Increasing Student Motivation and Perceived Improvement through Two New Communicative Language Teaching Activities in a Second Language Classroom in Japan

I.Introduction

CommunicativeLanguageTeaching(CLT)hasnothadresoundingsuccessinJapan.The reasonsfor thiscan betraced to an overly importantfocuson passing grammar-and vocabulary-centereduniversityentranceexams(Gorsuch,2000),culturallymismatchedmaterials (Samimy, & Kobayashi,2004),discrepancies between student and teacher beliefs about language instruction (Matsuura,Chiba, & Hilderbrandt,2001),or a lack of students・ Willingness To Communicate (WTC)in the language learning classroom (Aubrey,2010; Matsuura,Chiba, & Hilderbrandt,2001).

In an efforttochangethistrend,thispaperwill(1)furtherdiscusswhatCLT isand whatstridesarebeingmadetomakeitmoresuccessfulinJapan,(2)introduceandexplain reward probability,anew areaofresearch;and (3)detailqualitativeresearch in which a classroom containing two new CLT activiti_{esVariableSentenceResponse(VSR)(French,} 2011)and theEnglish Conversation Wheel(ECW)(Holtzcl_{aw,2011)wereimplemented in} fourclassesforonesemesteratauniversityinTokyo.

学苑 No.864（56）～（74）（201210）

Increasi

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Abstract

Two CommunicativeLanguageTeaching (CLT)activities,VariableSentenceResponse(VSR) (French,2011),and theEnglish Conversation Wheel(ECW)(Holtzclaw,2011)weretested for likeability,motivation,andperceivedimprovementinaJapaneseUniversityclassroom setting overthecourseofasemester.Thisresearch strongly suggestswith avery high probability (P<0.001)that classes which included VSR and the ECW received higher scores in both motivation andperceivedimprovementthan students・otherclassesasaresultofthesetwo new activities,althoughtheextentofthischangeisunknown.Aswell,classesthatincluded VSR andtheECW alsoreceivedhigherlikeabilityscoresthanthestudents・otherclasses,even though very high teacherratingsmay havecontributed.Overall,thisresearch showsthat VSR and theECW can makeCLT in Japan j_{ustasand very likely even morelikeable,} motivating,andproficiency-increasingthanstudents・ordinaryEnglishlessons.

II.CommunicativeLanguageTeaching

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)is a style of English instruction which encouragesstudentstolearn languagethrough theuseofpairwork activities,roleplays, group work activities,and projectwork to increase inter-studentcommunication in the language learning classroom (Richards,2006).This use of student-centered activities is effectivein languagelearning classrooms,asincreasedcommunication among studentshas beenshowntoincreaselanguagelearning(Long,1983;Pica,1992).

However,thisincreaseislargelydependentonthestudents・WillingnessToCommunicate (WTC),which・referstothetendencyofanindividualtoinitiateconversationwhenfreeto do so・ (Yashima,2002,p.55).Asthereisnotalwaysa high standard ofWTC among studentsin Japaneseclassrooms(Matsuura,Chiba,& Hilderbrandt,2001),tipson how to increase students・WTC can be very helpful.On this subject,Aubrey (2011)gives five primarysuggestionsonhow toincreasestudents・WTC inJapan:

1.Groupcohesiveness

Groupcohesivenesscanbecreatedbyestablishingatrustbetweenstudents,and/orby letting students communally develop a feelfor the bounds of conversation within the classroom.Thiscanbeencouragedbyhavingstudentslearnabouteachotherindepth,having studentsengagewith each other outsideofclass,and/or by having studentsengagein severalnon-threateningconversationsintheclassroom withamultitudeofpartners. 2.Reducingcommunicationanxiety

Matsuura,Chiba,& Hilderbrandt (2001)have shown that nearly two-thirds of all teachersandstudentsinJapanbelievethatstudentreticenceisaproblem inthelanguage learning classroom.Aubrey (2011)suggeststhatgood waysto dealwith communication anxiety areto(1)givestudentstimetopreparean answerwhen posing aquestion tothe classandthenlettingstudentsanswervoluntarilyinsteadofsinglingthem out,and(2)to putmorefocusongroupactivitiessothatstudents・answers/attemptsatcommunicationare onlywitnessedbytheirpartner(s).

3.Topicrelevancy

To betopically relevantwith studentsisto teach languagetopicsthatstudentsare interestedin.Thiscanbeachievedbyusingmaterialswhichareinterestingorrelevantto studentsand/orbygivingthem somecontrolovercontent(i.e.lettingthem voteonwhich activitiesinatextbooktoskip).

However,according to research by Matsuura,Chiba,and Hilderbrandt(2001),・nearly 60％ ofthe(Japaneseuniversity)studentsexpressednegativeattitudestowardthestatement

Iwanttotalk tomyteacherhow Ifeelaboutourclass・(p.78).Whiletopicisonly one factoramongmanythatapplytothisstatement,thisdatamayhavesignificantrelevance when deciding aclasstopic.Assuch,theresponsibility ofachieving topicrelevancy in the CLT classroomsinJapanmayrestsolelyontheshouldersoftheinstructororcurriculum coordinator.

4.AcceptanceofCLT

Acceptance of CLT can be attained when students perceive improvement in their languageabilityasaresultofCLT courses.Aubrey(2010)foundevidenceofaresistanceto CLT pedagogy by Japanesestudents,which hindered theability oftheteacherto teach effectively.In ordertocircumventthishindrance,Aubrey (2011)recommendsthatteachers explicitly explain (or ・sell・)the benefits ofCLT to students in order to increase CLT acceptance.This can be done by explaining whatCLT is and how itwillbe used,by explainingthepotentialbenefitsofCLT,and/orbyshowingstudentsevidencethatCLT is effectiveinimprovingstudents・languageskills.

However,astheresearchbelow willshow,explicitexplanationofCLT isnotnecessary toincreasestudents・perceivedlanguageimprovementincommunicativelanguageclassrooms. In fact,the author ofthis article holds the position thatwhile acceptance ofCLT by students is important,the benefits of an activity should be intrinsically apparent to students,and・selling・CLT resultsinalossoflanguagelearningtime.

5.Instillinganinternationalposture

Research has shown that there is a small, but statistically significant positive correlationbetweeninternationalpostureandJapanesestudents・willingnesstocommunicate (Yashima,2002).Itisthereforerecommendedthatteachersstrivetoguidetheirstudentsto becomingmoreinternationallyoriented.Thiscanbeachievedby(1)increasingstudentaccess to people of other cultures through the use of pen pals, Facebook, or by inviting internationalstudentstospeakinclass;orby(2)usinginternationallyorientedmaterialsin class.

III.Rewardprobability

Rewardprobabilityreferstothevaryingdopaminelevelchangesahuman(orprimate) experienceswhen trying tocompleteatask with differentperceived probabilitiesofbeing abletodowellenoughtoreceiveareward.Itisthereasonwhygamblingissoaddictive, andthereasonwhypeoplemakethedecisiontostudyindoorsforfuturegainsinsteadof playinginthesunshine(Sapolsky,2009).

Dopamineisa substancein thebody which elicitseuphoria,and withoutdopamine, humanswouldbecomeclinically depressed(Sapolsky,2009).When dopaminelevelsincrease,

peoplegetenergizedandexcited,andasaresultofthisenergy andexcitement,dopamine hastheability to fuelgoal-oriented behavior (Sapolsky,2009).Therearethreedifferent circumstances in which dopamine levels rise when applied to learning and goal-oriented behaviorwithin thescopeofreward probability.Thesethreecircumstancesare:perceived capability,reward,andanticipation.

1.Perceivedcapability

Perceived capability isthat・Iknow how todothis・or・Iknow whatwillhappen・ feeling(Tim Murpheycallsthis・agency・,althoughhealsoappliesittoadditionalsituations which arenotrelevanttorewardprobability)(2010).When people(orotherprimates)feel likethey arecapableofdoing something wellenough toreceiveareward(an object,good grades,praise),they get a sudden momentary spike in their dopamine levels (Fiorillo, Tobler,& Schultz,2003).Thesizeofthisspikedependson how capabletheperson thinks they areatperforming wellenough to getthereward.Asperceived capability increases, dopaminespikesgrow larger.Dopaminelevelsareunchangedat0％ perceivedcapability,but dopaminelevelsquickly riseasperceived capability increases.However,at50％ perceived capability,dopaminelevelsplateauandremainatsimilarlevelsuntil100％.

2.Reward

A dopaminelevelincreasein responsetoarewardisalsoasudden momentary rush, and issubjectto two variables:thesizeofthereward,and theperceived probability of gettingthereward(Fiorillo,Tobler,& Schultz,2003).Astherewardsizeincreases,sodoes thedopaminelevelwhen therewardisreceived.Astheperceivedprobability ofrewardis reduced,the higher the dopamine levels ifthe reward is received.Dopamine levels are highestata0％ perceivedprobabilityofreward,andthensteadilydecreaseuntilaperson thinks thatthere is a 100％ chance ofreceiving the reward.Atthe pointofcomplete confidence,thereisnodopaminerushwhentherewardisreceived.

Unfortunately,forallnon-zeroperceivedprobabilities,ifarewardisnotgrantedatthe end ofan event,there is a corresponding decreaseofdopamine,making people sad or disappointed.

3.Anticipation

Ananticipation-induceddopamineincreaseoccursbetweenthestartoftheeventandthe pointwhenarewardisgivenornot.Assuch,adopaminelevelresponseduetoanticipation istheonlynon-fleetingdopamineincrease,andcanlastforyearsforhumans,(i.e.studying togetintoagooduniversity)althoughtheselevelsaremuchlowerthanthoseinducedby perceived capability and reward (Sapolsky,2009;Fiorillo,Tobler,& Schultz,2003).The maximum dopamineincreaseduetoanticipation isataperceivedprobability of50％,the

valueatwhichtheoutcomeisthemostunsure.Thisdopamineincreasesteadilydeclineson eithersideof50％ untiltheprobability ofgetting arewardreaches0％ or100％.Atthis pointofabsoluteconfidenceingettingornotgettingareward,thereisnodopaminelevel increaseduetoanticipation.

4.TheapplicationofrewardprobabilityinCLT

In light of the above information,it would seem as though putting students in situationswheretheyhavea50/50chancetosucceedisthebestoptionasitproducesthe highestoverallamountsofdopaminewhenrewardsarereceived,thusharnessingdopamine・s ability to fuelgoaloriented behavior and producing motivated and energized students. However, one must also take into account that not receiving a reward leads to a corresponding decreasein dopaminelevels.Thiscan bevery dangerousasitcouldleadto lowerlevelsofmotivationandself-esteem forthestudents.

In ordertosolvetheproblem ofnotreceiving rewardin a50/50situation,ateacher could allow thestudenttimeto study and retry theproblem ata differenttimeifthe studentwasnotabletoperform wellenoughthefirsttime.Ifastudentisabletotryagain andreceivethesamerewardafterstudying,theendresultwillbeapositivedopaminerush. Itisbecauseofthisthatteachersshouldbecarefulwhenassigningtestgrades.Insteadof assigning static,unchanging testgrades,teachers should assign temporary grades,and allow studentstokeeptryinguntiltheyareabletoearnthereward.Inotherwords,failure shouldnotbeviewedasaresult,butasamessagethatstudentsshouldstudyabitmore andtryagain.

IV.Research

Thegoalofthisresearchistotestthehypothesisthattheimplementationoftwonew activiti_{esVariableSentenceResponse(VSR)andtheEnglishConversationWheel(ECW)} willlead to high levels ofstudentenjoymentin the classroom,motivation in studying English,andperceivedimprovementinlanguageability.

1.Researchperiod

Research wasconductedoveraonesemesterperiod.Studentsattendedtwo45minute classesperweekforfourteenweeks.

2.Testsubjects

Thestudentswereallenrolledin awomen・suniversity in Tokyo,andthusallofthe subjectsin thisresearch werefemale.AllstudentswereEnglish majors,and thelessons weregivenduringrequiredfirstyearspeakingandlisteningclass,andassuchmostofthe studentswerefirstyears,although therewasonesecondandfourthirdyearspresentas

well.Therewereatotalof91studentsin fourdifferentclasses,sotheaverageclasssize was22.75studentsperclass.Atthebeginningofthesemester,86ofthe91studentstook theTOEIC test.TheaverageTOEIC scoreofstudentswas340.76withastandarddeviation of 70.87.A large majority of these students had TOEIC scores between 200 and 449, althoughtherewereoutliersbothbelow andabovethisrange(Figure1).

3.Instruction

Oneteacher,theauthorofthisarticle,taughtallfourclassesinthisstudy.Therewas no assigned textbook forthisclassso theteacherwasableto focuscompletely on the materialsbeingtested.

4.Subject

Thisclasswasconductedunderthethemeof・Love& Relationships・in an attemptto achievetopicrelevancy asper Aubrey・s(2011)recommendationson improving students・ WTC.

5.Implementation

Thematerialswereorganizedintochapters,witheachchaptercontainingthesamefour activitiesinthesameorder.Inorderofappearance,thefouractivitiescontainedwithinthe chaptersare:story,story-telling,VSR,andtheECW.Ittookthestudentsroughlyfourto five45-minutelessonstocompleteonechapter・sworthofactivities.Studentscompletedfive tosevenchaptersduringthesemesterdependingonwhichclasstheywerein(classeswere separatedbyabilitylevel).

6.Activities

Examplematerialstakenfrom chapterthreecanbeseenintheAppendix.Thematerials

forstoryandstory-tellingcanbeseeninAppendixA,thematerialsforVSR canbeseen inAppendixB,andthematerialsfortheECW canbeseeninAppendixC.

Story

Thechapterstartswith theteacherreading ashortstory.Thisstory isroughly 100 wordslongandiswrittenaroundthe500headwordlevel.Theshortstoriesineachchapter areallpartofalargerstoryline.Therearetenchaptersofcontentinthefullstory.

Thestoryisreadtothestudentsthreetimes,andthestudentsanswerfivecomprehension questionswhilethestory isbeing read.Afterthestory hasbeen read threetimes,the teachergivesthestorytothestudentssothattheyareabletochecktheiranswersand/or answeranyquestionswhichtheyweren・tabletoanswerfrom listening.

Afterthestudentsarefinishedreading,theteacherverbally asksthestudentsforthe answerstothequestionsandstudentsanswerthequestionsasaclass.Thecomprehension questionsarenotgraded.Aswell,theteacher also asksthestudentsifthereareany vocabularywordsinthestorywhichtheydidn・tunderstand.Ifthereare,thentheteacher triestoexplainthewordtothem inEnglish.Ifthatfails,aJapanesetranslationisgiven.

Thisactivity satisfiestopicrelevancyandminimizingstudentanxietyasperAubrey・s (2011)recommendationsonimprovingstudents・WTC.

Story-telling

Oncethestudentsarecomfortablewith thestory,theteachergivesthestudents34 minutestomemorizethestory.Thestudentsthenpairupandplayrock-paper-scissors,with theloserbeingtheonetotellthestorytotheirpartnerfirst.

Whiletelling thestory,studentsareencouraged to givea summary ofthestory in theirownwords.Whileonepartneristellingthestory,theotherpartnerisreadingalong sothathe/shecancorrectmistakesandgivehis/herpartnerhintsifhis/herpartnergets stuck.Aftertelling thestory for23minutes,thestudentsareinstructedtoswitch with theirpartnersothatallstudentsareabletotellthestory.Thisprocessisthenrepeatedso thateachstudenttellsthestory23times.

ThisactivitysatisfiesminimizingstudentanxietyasperAubrey・s(2011)recommendations onimprovingstudents・WTC.

VariableSentenceResponse(VSR)

Thestoryintheaboveactivitiesalwaysbuildsuptoaconversationbetween・you・and anothercharacterinthestory.Thisconversationalwaysbeginswithalead-insentence.In additiontothelead-insentence,thehandoutalsocontains15otherconversationalsentences applicabletothesituation.Thesesentenceswillbevariablyselectedandsaidbythestudents・ partnerduring thecourseoftheconversation,and thestudentswillhaveto understand

which sentenceisbeing said by theirpartnerand respond with an answeroftheirown creation.Aseach conversation takesa uniquepath through the15 sentences,thereare thousandsofpossibleconversationalpathspereachVSR conversation.

However,beforestudentsengageinspokenconversation,theteacherasksthestudents ifthereareany vocabulary wordsin thelead-in orthe15 sentenceswhich they didn・t understand.Ifthereare,thentheteachertriestoexplainthewordtothem inEnglish.If thatfails,aJapanesetranslationisgiven.Afterstudentsunderstandthelead-inandthe15 sentences,theyaregiven2030minutestowritepracticeconversationsbythemselves.While students are writing, the teacher walks around the classroom and edits students・ conversations.

After the majority ofstudents are finished writing four 3 coupling (3 sentence3 response)conversations,theteacherhasthestudentspairupandpracticespeaking.During this practice,neither studentis allowed to look attheir written practice conversations (althoughtheycanlookatthesentencelisthandoutifnecessary).

After45minutesofpracticingconversationswiththeirpartner(studentsswitchroles ontheirown),studentsareinstructedtofindanew partnerandpracticetheconversation again.Thisisrepeated410timesdependingonthestudents・level.

Afterstudentsarefinishedpracticingconversations,theyform alinetotheteacherand engageina30secondconversationwiththeteacheronebyone.Thisconversationisatest, andthetestwillconsistoftheteachersaying5sentencesfrom thelistatnativespeedsof English afterthestudentsaysthelead in sentence.Ifthestudentscannotrememberthe lead in sentence, cannot understand what is said, or cannot respond in a quick, understandablemanner,thestudentswillfailthetest.However,studentswhofailthetest aremerelytoldtogototheendofthelineandtryagainuntiltheypass(andifstudents don・tpassontestday,theyareallowedtotakethetestatalatertime).Allstudentswho passaregivena100％ scoreregardlessofgrammar,vocabulary,orlengthoftimenecessary topass.

Thisactivity satisfiesminimizing studentanxiety,group cohesion,and acceptanceof CLT (asstudentsareableto seethevaluein being ableto successfully conversewith a quicklyspeakingteacherinEnglish)asperAubrey・s(2011)recommendationsonimproving students・WTC.In addition,thisactivity alsomakesuseofrewardprobabilityby putting studentsin a50/50pass/failsituation andthen allowing them tostudy andtry again if theyfail.

TheEnglishConversationWheel(ECW)

AfterthemainstorylineispresentedinthestoryandVSR sectionsofeachchapter,the maincharacter・you・talkstosomeoneinthestoryandgivesthem astatusupdateorasks foradvice.Thefocusofthisactivityisforstudentstodeveloptheirquestionaskingskills,

sotheprimary rolewillbe・you・if・you・isasking foradvice,andtheothercharacterif ・you・isgivingastatusupdateandtheothercharacterisaskingformoreinformation.

In thisactivity,studentsaregiven fourto six question headwordsoutof8possible questionheadwords(who,what,where,when,how,why,do,is/are)andareaskedtowrite twoquestionsforeachheadword(thequestionhastostartwiththeheadword).Studentsare then given 2030 minutesto think ofand writethesequestions.In addition,whilethe studentsarewriting,theteacherwalksaround theclassroom and aidsstudentsin their vocabularyandgrammar.

Afterstudentshavewritten down twoquestionsforeach question headword,students aregivenapackoflaminatedindexcards;withonequestionheadwordwrittenonthefront andbackofeachindexcard.Thereisoneindexcardforeachquestionheadwordperstudent pair.Studentsarethengiven30secondstomemorizethequestionstheywrotedown.

Next,the students play rock-paper-scissors and the loser has to ask their partner questions without looking at the questions they wrote down.But,the student asking questionsdoesn・taskjustanyquestion.Thewinnerholdsuptheindexcardsandshowsone questionheadwordatatimetotheloser.Theloserhastoaskaquestionthatbeginswith thisheadword.Aftertheloserasksaquestion,thewinnerhastoanswerthatquestion.The winnerthen showsa new card to theloserand theprocessisrepeated.Thislastsone minute for the firstround.After one minute is up,students are given another thirty secondstolook atthequestionsthey wrotedown.Studentsthen turn overtheirwritten questionsagain,switchroles,andrepeattheactivityforanothersixtyseconds.

Afterboth studentshaveasked questionsfora minute,studentsaretold to change partnersandtheactivityisrepeated.Theactivityisrepeatedfortwotofivetimes,withthe amountoftimeallottedforstudentstoaskquestionsgraduallyincreasingfrom oneminute totwo.Oncestudentsseem comfortableaskingquestionsfortwominutes,thispartofthe activityisfinished.

Thenextpartoftheactivityfocusesonfluency.Studentsareinstructedtoaskasmany questionsastheycaninforty-fivesecondsinresponsetothecardstheirpartnersholdup (partnersdonotanswerthequestions).Thetargetnumberofquestionsaskedinforty-five secondsisseven.Thisisrepeatedthreemoretimessothateachstudenthastwoattempts. Thereisnoformalevaluationforthisactivity,althoughstudentsarerequiredtoraisetheir handsandshow how manyquestionstheywereabletoanswer.

Thisactivitysatisfiesminimizingstudentanxiety,groupcohesion,andacceptanceofCLT (asstudentsareabletoseetheadvantageofbeing abletoholdaconversation in English for2minutesstraight)asperAubrey・s(2011)recommendationson improving students・ WTC.

ItshouldbenotedthattheactivitylistedaboveisonlythefirstpartoftheECW.The fullrangeoftheECW continuesontomuchmoreadvancedlevelsofstudentconversation,

givingstudentstheabilitiestheyneedto(1)developtheskillsandknow-how necessaryto carry on authenticconversations,(2)do thisindependently,and furthermore,(3)usethis new found conversationalindependence as toolfor increasing grammar and vocabulary. Unfortunately,thestudentsinthisresearchdidnothaveahighenoughlanguagelevelto beexposedtothefullrangeoftheECW.

7.Researchmethodology

The hypothesis thatVSR and the ECW are responsible for high levels ofstudent enjoymentintheclassroom,motivationinstudyingEnglish,andperceivedimprovementin languageability wastested by (1)asking studentstorank thetestclasson afivepoint Likertscale in terms oflikeability,motivation to study,and perceived improvementin English ability,(2)asking thestudentstorank theirotherEnglish classeson afivepoint Likertscaleintermsoflikeability,motivationtostudy,andperceivedimprovementsoasto establishacontrolgrouptocomparescoresagainst,and(3)discerningwhatfactorsofthe testclassroom wereresponsiblefor thetestclass・slikeability,motivation to study,and perceivedimprovementbyaskingstudentstochooseoneormoreofthefollowingreasonsfor why they liked,weremotivatedby,andperceivedtheirlanguageimprovein thetestclass from thefollowingoptions:story,story-telling,VSR (describedas・storyconversation・),the ECW (describedas・conversationcards・),teacher,theme,andnothing.Thissurveywasgiven to the students in Japanese and can be seen in fullin Appendix D (with the English translationofthesurveygiveninAppendixE).

Thesurveywasgiventostudentsbytheteacher,theauthorofthisarticle,duringclass time.Studentswereexplicitly toldthatthesurvey wasforresearch andthatthey should notwritetheirnameson thesurvey.Surveyswerecollected in each row by thestudent sitting in front,and werethen turned in to theteacherface-down.Participation in the surveywasvoluntary.Ofthe91studentsintheclass,81turnedinasurvey.

8.Results

AsseeninFigure2,thestudentshadhighopinionsoftheirotherEnglishclasses,with an average likeability of3.90,an average motivation to study of4.04,and an average perceivedimprovementof4.23.Thatsaid,studentshadevenhigheropinionsofthetestclass withanaveragelikeabilityof4.47,anaveragemotivationtostudyof4.31,andanaverage perceivedimprovementof4.51.T-testswereconductedonthescoredifferencesbetweenthe testandthecontrolclasses.Forlikeability,thet-testgaveat-valueof4.77andap-value of0.0000082ontwotails.Formotivationtostudy,thet-testgaveat-valueof3.55andap -valueof0.000066ontwotails.Forperceivedimprovement,thet-testgaveat-valueof3.46 andap-valueof0.00088ontwotails.Allt-testresultshadp-valueslessthan0.001ontwo tails,which meansthatthetestclassoutperformed thecontrolclassesin allthreeareas

with99.9％ statisticalrelevance.

Figure 3 shows that the teacher was the largest positive influence on test class likeabilitywith73％ studentrepresentation,VSR wasthesecondlargestinfluenceat52％, andstorywasthirdat43％.Intermsofstudentmotivation,Figure4showsthatVSR was the largest positive influence on test class student motivation with 57％ student representation,theteacherwasthesecondlargestinfluenceat46％,andtheECW wasthird at37％.And finally,Figure 5 has VSR as the largestpositive influence on testclass perceived motivation with 75％ studentrepresentation,the ECW was the second largest influenceat54％,andtheteacherwasthirdat48％.

Intermsofoverallinfluence,Figure6showsthatVSR hadthegreatestinfluenceover allthreeareasasitwaschosen a totalof149timesoutofa potentialof243times(3 questionsper81students).Theteacherhadthesecondgreatestinfluence,andwaschosen 135times.TheECW cameinthird,thestoryfourth,story-tellingfifth,andthemesixth. ・Nothing・cameinlastplaceandwasonlychosentwice.

Figure3 ClassLikeability

Figure4 StudentMotivation

Figure5 PerceivedImprovement

9.Discussion

Overall,itcan beconcluded with high probability thattheVSR and theECW were responsible for increases in both student motivation and in perceived improvement in studentswhoseTOEICscoresrangefrom 200to449,asVSR andtheECW rankedfirstand thirdinstudentmotivationandfirstandsecondinperceivedimprovement.

Duetoaveryhighteacherscoreinlikeability,itcannotbeconcludedthatVSR andthe ECW werealoneresponsibleforthisincrease.However,theincreasein likeability forthe testclassincomparisontothecontrolclasses(0.57)wasmuchlargerthantheincreasesin studentmotivation (0.27)and perceived improvement(0.28).Assuch,sinceVSR wasthe second mostinfluentialaspectin likeability,itispossiblethatVSR wasresponsiblefor increasingthelikeabilityvalueabovethevalueofthecontrolgroupevenwithouttheteacher・s influence,althoughfurtherresearchwillneedtobedonetoshow this.

ThereasonsforwhyVSR andtheECW weresosuccessfularenotcompletelyapparent, althoughbothoftheseactivitiesinherentlyinclude3outofthe5recommendationsonhow toimproveWTC in CLT classroomsaspresented by Aubrey (2011),and theseare:group cohesiveness,minimizingstudentanxiety,andstudentacceptanceofCLT.Aswell,depending onthetopicofstudy,bothVSR andtheECW canbeusedtomeetallfiveareas,astopic relevancy and instilling an internationalposturecould both beachieved with a topicof studysuchasstudyingabroad.

In addition,VSR・soverallinfluencewasmuch greaterthan any otheractivity.Ithad morethan 50％ moreimpactoverallthan thenextclosestactivity (theECW).SinceVSR wastheonlyactivitytomakeuseofrewardprobability,itcouldbesurmisedthattheusage ofrewardprobabilityinVSR isresponsibleforVSR・svastlyhigherscores.This,however, willneedfurtherresearchtoverify.

Finally,thestorywasthefourthmostinfluentialelementofthetestclassoverallthree areas.Ifthestory in thisresearch can beusedtorepresentthecurrentextensivereading movement,itwould beconcluded thatboth VSR and theECW havea greater positive impact (in terms of motivation and perceived improvement)on students than in-class extensivereadingdoesforstudentswithTOEIC scoresbetween200and449,andthatVSR hasa greaterpositiveimpactin termsoflikeability aswell.Ofcourse,thisconclusion cannot be made from the limited research done,however this research does provide preliminaryevidencethatthismaybetrue.

V.Conclusion

ThisresearchhasshownthatVSR andtheECW areresponsibleforincreasesinstudent motivation and perceived improvement in language learning classrooms for Japanese studentswithTOEIC scoresbetween200and449.A possiblereasonforwhyVSR andthe ECW haveachievedthisisthatVSR canbeusedtomeettheconditionsofoptimizationof

reward probability,and thatboth VSR and theECW can beused to satisfy allfiveof Aubrey・srecommendationson increasing WTC in CLT (2011).Itisthereforerecommended that teachers of communication,speaking,and listening classes use these activities in Japaneseclassrooms(university,high school,orotherwise)wherestudents・TOEIC scores arebetween200and449.

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Appendix A

MaterialsforStoryandStory-telling

Chapter3 ConfessingYourLove!

TalkingtoSam wentreallywell!Youarehappy.Thenextday,youtalktoSam againin school.Sam smilesalot.YoulearnthatSam hasadancecompetitiontonight.Sam invites youtowatchthedancecompetition!

You gotothedancecompetition.Sam isavery gooddancer.AfterSam isfinished,you meetSam・sfriends.Theyareverycoolpeople.

YouloveSam somuch.Whenyougethome,youwritealettertoSam.Thenextday,you puttheletterinSam・slocker.YouwaitforSam afterschool.

Chapter3ComprehensionQuestions WhendoyoutalktoSam next?

WhatdidSam dotonight? Whatdidyoudotonight? Whodidyoumeet?

Appendix B MaterialsforVSR

Lead-in:Sam,Ireallylikeyou.Willyougooutwithme? Sam・spossibleresponses:

Ineedtimetothinkaboutit. Youlikeme?

Ican・tpromisethatI・llfallinlovewithyou. Idon・tknow youverywell.

Idon・tknow whattosay. Sure,whynot?

CanIletyouknow inaweek? How longhaveyoulikedme? Idon・twanttoruinourfriendship. Whydoyoulikeme?

Wow.Iwasn・texpectingthat. Idon・tknow ifI・m readyyet. WillyoustilllikemeifIsay・no・? Areyousureyouwanttodateme? Idon・thaveverymuchfreetime.

Conversation1* You: Sam,Ireallylikeyou.Willyougooutwithme? Sam: You: Sam: You: Sam: You:

Appendix C MaterialsfortheECW

YouareAlex.Yourfriend・you・says,・ItoldSam thatIlikehim/her!・Askyourfriend formoreinformation!

What? 1. 2. Where? 1. 2. Why? 1. 2. When? 1. 2. Do…? 1. 2.

Appendix D SurveyQuestions 1.この授業が好きですか？ いいえ あまり好きじゃない まあまあです ちょっと好き はい 1 2 3 4 5 2.他の英語の授業が好きですか？ いいえ あまり好きじゃない まあまあです ちょっと好き はい 1 2 3 4 5 3.この授業ではあなたは英語を勉強する気がでますか？ いいえ あまりでない 前と変わらない ちょっとでる はい 1 2 3 4 5 4.他の英語の授業ではあなたは英語を勉強する気がでますか？ いいえ あまりでない 前と変わらない ちょっとでる はい 1 2 3 4 5 5.この授業はあなたの英語能力を上げると思いますか？ いいえ あまり上げない 前と変わらない ちょっと上げる はい 1 2 3 4 5 6.他の英語の授業はあなたの英語能力を上げると思いますか？ いいえ あまり上げない 前と変わらない ちょっと上げる はい 1 2 3 4 5 7.この授業の何が好きですか？ （複数選ぶことが可能です。） A）物語 B）物語ること C）物語の会話 D）会話カード E）先生 F）テーマ G）何も好きじゃない 8.この授業の何があなたに英語の勉強をする気を起こさせますか？ （複数選ぶことが可能です。） A）物語 B）物語ること C）物語の会話 D）会話カード E）先生 F）テーマ G）何もする気を起こさせない 9.この授業の何があなたの英語能力を上げると思いますか？ （複数選ぶことが可能です。） A）物語 B）物語ること C）物語の会話 D）会話カード E）先生 F）テーマ G）全く英語能力を上げない

Appendix E

Englishtranslationofsurveyquestions

（ナサニエルフレンチ 英語コミュニケーション学科）

1.Doyoulikethisclass?

No notreally it・sok alittlebit yes

1 2 3 4 5

2.DoyoulikeyourotherEnglishclasses?

No notreally they・reok alittlebit yes

1 2 3 4 5

3.DoesthisclassmakeyoumoremotivatedtostudyEnglish? No notreally it・sok alittlebit yes

1 2 3 4 5

4.DoyourotherclassesmakeyoumoremotivatedtostudyEnglish? No notreally they・reok alittlebit yes

1 2 3 4 5

5.DoyouthinkthisclasshelpsyouimproveyourEnglishability? No notreally it・sok alittlebit yes

1 2 3 4 5

6.DoyouthinkyourotherclasseshelpyouimproveyourEnglishability? No notreally they・reok alittlebit yes

1 2 3 4 5

7.Whichelementsofthisclassdoyoulike? (Youcanchoosemorethanoneanswer)

a)story b)story-telling c)storyconversations

d)conversationcards e)teacher f)theme g)none

8.WhichelementsofthisclassmakeyoumoremotivatedtostudyEnglish? (Youcanchoosemorethanoneanswer)

a)story b)story-telling c)storyconversations

d)conversationcards e)teacher f)theme g)none

9.WhichelementsofthisclassdoyouthinkhelpyouimproveyourEnglish? (Youcanchoosemorethanoneanswer)

a)story b)story-telling c)storyconversations