing can be said of mother． In parents generation as well， the upper middle class is more urban in terms of socio demographic aspects than the lower middle class． Comparison of table6 and table7 indicates that the percentage of the people who areborn in Metro−Manila is 60．4％among the present upper middle class household
heads． On the other hand， the percentage of father who are born in Metro− Manila is only 29．8％among the upper middle class， the former is higher than the latter by a margin of 30．5％． Indication is that during the period of one generation， a lot of people transferd to Metro−Manila and the second generation grew up there． The same trend can be also observed among the lower middle class to a smaller degree though． Above findings indicate that the children’s generation is more urban than the parent’s generation， and this tendency is much strongly observed in the upper middle class than in the lower middle class． It is the reason why the middle class is considered as the urban middle class．5．Birth order
In Confucianism dominated society like China， Korea and Japan in prewar days， elder child， elder boy in particular were a bearer of parent’s expectation． Parents invest more on elder children than younger children． In such societies birth order was also a determinant of social status of children． Then， how is the case in the Philippines？Table8 shows the birth order of the household head by social strata．Table 8 Birth order of middle class household head in％（n）
First Second Third After Third Total
Upper middle Lower middle 29．2 （ 76） 24．8 （ 37） 17．7 （46） 242 （36） 17．7 （46） 13．4 （20） 35．4 （ 92） 37．6 （ 56） 100．0 （260） 100．0 （149） Total 27．6 （113） 20．0 （82） 16．1 （66） 36．2 （148） 100．0 （409） X2＝0．2656 v＝0．02548 n． s． According to this table， the percentage of the first born child is 29。2％in the upper middle class． On the other hand it is 24．8％in the lower middle class． The former is higher than the latter by a margin of 4．490． However， this difference is not statistically significant at the 5％level． In the Philippines， the society of bilineal kinship structure and Christianity dominated society， no marked difference was observed with regard to the birth order by social strata．
6．Family Structure
In genera1， nuclear family is said to be more adaptable to industrialization The upper．middle class is considered as a more economically successful class than the lower middle class in the industrialized society． Then， Can more nuclear families be found in the upper middle class than in the lower middle class？ table9 shows the responses of our respondents to the following question． Who live with you other than helper／live−in maid？ Table 9 The Family Structure by Social StrataUpper middle Lower middle Total
My spouse and myself My spouse＆unmarried children My spouse＆my parents My parents＆manied children 12．6 （ 33） 83．6 （219） 3．4（ 9） 0．4（ 1） 16．3 （ 25） 72．6 （111） 9．8（15） 1．3（ 2） 14．0 （ 58） 79．5 （330） 5．8（24） 0．7（ 3） Total 100．0 （262） 100．0 （153） 100．0 （415） According to table9 the percentage of the family composed of the household head， spouse and unma1Tied children is 83．6％in the upper middle class． It is 72．6％in the lower middle class． The former is higher than the latter by a margin of 11．0％． We
aggregate the category of myself＆spouse and My spouse＆unmarried children so as
to make a category of nuclear family． Again， we aggregate the category of My spouse＆my parents and My parents＆married children so as to make the category of
Democracy and the Emergence of Urban New Middle Classes in the Philippines／Masatoshi IKEDA
extended family． By this operation we obtain table 10 which indicates the percentage
of the nuclear family and that of extended family by social strata． Table10 Family Structure by Social Strata in％（n）
Nuclear family Extended family Tota1 Upper middle Lower middle 962 （252） 88．9 （136） 3．8（10） 11．1 （17） 100．0 （262） 100．0 （153） Total 93．5 （388） 6．5（27） 100．0 （415） X2＝8．325 v＝0．1416 p＜ 0．05 Table10 indicates that the percentage of nuclear family is 96．2％in the upper middle class． On the ther hand it is 88．9％in the lower middle class． The fbrmer is higher than the latter by a margin of 7．3％． This dif壬brence is statistically significant at the 5％1evel． From this observation we can conclude that more nuclear family is fbund in the
upper middle class than in the lower middle class．the nuclear family is more
adaptable to the industrializing process in the Philippines as well． The emergence of the middle class in the Philippines is partly related to the generalizing trend of nuclear fごmily． But， we should be careful to conclude that way． The relation of family structure and the class status may be the other way around． We can not say that being extended family make them stay at the Iower middle class but can say that relatively less advantage economic situation have them fbrm extended family．II． The Emerging Process of the Middle Class
1．lntergenerational Occupational mobility
According to tablell the percentage of fathers who were engaged on well paid occupation like administrative， business operators， professionaU technical， middle management related occupation is 31．3％in the upper middle class． On the other hand， the percentage of these occupation is only 16．8％in the lower middle class． The percentage of the f（）rmer is higher than that of the latter by a wide margin of 15．1％． Indication is that the upper middle class is more inclined to be reproduced in the upper middle class．Table11 Father’s Occupation During the High School Days in％（n）
Upper middle Lower middle Total Administrative Business OperatOr Professional／technical Middle management Clerical workers Sales related workers Blue collar workers Others
None
O．7（ 2） 12．0 （ 33） 13．1 （ 36） 5．5（15） 13．1 （ 36） 3．3（ 9） 15．0 （ 41） 33．3 （ 91） 4．0（11） 1．9（ 3） 6．2（10） 5．6（ 9） 3．1（ 5） 11．8 （ 19） 6．8（11） 24．2 （ 39） 31．1 （ 50） 9．3（15） 1．1（ 5） 9．9（43） 10．3 （ 45） 4．6（20） 12．6 （ 55） 4．6（20） 18．4 （ 80） 32．5 （141） 6．0（26） Tota1 100．0 （274） 100．0 （161） 100．0 （435）2．lntragenerational occupational mobility
Tablei2 First Occupation After Graduating From School in％（n） Upper middle Lower middle Total Administrative Business Operator Professiona｝ノtechnical Middle management Clerical workers Sales related workers Blue collar workers OthersNone
0．4（ 3．6（212（
3．3（ 29．1（ 13．9（ 9．1（ 17．9（ 1．5（ 1︶ 10） 58） 9） 80） 38） 25） 49） 4） 0．0（ 3．1（ 4．3（ 1．9（ 37．9（ 11．2（ 17．4（ 23．0（ 1．2（ 0） 5） 7） 3） 61） 18） 28） 37） 2） 0．2（ 3．4（ 14．9（ 2．8（︶︶︶︶
1552
1︵01
32．4 （141） 12．9（ 12．2（ 19．8（ 1．4（ラ
6366
一b5R︶ Total 100．0 （274） 100．0 （161） 100．0 （435） According to table12 the percentage of those who were engaged on well paid occupation like administrative， busiless related work， professionaV technical， middle management related work after finishing school is 28．5％in the upper middle class． On the other hand， the percentage of the well paid occupation is only 9．3％in the lower middle class． The percentage of the former is higher than that of the latter by a wide margin of 19．2％． This reveals that the first occupation after fini8hing school determines one’s later career strongly．3．The Emergence of the Middle Class and Education
Table 13 shows the upper middle class is more educated than the lower middle class． The percentage of the graduate school school enrolllees is 25．2％among the upper middle class． On the other hand， it is 24．990 among the lower middle class． AlthoughDemocracy and the Emergence of Urban New Middle Classes in the Philippines／MasatOshi IKEDA
this di￡ference is not statistically significant at the 5％1eve1． one in every four is the
graduate school enrollees among them．
Table13 Educationa｜Attainment by Social Strata in％（n） Household Head
High school Univ． Grad． Tota1
UpPer middle Lower middle 9．4（15） 4．8（13） 65．4 （104） 70．3 （189） 252 （40） 24．9 （67） 100．0 （159） 100．0 （269） Total 6．5（28） 68．4 （293） 25．0 （10） 100．0 （428） X2＝3．5093 v＝0．091 n．s． The Philippine middle class people is highly educated． educational attainment of spouse．
Table14 shows the
Table14 Educational Attainment by Social Strata in％（n） SpouseHigh school Univ。 Grad． Total
UpPer middle Lower middle 8．6（22） 14．4 （22） 74．5 （190） 69．9 （107） 16．9 （43） 15．7 （24） 100．0 （255） 100．0 （153） Total 10．8 （44） 72．8 （297） 16．4 （67） 100．0 （408） Xz＝3．0105 v＝0．0859 n．S． What was said of the household heads can be said of their spouse． In the case of spouse， one in every six are the graduate school enrollees． Among the Philippine middle class people， not only household heads but also their spouses are highly educated． In addition， the upper middle class is more highly educated than the lower middle class as we11． Nthough the difference is not statistically significant， We can
point out that Philippine middle class is endogamouse in terms of educational
attainment as well． In this sense， fbllowing Ehrenreich， we can conclude that the middle class is a group of the people whose social status is based not only on economic resources， but also on education． As such， they have been trying hard to convey this resorces from generatiOn to generatiOn． Table15 Father’s Educational Attainment by Social Strata． in％（n）High school Univ． Grad． Total
Upper middle Lower middle 41．5 （101） 55．0 （ 78） 47．4 （115） 30．2 （ 43） 11．1 （27） 14．8 （21） 100．0 （243） 100．0 （142） Total 46．5 （179） 41．0 （158） 12．5 （48） 100．0 （385） X2＝12．7539 v＝0．1768 p＜0．005
What was said of the educational attainment of the present household head holds true fbr his／her father． According to table150ne in eight is graduate school enrollees in the father’s generation of the present middle class people． Irregularity to the effect that the percentage of the graduate school enrollees is higher in the lower middle class than in the upper middle class． This seems to be brought about by the high percentage of the university graduates in the upper middle class． The fact to the effect that the percentage of high school graduates is higher in the lower middle class than the upper middle class indicates that father of the upper middle class people are well educated than the lower middle class people． In this respect more note worthy， however is the fact to the effect that high educational attainment seems to be handed down from father’s generation to children’s generation Table16 compares educational attainment of father’s and those of present generation． Tablel6 Comparison of Educational Attainment Between Father and Present Generation Present Generation
High
University Graduate TotalFather
High
Univ． Grad． 11．7 （19） 3．3（5） 2．3（1） 76．0 （123） 84．5 （125） 68．2 （ 30） 12．3 （20） 12．2 （18） 29．5 （13） 100．0 （162） 100．0 （148） 100．0 （ 44） Total 7．1（25） 78．5 （275） 14．4 （51） 100．0 （354） XL’；43．509 v＝0．350581 p＜0．05 According to table 16 if father is a graduate school enrollees，29．5％of their children are also graduate school enrollees． On the other hand， if father is high school graduates， only 12．3％of their children were enrolled in graduate schools． This resultindicates educational attainment was handed down from father’s generation to
children’s generation． On top of that， highly educated people has been encouragingtheir children to study hard． Table17 shows the relationship between parent’s
educational attainment and their attitude toward children’s education． The latter is measured by the response to the following question． Does（do）your schooling child（children）presently engage in curricular lessons from private teachers or
attendprivate institutes for the purpose of upgrading marks of the schoo1？ From table17 following findings become clear． While the percentage of children who are studying curricular lessons from private teachers or attend private institutions is 14．39e among the high school graduates， it reaches high at 20．3％among the graduate school enrollees． Thus， The philippille middle class has been trying to carry over thisDemocracy and the Emergence of Urban New Middle Classes in the Philippines／Masatoshi IKEDA social resources to the next generation． Table17 Educational Attainment and Educational lnvestment Does（do）your child（children） presently engage in curricular lessons from private teachers or attend private institutes？ Yes
No
Total High． Univ． Graduate school 14．3（4） 12．3 （38） 20．3 （22） 85．7 （ 24） 87．7 （272） 79．6 （ 86） 100．0 （ 28） 100．0 （310） 100．0 （108） Total 14．3 （64） 85．7 （382） 100．0 （446） X2＝1122533 v＝0ユ5865 n． s．III． Socio−economic characteristics of the middle class
1．Employment status
Table18 shows the distribution of social strata by employment status Table18 Social Strata by Employment Status n％（n）Upper middle Lower middle Totat
Employee
Self−employed 55．4 （158） 77．3 （116） 44．6 （127） 22．7 （ 34） 100．0 （285） 100．0 （150） Total 63．0 （274） 37．0 （161） 100．0 （435） Xz＝20．1772 v＝0．2154 p＜0．050 According to this table， more upper middle class people are fbund in the self employed than in the employee． The analysis of occupational mobility reveals thatadministrative managerial worker turned business operator and professional
technical worker turned business operator are found among self employed． Therefore， it is natural that more upper middle class people are fbund in the self employed than in the employee． Accordingly， we should not regard these self employed as the old middle class．2．lnternationalization and the middle class
As mentioned in a foreward the emergence of the middle class is an internationalsocial phenomena． As such， its emergence seems to be closely related to the
international development of economic activities． Table19 shows the nature of
companies where the middle class people are working for．
Table19 1s Your Company Transnational Company？ in％（n）
Transnational Local Tota］
Upper middle Lower皿iddle 59．3 （ 67） 41．7 （ 46） 52．6 （ 72） 47．4 （ 65） 55．6 （139） 44．4 （111） Total 100．0 （113） 100．0 （137） 100．0 （250） X2＝1．15392 v＝0．0679 n．8． According to this table， more upper class is fo皿d in transnational companies （59．3％）than in the local companies（52．6％）． The percentage of the former i8 higher than that of the latter by a margin of 6．7％． But， this difference is not statistically significantat the 5％level． Income of some blue collar workers is higher than that of
some white collar workers． Those well paid blue collar workers are working in
factories of transnational companies along the South Super High Way．3．Double Earning Structure
Another occupational characteristics of the middle class is of the fact that they are double income earners． Table20 shows the kind of occupation spouse are engaged on． Table20 0ccupation of Spouse By Social Trata． in％（n）UpPer middle Lower middle Total Administrative Busines8 Professiona1／technical Middle management Clerica1 workers Sales related workers Blue collar workers Others
None
1．1（ 16．1（ 13．1（ 7．7（ 23．0（ 2．9（ 3．6（ 21．2（ 11．3（ 3） 44） 36） 21） 63） 8） 10） 58） 31） 0．6（ 11．2（ 11．2（ 5．0（ 31．7（ 3．1（ 12．4（ 13．0（ 11．8（ 1） 18） 18） 8） 51） 5） 20） 21） 19） 0．9（ 14．3（ 12．4（ 6．7（ 4） 62） 54） 29） 26．1 （114） 3．0（ 6．9（ 18．2（ ll．5（ 13） 30） 79） 50） Total 100．0 （274） 100．0 （161） 100．0 （435） According to table20 the percentage of spouses who are engaged on well paid occupation is higher in the upper middle class than in the lower middle class． Thecombined percentage of workers accounted by administrative workers， business
operators， professional／technical workers， the people who are working f（）r the middle management is 38％in the upper middle class． On the other hand， it is 28％in theDemocracy and the Emergence of Urban New Middle Classes in the Philippines／Masatoshi IKEDA 10wer middle class． The tendency is of the fact that well paid people are more inclined to get married to well paid people． This endogamouse tendency can be said to be a base of the emerging process of the middle class．
4．lncome Characteristics
The foregoing shows that the middle class people are highly educated and engaged on well paid occupation． As a result， their income level is high when compared to that of the general public． Table21 shows the income distribution of annual family income of those who live in Makati city where this research was conducted． Table21 1ncome Distribution in Makati Income Group No of Fa皿ilies ％ Under 15，000 15，000− 19，999 20，000− 29，999 30，000− 39，999 40，000− 59，999 60，000− 99，999 100，000・249，999 250，000and Over 916 4，123 11，519 24，737 40，055 18，676 0．9 4．1 11．5 24．7 40．1 18．7 Anual median family Income：Pl16，075 Monthly family Median income：P9，673 Tota1 100，026 100．0 source：1991 Family lncome＆Expenditure NSO Manila 1992 Computed median annual family income is 116，075pesos． It is tantamount to 9，673 pesos a month． On the other hand， table22 is income distribution of our middle classrespondents．
Table22 1ncome by Social Strata in％（n）LOw
MiddleHigh
Highest TotalUpper middle Lower middle 21．3 （ 57） 44．9 （ 70） 27．4 （ 73） 28．2 （ 44） 23．9 （64） 9．4（24） 27．4 （73） 11．5 （18） 100．0 （267） 100．0 （156） Total 30．0 （127） 27．7 （117） 20．8 （88） 21．5 （91） 100．0 （423） X2＝28．71351 v＝0．2605 p＜0．05 Note： Low income group：less than 25，000 pesos a month Middle income group：25，000−45，000 pesos a month High income group：45，000−75，000 pesos a month Highest income group：75，000 pesos and over
Median income for both classes is P39，440 Median income fbr the upper middle class is P46，875 Median income fbr the lower middle class is P28，617 The comparison of the income level of Makati citizen in general and that of our respondents shows that the income of the our middle class people is more than four times as high as the income level of general public． Table22 further shows that there is a big income difference between the upper middle class and the lower middle class in terms of median monthly income， That is， while the median income of the uppe士 middle class is 46，875pesos， that of the lower middle class is 28，617pesos． The fbrmer is more than 6090 higher than the latter．
IV． The Life Style ofThe New Rich
1．Consumerism
Consumtion style which characterizes the new rich in Asia is conspicuous
consumtion．“The use−value of an object of consumption is secondarly to the object’s signifying effects”（2）．In the Philippinesas well， many middle class people have a lots of items which symbolize their social status． Table23 reveals the diffusion rate of personal computer． Table23 The Diffusion Rate of Personal Computer in％（n）Haves
Have nots TotalUpper middle Lower middle 71．5 （196） 43．5 （ 70） 28．5 （ 78） 56．5 （ 91） 100．0 （274） 100．0 （161） Total 61ユ （266） 38．9 （169） 100．0 （435） X2＝33．7182 v＝0．2784 p＜0．05 Personal computers whose average diffusion rate is around 60％seems to have a good discriminative power between the upper middle class and the lower middle class． The percentage of those who have personal computer is very high at 71．5％in the upper middle class． On the other hand， it is only 43．5％in the lower middle class． This difference is statistically significant at the 5％level． The Cramer’s contingency coefficient is also high at O．2784． As double income erners， the personal computer is
Democracy and the Emergence of Urban New Middle Classes in the Philippines／Masa匂）shi IKEDA
necessary not only as a tool showing their social status， but also as a business tool。
Table24
the diffusion rate of fax in％（n）Haves
Have nots TotalUpper middle Lower middle 29．9 （ 82） 11．2 （ 18） 70．1 （192） 88．9 （143） 100．0 （274） 100．0 （161） Total 23．0 （100） 77．0 （335） 100．0 （435） XL＝19．10912 v＝02096 p＜0．05 Table24 shows the diffttsion rate of fax． Its overall dif允sion rate is only 23％． As in the case with table23， there is a wide difference in terms of the diffusion rate between the upper middle class and the lower middle class． The di飽sion rate of fax in the upper middle class is 29．9％On the other hand， it is only 11．2％in the lower middle class． The fbrmer is higher than the latter by a margin of 18．7％． This dif〔’erence is statistically significant at the 5％level But the Cramer’s contingency coefflcient is O．2096．This is smaller than the coef丘cient obtained from the contingency table of personal computer and the social strata． In terms of life style， having cars is important fbr them to lead the life suitable fbr the middle class． Table25 shows the relationship between car ownership and social strata． Table25 Car Ownership by Social Strata． in％（n）
Haves
Have Ilots TotalUpPer middle Lower middle 65．0 （178） 50．9 （ 82） 35．0 （ 96） 49．1 （ 79） 100．0 （274） 100．0 （161） Tota1 59．8 （260） 40．2 （175） 100．0 （435） X2＝10．2036 v＝O．1532 p＜0．05 While the percentage of those who have a car is 65．0％in the upper middle class， It is 50．9％in the lower middle class． The former is higher than the latter by a margin of 14．1％．This difference is statistically significant at the 5％1eveL This signi丘es the importance to the life style of the middle class． But the Cramer’s contingency coe伍cient is smaller than the one obtained from the contingency table between social strata and fax． This means what matters is to have a car or not， but what type of car or model of car they have． Another important index which has discriminative power is air conditioner． In such a hot and humid country like the Philippines， having air conditioner installed or not is of vital importance to leading the lifb style suitable for
the middle class．
Table26 indicates the relationship between air conditionerownership and social
strata．
Table26 Air Conditioner Ownership by Social Strata． in％（n）
Have8
Have nots TotalUpper middle Lower middle 78．8 （216） 68．3 （110） 21．2 （ 58） 31．7 （ 51） 100．0 （274） 100．0 （161） Total 74．9 （326） 25．1 （109） 100．0 （435） 叱2＝5．96485 v＝0．1171 p＜0。05 According to table26， the average percentage of those who have air conditioner is 74．9％．However， to be specific， it is 78．8％in the upper middle class and 68．3％in the lower middle class． The f（）rmer is higher than the latter by a margin of 10．5％． But， this difference is not statistically significant at the 5％leve1． The Cramer’s contingency
coef6cient is smaller than that obtained from the contingency table between car
ownership and social strata． This indicates that air conditioner becomes necessaries of lifb， as such it loses discriminative power for social strata． ln terms of propensity to consume， habit of using credit cards seems to be a importantindex which tells one’s social status． table27 shows the credit card omnership by social strata． Table27 Credit Card Ownership by Social Strata． in％（n）Haves
Have nots TotalUpper middle I．ower middle 79．9 （219） 65．2 （105） 20．1 （ 55） 34．8 （ 56） 100．0 （274） 100．0 （161） Total 74．5 （324） 25．5 （111） 100．0 （435） X2＝23．2454 v＝0．2312 p＜0．05 As expected， credit card wnership has stronger discriminative power f（）r social strata than car ownership and airconditioner ownership． The percentage of those who hold credit cards is 79．9％in the upper middle class and 65．2％in the lower middle class． The former is higher than the latter by a margin of 14．7％． This difference is statistically significant at the 5％level． The upper middle class appears to be more inclined than the lower middle class to use credit card． Another aspect of life which shows people’s conspicuous consumption lies in the leisure time activities． In what f（）110ws the relationship between social strata and golf club membership is examined．
Democracy and the Emergence of Urban New Middle Classe8 in the Philippines／Ma8atoshi IKEDA
Table28 Golf Club Membership by Social Strata． in％（n）
Haves
Have nots Total IJpper middle Lower middle 9．5（26） 5．0（8＞ 90．5 （248） 95．0 （153） 100．0 （274） 100．0 （161） Total 7．8（34） 92．2 （401） 100．0 （435） X2＝2．8946 v＝0．0816 n．S． The diffusion rate of golf club menbership is too low at 7．8％to wield discriminative power for social strata。 It stands at only 9．5％even in the upper middle class． Playing golf is an extravagant sports even fbr the upper middle class． Probably it is an sports f（）rthe upPer class．2．Living Environment
Living environment is an important index which symbolizes the scial status of family． Table29 shows the living environment of two social strata． Table29 Living Environment by Social Strata in％（n）HQRA
GRA
TotalUpper Middle Lower Middle 32．5 （ 89） 24．2 （ 39） 67．5 （185） 75．8 （122） 100．0 （274） 100．0 （161） Total 29．4 （128） 70．6 （307） 100．0 （435） Abbreviations HQRA：High Quality Residential Area GRA：General Residential Area X2＝3．31748 v＝0．08733 n． s． The percentage of those who live in the high quality residential area is higher in the upper middle class than in the lower middle class by a margin of 8．3％． The fbrmer is more inclined than the latter to live in the higher residential area． On top of that，the upper class lives in a walled subdivision like Forbes Park． Recently， after Ramos administration in particular， vast housing complex has been developed in and around Makati． High rize condominiums have been built up． Their targetted customer is the urban middle class． Thus， we can tell the people’s social status by the living
envlronment．
V．Relevance of The Middle Class to Democracy
1．Basic Political Attitude
Attitude is preparatory psycholigical state for action． （1）Components of Political Attitude In this section politica1 attitude is hypothesized to be composed of political concern， the sense of political accessbility， the sense of political effectiveness， the sense of obligation to vote， affiliation with political party， and confidence in their ability as the vanguard of democracy． （2）The sense of Political concern Political concern is an aspect of political attitude which makes people commit to political affairs． This attitude can be measured by the response to the following test statement．“Politics should be left to the people who like it．”Those who agree with this state ment can be considered to be politically indifferent． and those who disagree with this statement can be considered to be interested in politics． Table30 Political Concern by Social Strata Politics Should be Left to The People Who Like it in％（n）Agree （lndifferent） Disagree（lnterested） Total Upper middle Lower middle 53．9 （130） 68．4 （ 93） 46．1 （111） 31．6 （ 43） 100．0 （241） 100．0 （136） Total 592 （223） 40．8 （154） 100．0 （377＞ X2＝7．5567 vニO．1416 n． s． As shown in table300n average，40．890 of the middle class people are interested in politics． By social strata， the percentage of those who are interested in politics is 46．1％in the upper middle class． On the other hand， it is 31．6％in the lower middle class． The former is higher than the latter by a margin of 14．590． Indication is that the upper middle class appears to be more inclined than the lower middle class to show interest in politics． Explainillg it at length， the emergence of rich middle class is conducive to the progress of democracy．
Democracy and the E皿ergence of Urban New Middle Classes in the Philippines／Masatoshi IKEDA
2．Political accessibility
Political accessibility is a sense that reflects one’s intimacy with politics． This component of political attitude can be measured by the response to the f（）110wing test statement“Politics is too dificult to understand”．If one’s response to this statement is agree， he／she is considered to distances himselfγherself from politics． Table31 reveals the relationship between political accessibility and social strata． Table31 Politics is Too Dificult to Understand in％（n）Agree（Unaccessible） Di8agree（Accessible） Total
Upper middle Lower middle 69．1 （170） 8L8 （112） 30．9 （ 76） 18．2 （ 25） 100．0 （246） 100．0 （137） Total 73．6 （282） 26．4 （101） 100．0 （383） 2（2＝721294 v＝0．1372 n．s． According to this table The percentage of those who consider that they are accessible to politics is 26．4％on average． By social strata， Those who disagree with this statement is 30．9％in the upper middle class． It means 30．9％of the upper middle class people think they are accessible to politics． On the other hand， the percentage of those who think they are accessible to politics is only 18．2％in the lower middle class． The former is higher than the latter by a margin of 12．7％． This finding shows that the higher stratum he／she belongs to， the closer one’s distance to politics becomes． Thus， it seems to be that high socio economic status helps people take part in politics． In this regard， economic well being and transparency of political process so as for people to understand it are important factors for participatory democracy to be realized．
3．The Sense of Political E什ectiveness
In mass society as we live in these days， we likely lose confidence in our ability to influence on politics． This confidence in our ability to influence on politics can be called the sense ofl）01itical effectiveness． In this research the sense of political effectiveness was measured by the response to the following test statement“However hard we may work fbr politics nothing would happen to it”． Table32 shows the relationship between the sense of political effectiveness and social strata． As shown in table3275．590 of the middle class people are caught up by the sense of political ineffectiveness． By social strata， the percentage of those who think they are politically effective is 25．7％in the upper middle class． On the other hand， it is 22．0％in the lower middle class． The former is higher than the latter by a margin of 3．7％． This difference is not statistically significant． However， the tendency seems to be that the higher stratum one belongs to， the stronger one feels oneself politically effective． Tlie sense of political effectiveness must have close relationship with confidence in the ability as a vanguard of democracy． Table32 However Hard we Way Work for Politics Nothing Would Happen to it． in％（n） Agree（lneffective） Disagree（Effective） Total Upper middle Lower middle 74．3 （179） 78．0 （ 99） 25．7 （62） 22．0 （28） 100．0 （241） 100．0 （127） Total 75。5 （278） 24．5 （90） 100．0 （368） X2＝06252 v＝0．0412 n． s．
4．Confidence in the ability as a vanguard of democracy
Table33 The Middle Class is the Vanguard of Democracy in％（n）Agree Di8agree Total
Upper middle Lower middle 87．6 （198） 88．4 （107） 12．4 （28） 11．6 （14） 100．0 （226） 100．0 （121） Total 87．9 （305） 12．1 （42） 100．0 （347） X2＝0．04422 v＝0．01129 n．8． As shown in table330verwhelming m勾o亘ty（87．9％）agree with the test statement to the effect that the middle class is the vanguard of democracy． As Small Cramer’s contingency coe丘icient shows， This percentage is so high as to negate the diHbrence by social stratum． Contrary to our expectation， the lower middle clas8 is more confident in their ability as a vanguard of democracy， but this difference is not statistically significant at the 5％leve1． A case in point is that here is the fact that overwhelming majority（87．9％）of the middle class are confident in their ability as a vanguard of democracy． Herein lies the relevance of the middle cla8s to democracy． Under the parliamentary democratic system， voting is the minimum requirement to sustain the system． Then， how strong do they stick to the minimum duties as a citizen？In order to
measure people’s imvolvement in this democratic principle， the fbllowing test
statement was addressed． Table34 shows the response to the question to the effect that“abstaining from voting is renounciation of sacread public duties”．Democracy and the Emergence of Urban New Middle Classes in the Philippines／MasatOshi IKEDA
5．The Sense of Obligation to vote
A皿in all，85．4％of middle class people think abstaining from voting is inexcusable． 1eaving the question whether they actually go to the polls or not aside， when compared to the low j apanese voting rate which stands somewhere around 50％， this丘nding is of great encouragement to the development of the democratic system in the Philippines． The difference in this attitude is not fbund by social strata． Irespective of social strata， middle class people have strong confidence in the parliamentary democratic system． In view of f（）regoing，it can be said that the advent of social environment which brings about the middle classes is conducive to the development of democracy． Table34 Abstaining From Voting is in％（n）Inexcusable Excusable Total
UpPer middle Lower middle 85．4 （204） 85．6 （113） 14．6 （35） 14．4 （19） 100．0 （239） 100．0 （132） Total 85。4 （317） 14．6 （54） 100．0 （371） X2＝0．00415 v＝0．0033 n． s．
6．The Political Par呼Affiliation
Table35 Do You Have a Political Party by Which You Stand？ in％（n）Haves
Have nets Total Upper middle Lower middle 9．3（25） 7．8（12） 90．7 （245） 92．2 （142） 100．0 （270） 100．0 （154） Total 8．7（37） 91．3 （387） （424） X2＝0．32289 v＝0．0276 n． s． However， the prospect of democracy in the Philippines doesn’t seem to be bright as sugested by f（）regoing analysis． Table35 shows the political party af五liation of the middle class people． According to the table， the percentage of those who have a political party by which they stand is only 8．7％on average． To be specific it is 9．3％in the upper middle class and 7．8％in the lower middle class． The figure of 8．7％is extremely low even compared to the low political party support rate which stands somewhere around 60％． This may be the reason why there have been so many movie star turned politicians and sports player turned politicians in the Philippines． Non existence of political parties which have clear cut policy goals． will prevent Philippine democracy丘om developing to a higher stage． It holds true even if people are confidentin their ability as a vanguard of democracy and seldom abstain from voting．
VI． Inner Structure of Political Consciousness
In what fbllows， the inner relationship of aspects of political attitude is examined
1．Political Concern and The Sense of Political Accessbility
Table36 Political Concern and Political Accessbility in％（n）Accessible Inaccessible Total Interested Indifferent 38．8 （57） 17．6 （38） 61．2 （ 90） 82．4 （178） 1・OO．0 （147） 100．0 （216） Total 262 （95） 73．8 （268） 100．0 （363） 疋2＝23．85363 v＝0．25634 p＜0．05 As shown in table3638．8％of those who are interested in politics feel that they are accessible to politics． On the other hand， only 17．6％of those who are indifferent to politics feel they are accessible to politics． The percentage of the fbrmer is higher than that of the latter by a margin of 21．2％． As the large Cramer’s contingency coefficient indicates the relationship between the two variables is very strong． Those who are interested in politics are more inclined than those who are indifferent to regard politics as aceessible and Vice versa． From this we can say trancparancy of politics is a requisite for one to become politically concerned． In this sense， transparancy of political process seems to be an important base of democracy．
2．Political Concern and The Sense of Political Effectiveness
If one is concemed with politics， and has confidence in one’s abilities as a political actor， he／she will actively take part in politics． Table37 examines the relationship between political concern and the sense of political effectiveness． Table37 Political Concern and Political Effectiveness in％（n） Political EffectivenessConcem
Effective Inef正bctive TotalInterested Indifferent 39．3 （57） 12．9 （27） 60．7 （ 88） 87．1 （182） 100．0 （145） 100、0 （209） Total 23．7 （84） 76．3 （270） 100．0 （354） X2＝38．99569 v＝0．3318956 p＜0．05
DemocraCy and the Emergence of Urban New Middle Classes in the Philippines／Masatoshi IKEDA As shown in table37 those who are interested in politics are more iclined than those who are politically indifferent to have confidence in their abilities as a political actor． To be specific，39．3％of those who are interested in politics have confidence in their abilities as a political actor． On the other hand， only 12．9％of those who are indifferent to politics have confidence in their abilities as a political actor． As a result， as the large Cramer’s contingency coef丘cient indicates， the relationship between the two variables is very strong．Table37 also shows that those who have confidence in their abilities as a political actor are more inclined than those who don’t have confidence in their abilities as a political actor to be interested in politics， 3・The Sense of Political Effectiveness and the Sence of Political Accessbility Table38 showed that the sense of political effectiveness seems to be the base of political concern． How is the case in its relation tO the sense of political accessbility？ Table38 The Sense of Political Accessbility and The Sense of Political Effectiveness in％（n）
Accessible Unaccessible Total
Effective Ineffective 58．0 （47） 16．8 （46） 42．0 （ 34） 83．2 （227） 100．0 （ 81＞ 100．0 （273） Total 26．3 （93） 73．7 （261） 100．0 （354） 〕！1＝54．8101 v＝0．3941 p＜0．050 As shown in table38，58．0％of those who feel they are effective as a political actor think politics is accessible． On the other hand， among those who think they are ineffective as a political actor， only 16．8％of them feel they are accessible to politics． The percentage of the fbrmer is higher than that of the latter by a wide margin of 41．2％．As shown by the large Cramer’s contingency coefflcient， the relationship between the sense of political effectiveness and the sense of political accessbility is
very strong． When compared to the previous table36 and table37． The Cramer’s
contingency coefficient is largest in this table． The Sense of political effectiveness brings about the sense of political Accessibility． On its part， the sense of political accessibility brings about politica1 concern． lf the political system is not transparent， it is hard fbr people to feel the sense of political concern． and to feel the sense of political accessibility． These negative political attitude will discourage people to take part in political affairs． From this， we can say that the transparency of the political system which is the base of political accessbility and political concern is the requisite ofparticipatory democracy．
VII． Election Democracy and Political Consciousness
Under the system of election democracy， voting plays a key role to sustain the system． Although irreguralities such as vote buying， flying vote， ballot box snatching are rampant， the Philippines is a country of free election． How people are prepared tO the principle of democracy？In what follows their daily expression of political concern， whether they have a political party by which they stand or not， their actual voting behavior are to be examined． 1．The Sense of Political Concern and The Sense of Obligation to Vote As noted above， more than 80％of our upper middle clas8 respondents have strong sense of obligation to vote． This tendency is pre8erved among those who are interested in politics and who are not． Accordingly， in terms of the sense of obligation to vote， no marked diHbrence is fbund betweell these two groups． The small Cramer’s contingency coef丘cient（0．0252）obtained丘て）m the analysis of the Sense of Political Concern and The Sense of Obligation to Vote ’suppOrts this tendency． 2．The Sense of Po撤ical Effectiveness and the Sense of Obligation to vote Underlying hypothesi8 regarding this relation is that those who fbel they are effective as a politica1 actor are more inclined than those who are ot to feel abstaining 丘om voting is not excusable． However， as shown by the 8mall Cramer’s contingency coef口cient（0．0903）． Marked difference is not fbund between these two groups． The sense of political effectiveness is not a strong conscious factor which encourages people to have the sense of obligation to vote． 3．The Sense of Political Accessibility and the Sense of Obligation to vote So far the sense of politica1 accessibility turned out to be an important conscious factor in the structure of political consciousness． Then how this consciousness af正bcts the sense of obligation to vote？ Table39 Abstaining From Voting is in％（n）Inexcusable Excusable Tota1 Unaceessible Accessible 82．6 （214） 90．0 （ 81） 17．4 （45） 10．0（9） 100．0 （259） 100．0 （ 90） Total 84．5 （295） 15．5 （54） 100．0 （349） 疋2＝2．8206 v＝0．0899 n．s．
Demoeracy and the Emergence of Urban New Middle Classes in the Philippine⑨／Ma8atOshi IKEDA Table39 shows 82．6％of those who feel politics is unaccessible think abstaining from voting is inexcusable． On the other hand，90％of those who feel politics is accessible think abstaining from voting is inexcusable． The percentage of the latter is higher than that of the latter by a margin of 7．4％． But as the small Cramer’s contingency coef丘cient shows， this difference is not statistically significant at the 5％level． Any way this result indicates that if the political System is not transparent， it is hard fbr people to feel feel political accessibility． These negative political attitude will discourage them to have the sense of obligation to vote． This attitude on its turn discourage people to take part in political affairs． From this， we can say that the transparency of the political system which is the base of political accessbility， political concern is the requisite of participatory democracy．
VIII． Vbting Behavior
1．Factors influencing on Voting behavior
Table40 sheds light on the voting behavior． Table40 How Often Have You Absteined From Voting？ in％（n）Often Sometimes
Seldom
TotalUpper middle Lower middle 4．9（13） 5．3（8） 21．1 （56） 13，2 （20） （74．0196） 81．5 （123） 100．0 （265） 100．0 （151） Total 5．0（21＞ 18．3 （76） 76．7 （319） 100．0 （416） X2＝4．0222 v＝0．09833 n．s． According to this table， more than 3 in 4 go to the polls． This percentage seems to be
higher than that of Japan where sometimes more than half people abstain from
voting． On the other hand in the Philippines， people appear to be eager to go to the polls， although as examined later， they don’t have a political party by which they stand． Neverthrless， they seldom abstain from voting． voting appears to have more than political signi丘cance in this country． It is a high time for people in the different social positions， between“big people and small people”in Frank Lynch’s term． to tighten social relations among them． Viewed this way it is understandable that the lower middle class appears to be more inclined than the upper middle class to go to the polls． In that occasion the amall people repay their utangnaloob to big people．Actually， the percentage of those who seldom abstain from voting is 81．5％in the lower middle class． On the other hand， it is 74．0％in the upper middle class．
Relationship between voting behavior and demographic factors like gender and age
are examined in that order．2．Gender
Table41 How Often Have You Abstained From Voting by Gender in％（n）Often Sometimes Seldom Total
Man
Women
4．5（13） 5．6（8） 18．1 （52） 17．4 （25） 77．4 （223） 77．0 （111） 100．0 （288） 100．0 （144） Total 4．9（21） 17．8 （77） 77．3 （334） 100．0 （432） 駕L’＝0．87176 v＝0．04492 n．s． Table41 shows the relation ship between gender and voting behavior． fbcusing on the percentage of those who seldom abstain from voting， it is almost the same in both genders． As small Cramer’s contingency coefflcient shows， gender doesn’t influence voting behavior． Then， what about next important demographic factor， age？In table42 age group was divided by median age 40．3．Age
Table42 How Often Have You Abstained From Voting by Age Group n％（n）Often Sometimes
Seldom
TotalUnder 40 40and above 4．7（10） 5．0（11） 17．4 （37） 18．5 （41） 77．9 （166） 76．5 （170） 100．0（213） 100．0 （222） Total 4．8（21） 17．9 （78） 77．3 （336） 100．0 （435） X2＝0．22361 v＝O．0227 n． s． According tothis table， regarding the percentage of those who seldom abstain f㌔om voting， marked difference can’t be fbund between two age groups． Conclusion from above two table is that demographic factors don’t influence voting behavior． Then， do socio economic factors influence voting behavior？
4．Occupation
Table43 examined the relationship between occupation and the degree of
Democracy and the Emergence of Urban New Middle Classes in the Philippines／Ma8atoshi IKEDA abstention from voting． According to this table， the percentage of those who seldom ab8tain from voting is highest in clerica1 workers（82．7％）and lowest in professional／ technical workers（67．5％）．It appears that it is too troublesome for professional／ technical workers， to go to the polls． On the other hand fbr clerical workers politics appears to be too problematical to be ignored． Following clerical workers， blue collar workers have seldom abstained from voting． They are well informed of political events through trade union． They are the ones who are mobilized in important political
occasions like EDSA I andEDSA II However， a8 small Cramer’s contingency
coef6cient shows， the relationship betWeen occupation and voting behaVior is weak． Table43 How Often Have You Abstained From Voting by Occupation in％（n）Often
Sometimes
Seldom
TotalManagerial Business Profl tech Clerical Blue Collar 5．2（6） 6．3（5） 6．8（5） 6．2（5） 7．7（5） 20．0 （23） 17．7 （14） 25．7 （19） 11．1（9） 13．8（9） 74．8 （ 86） 76．0 （ 60） 67．5 （ 50） 82．7 （ 67） 78．5 （ 51） 100．0 （115） 100．0 （ 79） 100．0 （ 74） 100．0（81） 100．0 （ 65） Total 6．3（26） 17．9 （74） 75．8 （314） 100．0 （414） X2＝11．05945 v＝0．11833 n． s．
5．lncome
Table44 How Often Have You Abstained From Voting by lncome GroupsOften
