English‑Language Scholarship on Early
Twentieth‑Century Business History in Japan : Part II : From the Late Postwar Era to the Present
著者名(英) Andrew T. Kamei‑Dyche journal or
publication title
The Bulletin of the Research Institute for Japanese Studies, Kanda University of
International Studies
volume 7
page range (1)‑(24)
year 2015‑06‑30
URL http://id.nii.ac.jp/1092/00001285/
asKUIS 著作権ポリシーを参照のこと
Andr ewT.Kamei - Dyche
Thef i r stpar toft hi st r eat mentofEngl i sh- l anguagehi st or i ogr a- phyonear l yt went i et h- cent ur yJ apanesebusi nessconsi der edhow per spect i veshadshi f t edf r omcont empor ar yaccount sdur i ngt he pr ewarer ai t sel fupt hr ought heemer genceofpost warJ apanas agl obaleconomi cpower .Thecur r entpar tt akest hest or yup t hr ought ot hecont empor ar yer a.
IV.Agai nstt heBackdr opofaRi si ngPhoeni x(1978- 1993) Engl i sh- l anguageschol ar shi ponJ apandur i ngt he1980swas wr i t t endur i ngat i mewhenJ apanwasr api dl yemer gi ngasaneco- nomi cgi antseenasof f er i ngadi r ectchal l enget ot hedomi nance oft heUni t edSt at es.Iti sessent i alt of ul l ygr aspt hi scont extbe- f or econsi der i ngt het r aj ect or yofwor kont hepr ewarer aatt hi s t i me.Cont empor ar yr esear cher swer egr appl i ngwi t ht heunder - pi nni ngsofJ apan・ seconomi ct r ansf or mat i on,f r equent l yat t empt - i ngt oexpl ai nt hecount r y・ s・mi r acul ous・devel opmenti nt er ms notofspeci f i chi st or i ccont i ngenci esbutr at heressent i al i stsoci al orcul t ur alqual i t i es.Copi ousamount sofi nkwer espenti nt he pr oduct i onofwor ksonJ apanesebusi nessandsoci et yt hatof t en soughtt oexpl ai nt hef or meri nt er msoft hel at t er .Rat hert han dur i ngt he1960sand1970s,i nsi ghti nt oJ apanesesoci et ywasdi s- cussednotj ustasanassetf orAmer i canf i r mshopi ngt oexpand
Ear l yTwent i et h- Cent ur yBusi ness Hi st or yi nJapan
・Par tII:Fr om t heLat ePost warEr at ot hePr esent ・
i nt ot heJ apanesemar ket ,butasessent i alknowl edgei nenabl i ng t hosef i r mst ocount erJ apanesei ncur si onsi nt ot heAmer i can mar ket .
J apanesemanagementwaswi del yher al dedassuper i ori nchar - act ert oWest er nmodel sandast hekeyt oJ apanesecor por at e success.Amer i canwr i t er si npar t i cul arwer edi vi dedbet ween t hosewhosawt hi ssuccessasher al di ngt heemer genceofanew f or m ofbusi nessst r at egyt hatAmer i canscoul dbenef i tf r om adopt i ng,andt hoset hatsawi nst eadt hedawnofaf r i ght eni ng new・Yel l owPer i l . ・Themostwel l - knownexampl esoft hef or - merper spect i vear eEzr aF.Vogel ・ sJ apanasNumbe rOne :Le s s ons f orAme r i c a( 1979) ,andWi l l i amG.Ouchi ・ sThe or yZ:HowAme r i c an Bus i ne s sCanMe e tt heJ apane s eChal l e ng e( 1981) .Bot hwor kswer e f ol l owedbyahostofi mi t at or spr ai si ngJ apanesemanagementas t hewayoft hef ut ur e,andcour sesi n・J apanesemanagement ・ spr angupatnumer ousacademi ci nst i t ut i ons.
1Ont heot herhand, Mi chaelMont gomer y・ sI mpe r i al i s tJ apan:TheYe nt oDomi nat e( 1987) andRober tL.Kear ns・Zai bat s uAme r i c a:HowJ apane s eFi r msar e Col oni zi ngVi t alU. S.I ndus t r i e s( 1992)wer eal ar mi stpi ecest hatsug- gest edJ apan・ seconomi cexpansi onwasnotonl yasever et hr eat t oAmer i ca,butal soconst i t ut edt hecont i nuat i onofJ apanesei m- per i al i smbyeconomi cmeans.Thi snot i onofar enewedJ apanese i mper i al i stt hr eatwasnotnew・ awor kcal l edJ apane s eI mpe r i al i s m Todayhadmadet hesamecl ai mi n1973・ butpr evi ousl yJ apan hadbeenseenasar esur gentt hr eatpr i mar i l yt ot her estofAsi a,
１
Meanwhi l e,・how- t o・gui desf orbusi nessmenent er i ngt heJ apanesemar ketcont i n- uedt opr ol i f er at e,suchasBr adl eyM.Ri char dsonandTai zoUeda,eds. ,Bus i ne s sand Soc i e t yi nJ apan:Fundame nt al sf orBus i ne s s me n( NewYor k:Pr aeger ,1981) ,andJ amesC.
Abeggl enandGeor geSt al k,J r . ,Kai sha,TheJ apane s eCor por at i on( New Yor k:Basi c
Books,Inc. ,1985) ,t hel at t erf eat ur i ngAbeggl enout l i ni nghowAmer i canbusi nessmen
coul dl ear nf r om t heJ apanesemanagementst r at egi eshehadf i r star t i cul at ednear l y
t hr eedecadespr i or .
nott ot heUni t edSt at es.
2Thest ar kdi vi si onbet weenposi t i veand negat i veassessment sofpost warJ apan・ seconomi csuccessand t hechal l enget hi sposedt oUSf i r msencour agedt henot i on t hatf or ei gn wr i t er son J apan coul d beneat l ybr oken i nt o
・J apanophi l e・and・J apanbasher ・camps,aconceptt hatendur ed l ongaf t ert heheydayoft hesedebat esi nt he1980s.
3Despi t et hei rdi f f er ences,t heset wopar al l elappr oachesnone- t hel essshar edacommon,pr obl emat i cel ement :t heywer ebot h pr edi cat edonanessent i al・ ot her ness・t hatcont i nuedt ochar act er - i zeJ apanesebusi nesspr act i cesasr oot edi nauni que,al mostt i me- l essJ apaneset r adi t i on.
4Wor ksoft hi ser aal sot endedt obe Amer i ca- cent r i c,andut i l i t ar i an,seeki ngt obet t ert hesi t uat i onof USbusi nessesv i s - ・- v i st hei rJ apanesecompet i t i on.Gener al l yt hey ai medatadvi si ngAmer i canshow t heycoul dl ear nf r om or count er・t r adi t i onal ・J apanesepr act i ces,r at hert hanat t empt i ngt o expl or et hei rhi st or i calor i gi ns.Thef r equentuseofJ apanese t er mi nol ogy・ zai bat s u,kai s ha,ke i zai・ ser vednott oel uci dat e t het opi csofi nqui r ysomuchast odi st i ngui sht hem f r om Amer i can- der i vednor ms,mar ki ngJ apanesebusi nesspr act i cesas f undament al l ydi f f er entf r omt hoseper cei vedt obe・West er n・i n char act er .
Thi scont exthadasi gni f i canti mpactont heEngl i sh- l anguage
２
J onHal l i dayandGavanMcCor mack,J apane s eI mpe r i al i s m Today :・ Co- Pr os pe r i t yi n Gr e at e rEas tAs i a・( NewYor k:Mont hl yRevi ewPr ess,1973) .
３
Thet endencyt osepar at enon- J apanesewr i t er sonJ apani nt owoul d- beal l i esorf oes oft henat i oni t sel fwasal socommonpl acei nJ apani t sel f .Concer nsaboutJ apanese
・sof tpower ・pr ompt edsomepopul arwr i t er sofEngl i shwor ksonJ apant oposi tt he exi st enceofconspi r aci eswher ebyover seasacademi cswer eessent i al l ybr i bedwi t h r esear chf undsbyt heJ apanesegover nmenti nexchangef orsuppor t i ngi t spol i ci es.See, f orexampl e,Pat r i ckSmi t h,J apan:ARe i nt e r pr e t at i on( NewYor k:Vi nt age,1998) .
４
TheAr tofJ apane s eManag e me nt :Appl i c at i onsf orAme r i c anExe c ut i v e s( NewYor k:Si mon
andSchust er ,1981)byRi char dTannerPascal eandAnt honyG.At hos,f orexampl e,
cont ai nsachapt eraddr essi ngt heval ueofvagueness,i ndi r ect i on,andi mpl i ci t nessi n
managi ng,col or f ul l yt i t l ed・Zenandt heAr tofManagement ・( 85- 115) .
hi st or i ogr aphyofJ apanesebusi ness,asi tcont r i but edt ot he popul ardi f f usi onofconcept i onsofJ apanesebusi nesspr act i ces t hatcr i t i csofAbeggl en( si nceTheJ apane s eFac t or yi n1958)had l ongsoughtt odi scr edi t .
5Andr ew Gor don,i nTheEv ol ut i onof LaborRe l at i onsi nJ apan( 1985) ,oneoft hemosti mpor t antwor ks oft hedecadeonmat t er sper t ai ni ngt oJ apaneseeconomi chi s- t or y,di r ect l yr espondst ot hi spr obl em.Het akesi ssuewi t hbot h t henot i onofuni que・J apanese・busi nesspr act i cesandt hei dea t hatpost warJ apaneseeconomi csuccesswasduet o・J apanese t r adi t i on. ・Int r aci ngt het r aj ect or yofl aborr el at i onsdur i ngt he l at eni net eent handear l yt went i et hcent ur i es,Gor donshat t er st he myt hofper si st ent ,i nt r i nsi cal l y・J apanese・busi nesspr act i ces,but heal sof l at l yr ej ect st hepopul arconver gencet hesi st hathel dt hat event ual l yJ apanesepr act i ceswoul dcomet or esembl eWest er n ones.Fr om ahi st or i calper spect i ve,heexpl ai ns,i nmanyways ear l ymanagementpr act i cesi nJ apanmor ecl osel yr esembl edt hei r West er ncount er par t st handi dl at erJ apanesepr act i ces.Such pr act i cesneedt obeunder st oodnotasst epsi namovement t owar dsani dealconver gence,butr at heraspr oduct sofspeci f i c hi st or i calci r cumst ances.
Gor don・ sappr oachdovet ai l swi t ht hatofanot herkeywor kof t heer a,Shel donGar on・ sTheSt at eandLabori nMode r nJ apan ( 1987) .Gar ont ooemphasi zest hecompar at i vel yr ecentvi nt age ofJ apanesebusi nesspr act i cest hatwer epopul ar l ycel ebr at edas ver yol dorevenanci enti nor i gi n.Hef ocusesont her el at i onshi p bet weent hest at eandl aborf r omt hel at eni net eent ht hr oughl at e
５
Thei nf l uenceofAbeggl enandpopul arwor kswi t hsi mi l arar gument sr esul t edi n r esear cher saswel lasapopul araudi enceof t enacqui r i ngt hei rknowl edgeabout J apanesebusi nesst hr ought hesewor ks,f r ust r at i ngschol ar sofJ apanesebusi ness.
Rober tE.Col e,f orexampl e,st at est hati twasmai nl yt hr oughAbeggl ent hatAmer i can soci alsci ent i st scamet o l ear n about・ per manentempl oyment ・i n J apan ( Col e,
・Per manentEmpl oymenti nJ apan:Fact sandFant asi es, ・616) .
t went i et hcent ur i es,butr at hert hanposi t i ngasi ngl eongoi ng f or m ofr el at i onshi p,her est or escompl exi t yt ot hepi ct ur eby st r essi ng,asYamamur a・ sar t i cl eshaddonef ort hezai bat s u,t he ext entt owhi cht heser el at i onswer ehi st or i cal l ycondi t i oned, dynami cent i t i est hatchangedovert i me.
6Gor donandGar onbot hdemonst r at et hatJ apanesel abor r el at i onsandot herbusi nesspr act i ceswer enotaconst antr oot ed i nsomevague・t r adi t i on・t hatr esul t edi nt hembei ngi nt r i nsi cal l y di f f er entf r om West er nmodel s,buti nst ead,l i ket heWest er n model st hatwer eof t enassumedt obewor l dst andar ds,wer e mer el yt hepr oductofpar t i cul arhi st or i calcondi t i ons.Wor ker mobi l i t y,acqui si t i onofcapi t al ,andt hef i nanci ngofi ndust r i al devel opment・ t hesewer et hesor tofkeyi ssuest obeconcer ned wi t hi nt hehi st or i calcont ext ,f ori twast hesef act or sandpeopl e・ s cogni zanceoft hem t hatcausedJ apanesebusi nesspr act i cest o devel opast heydi d.Thus,whi l eGor donandGar onwer et o someext entpi cki ngupst udi esofl aborwher eschol ar sl i ke AyuzawaandYoshi nohadl ef tof f ,t hei rsi gni f i canceatt het i me gr eat l yt r anscendst hi s.
Recogni t i ont hatJ apanesebusi nesspr act i cesandeconomi c i nst i t ut i onswer et hepr oduct sofspeci f i chi st or i calci r cumst ances hadsl owl ybeenspr eadi ngi nt oot hert ypesofst udi esonJ apan beyond t hose speci f i cal l y concer ned wi t h busi nesshi st or y.
Dur i ngt hecour seoft he1980s,i ncont r astt ot het r endi npopu- l arwr i t i ng,mor eacademi cst udi esbegant oi ncor por at eel ement s ofahi st or i cal・ r at hert hanessent i al i st・ t r eat mentofJ apanese
６ Gordon・slaterLaborandImperialDemocracyinPrewarJapan(Berkley:Universityof CaliforniaPress,1991)wasalsosignificantinaddressingthestate・srolevis-・-vislabor relations,althoughGordonfocusesonpoliticalactivitybytheworkers,therebystress- ingnotonlytheiragencyinthegeneralsense,butalsotheirpowerasapoliticalforce.
busi ness.
Someexampl eshel pt oconveyt hi st r ansi t i on.TheEc onomi c Anal y s i soft heJ apane s eFi r m( 1984;edi t edbyMasahi koAoki )i sof t heol dmodel ,har keni ngbackt ot hewor koft hepr evi ous decade.Itdepl oysacont empor ar yvi ew ofJ apanesebusi ness pr act i cesandt akest hi sasagi venacr osst i meandi ndust r y.
Despi t eost ensi bl ybei ngconcer ned wi t h J apanesef i r ms,i t act ual l yf ocusesmor eoneconomi ct r endsandst r uct ur alel ement s i nt heJ apaneseeconomy,wi t honl yonepi ecebei ngpr i mar i l y concer nedwi t hapar t i cul ari ndust r y.
7Bycont r ast ,Takat oshiIt o・ s TheJ apane s eEc onomy( 1992)i scl ear l yoft henewerf or m,i ncor po- r at i ngahi st or i calper spect i venotonl yasacont extatt hebegi n- ni ngoft hewor k,butal soi ni t st r eat mentofpar t i cul arpol i ci es andi nst i t ut i onsasdynami ci nchar act er ,r at hert hanseei ngt hese ascont empor ar ygi vensoraschar act er i zi ngt heJ apaneseecon- omyi nper pet ui t y.
Theear l y1980sal sowi t nessedsever alEngl i sh- l anguagewor ks speci f i cal l yonmoder nJ apaneseeconomi chi st or yt hatwi l lbeof i nt er estt ost udent soft hepr ewarer a.OnewasbyG.C.Al l en, knownf orhi s1939bookJ apane s eI ndus t r yandhi s1945t extA Shor tEc onomi cHi s t or yofMode r nJ apan( whi chwentt hr oughnumer - ousr evi si ons) ,bot hpr evi ousl ydi scussed.Thewor k,J apan・ s Ec onomi cPol i c y( 1980) ,l i kehi sShor tEc onomi cHi s t or y ,movesf r om t hehi st or i calbackgr oundi nt oast udyofvar i ousf acet soft he economy,al t houghher et hef ocusi smuchmor eont he1930s.
７
Thatanessent i al i stmodelofJ apanesebusi nesspr act i cedomi nat edunt i lt he1980s
di dnotmeant hatnoschol ar swr i t i ngonJ apanesebusi nessi ncl udedanyhi st or i calper -
spect i vebef or et hi st i me.Fori nst ance,seeKazuoSat o,ed. ,I ndus t r yandBus i ne s si nJ apan
( 1980) ,whi chi ncor por at essever alsuchpi eces( al bei tonl yf r omt hei mmedi at epost war
er a) .J apaneseschol ar swhoengagedwi t ht heEngl i sh- r eadi ngwor l ddur i ngt hehi gh-
gr owt hyear satt i messi dedwi t hanessent i al i stper spect i veandatot hert i meswi t ha
hi st or i cal l y- i nf or medmodel ,wi t ht hel at t ergai ni ngt r act i onovert i me.
Thi si snotsur pr i si nggi vent hatsomepar t soft hebookemer ged f r om paper swr i t t enbef or et hewar .Thi st empor aldi f f er ence, however ,r esul t si nsomet hi ngofanuneveni mpr essi on.Fori n- st ance,Al l enmovesf r omani nsi ght f ulst udyoft heor gani zat i onal st r uct ur eoft hecot t oni ndust r yi nt he1930st oar angeofl ooser consi der at i onsofJ apaneseeconomi cpr ogr ess,i ncl udi ngt her ol e oft hest at e,soci ali nst i t ut i ons,andsoon.Takenasawhol e,t he t extt endst owar dswhatYamamur ami ghtcr i t i queasanexcessi ve pr eoccupat i onwi t heconomi cgr owt h,butasacol l ect i onof paper sbyanemi nentschol arwi t hsever aldecades・wor t hof exper i encet hewor kdeser vesal ook.Theaf or ement i onedst udy oft hecot t oni ndust r yser vesassomet hi ngofanexempl aroft he pr evi ousgener at i on・ sappr oachest opar t i cul araspect sofan i ndust r y.
Anot heri mpor t antwor kwasbyt hatoft hel eadi ngJ apanese
schol arNakamur aTakaf usa,whosewor khadpr evi ousl yap-
pear edi nEngl i shonl yi nar t i cl es.Nakamur a・ sSe nze nkiNi hon
Ke i zaiSe i c h・noBuns e ki( 1971)wasmadeavai l abl et oanEngl i sh-
l anguager eader shi pwi t hRober tFel dman・ st r ansl at i on,Ec onomi c
Gr owt hi nPr e warJ apani n1983.Thest udyi sdi vi dedi nt ot womai n
par t s,t hef i r stconcer nedwi t hgr owt hf r omt heMei j iRest or at i on
t ot heFi r stWor l dWar( aner at hatNakamur achar act er i zesas
exhi bi t i ng・bal ancedgr owt h・)andt hesecond,t wi cet hesi zeof
t hef i r st ,concer nedwi t hgr owt hf r omt heFi r stWor l dWart ot he
eveoft hePaci f i cWar( aner at hatNakamur achar act er i zesas,by
cont r ast ,exhi bi t i ng・unbal ancedgr owt h・) .Al t houghdi spl ayi ng
t heeconomi st ・ spr i vi l egi ngofcont i nual・bal ancedgr owt h・ast he
i dealf or mofeconomi cdevel opment ,Nakamur a・ st hor ougheco-
nomi canal ysi soft hepr ewarer ai si mpr essi ve.Whi l eunder t aki ng
abr oadersur veyoft hedevel opmentoft heeconomi csyst em
t hanwoul dhavebeenat t empt edbypr ewarJ apaneseeconomi c schol ar swi t ht hei rsi ngul arf ocusont hest at e,heempl oysj ustas manygr aphsandst at i st i caldat aset s,maki ngt hewor khel pf ulnot onl yf ori nsi ghti nt oabodyofcl assi cJ apaneseeconomi cschol ar - shi pbutal sof orpr ovi di ngaweal t hofdat aont hepr ewarer a.
Thr eeot herhi st or i calwor ksoft he1980s,noneofwhi chwas speci f i cal l yconcer nedwi t hbusi nesshi st or ype rs e ,hadsi gni f i cant i mpl i cat i onsf ort hehi st or i ogr aphyoft hef i el d.Thesewer e Chal mer sJ ohnson・ sMI TIandt heJ apane s eMi r ac l e( 1982) ,Mi chael A.Bar nhar t ・ sJ apanPr e par e sf orTot alWar( 1987) ,andThomas C.Smi t h・ sNat i v eSour c e sofJ apane s eI ndus t r i al i zat i on( 1988) .Atf i r st gl ancet het hr eedonotappeart oshar emuchi ncommon:
J ohnsonanal yzest heJ apanesebur eaucr acyandt her ol et hatt he st at epl ayedi ndi r ect i ngeconomi cdevel opmentf r om 1925t o 1975;Bar nhar ti sconcer nedwi t hJ apanesepr epar at i onsf orwar i nt he1920sand1930s,i nwhi checonomi csf eat ur ebutar enot t heonl yf ocus;whi l eSmi t h・ sanal ysi si scent er edont hel at eEdo andMei j iper i odsandendsi n1920.
Yett heset hr eewor kswer esi gni f i canti npr ompt i ngar et hi nk- i ngofJ apaneseeconomi chi st or y,andr e- concept ual i zedhow J apan・ sbusi nesspr act i ceswer eappr oached.J ohnsoni scon- cer nedwi t hseeki ngt her oot soft hepost war・economi cmi r acl e・;
hepr ovi desanexcel l entsur veyoft hevar i ousappr oachest o
J apanesepost wardevel opmentandbusi nesspr act i ce・ bot h
academi candpopul ar・ buthi sbr oadercont r i but i onl i esi nhow
hel ocat est hebegi nni ngsofpost wareconomi cdevel opmenti n
t hepr ewarer ai t sel f .Manyol derwor ksat t r i but edpost wareco-
nomi cgr owt ht ol at entcapi t al i stf or ces( supposedl ykeptunder
wr apsbyt hemi l i t ar y,i nsomeaccount s)bei ngr el easedupont he
concl usi onoft hewar ,ort oj ustt hemassi mi t at i onofWest er n
model s.J ohnson,however ,assessest her ol eofpr ewarbur eau- cr at si nst ar t i ngt oseti nmot i onasyst emt hatwoul devent ual l y comet of l our i shaf t ert hewar .J ohnson・ si dent i f i cat i onofhi st or i - cal l y- si t uat edcont i nui t i es( r at hert hancul t ur al i st - essent i al i stones) mi r r or sSmi t h・ swor k,whi chasser t st hatJ apanwasabl et oi ndus- t r i al i zequi ckl ybecausesomanyel ement sofi t ssoci et yandecon- omywer eal r eadysui t abl ef ort hi st r ansf or mat i on.Theemphasi s i st husshi f t edf r omWest er nar r i val si ndust r i al i zi ngt he・f eudal ・ J apaneseandont ot heJ apaneset hemsel ves,r est or i ngt her eby agencyt opol i t i calandeconomi cf i gur es,who,conf r ont edwi t h West er nar r i val s,r eal i zedt hatwi t hef f or tt heycoul dcat chup f ai r l yqui ckl y.
InJ ohnson,muchoft hegr oundwor kf ort hepost wareco- nomi cexpansi onwasl ai di nt hepr ewarer a;i nSmi t h,muchof t hegr oundwor kf ort heMei j ieconomi cexpansi onwasl ai di nt he pr e- Mei j ier a.Bot hschol ar st husemphasi zenotdi sj unct ur es br oughtonbyWest er n- i nducedchange,butr at hercont i nui t i esi n J apaneseeconomi cdevel opment .
Bar nhar t ・ scont r i but i oncomesf r omhi sar gumentt hatt hecon-
vent i onalpor t r ayalofJ apanesepr ewarpol i t i csanddi pl omacyas
i r r at i onali si ncor r ect ;r at her ,heasser t s,i twasl ogi calgi vent he
ci r cumst ancesandJ apaneseper cept i onoft hoseatt het i me.Thi s
i st hepoi ntatwhi chal lt hr eewor ksi nt er sect :eachsuggest st hat
J apanesedevel opment ,bot hupt oandt hr ought het went i et hcen-
t ur y,wasnotar andomormi r acul ousoccur r ence,butwasi nst ead
i nt r i nsi cal l yr at i onali nchar act er .J apanesepol i ci eswor ked,or
f ai l edt owor k,becauset heydi dordi dnotaccur at el yr ef l ectand
sui tt hecondi t i onsoft het i mes,notbecauset heJ apanesehad
somepar t i cul art r ai tt hati nher ent l ypr edi sposedt hem t owar ds
successorf ai l ur e.Nei t herwer er esul t spr edest i ned;shor t comi ngs
andt r i umphswer el ar gel yt her esul tofJ apaneseact i ons,atbot h t hei ndi vi duall evelandt hel evelofgover nmentpol i cy,andoft he condi t i onsi nwhi chsuchact i onswer et aken.Devel opment s coul dj ustaseasi l yhavet ur nedoutqui t edi f f er ent l yhadi ndi vi du- al spur sueddi f f er entcour sesofact i onorhadcondi t i onsbeen butsl i ght l ydi f f er ent .Al lt hr eeaut hor st husf ocusonJ apanesei n- st i t ut i onsdi r ect l y,r at hert hanvi ewi ngt hem t hr ought hel ensof aWest er nsyst em pr esumedt obenor mat i ve,whi l esi mi l ar l y r ej ect i ngt heol dessent i al i star gument saboutaf undament al
・J apanese・wayofdoi ngt hi ngs.Asacount er ar gumentt ot he Or i ent al i stassumpt i onsunder l yi ngmuchoft hepopul arper cep- t i onofJ apanesebusi nessatt het i me,t heset hr eewor ks,al ong wi t hAndr ewGor donasdi scussedabove,of f erapower f ulst and- poi nti nspi t eoft hei rdi f f er entsubj ect s.
Twopar t i cul arvol umes,bot hf r om 1989,st andoutasl and-
mar kwor ksofbusi nesshi st or y.Thef i r sti sWi l l i am Mi l es
Fl et cherIII・ sTheJ apane s eBus i ne s sCommuni t yandNat i onalTr ade
Pol i c y ,1920- 1942.Consi der i nghowst udi esoft hepr ewarper i od
hadl ongst r essedt hest at e・ sr ol ei ndi r ect i ngeconomi cdevel op-
ment ,compar at i vel yl i t t l ehadbeenwr i t t enont hebusi nesscom-
muni t yi t sel f .Whi l eTi edemannandYamamur abot hhadar t i cl es
onaspect soft hepr ewarbusi nesscommuni t y,andMar shal l ・ s
monogr aphhadconsi der edt hei deol ogi calf r amewor ksi nwhi ch
i thadoper at ed,t her er emai nednof ul l - l engt hst udyoft hebusi -
nesscommuni t y・ sr el at i onswi t ht hegover nmentunt i lFl et cher .
Henot est hatwhi l et hepos t warr el at i onshi poft hebusi nesscom-
muni t yandt hegover nmenthadbeenwel l - st udi ed,t hepr ewarer a
r emai nednegl ect ed,apr obl emat i cst at eofaf f ai r sgi vent he
i mpor t anceoft hatr el at i onshi patt het i me.
8Pr ewarJ apanese
busi nessl eader shadbeenei t herbl amedf orf asci smorpor t r ayed
aspassi vevi ct i msoft hemi l i t ar i st s;however ,suchsi mpl i st i cgen- er al i zat i onsdi dnothol dwat er ,f or・Acar ef ulanal ysi sofi mpor - t anti ssuesr el at edt ot r ade・yi el dsani nt r i cat emosai cofbusi ness at t i t udesandi nf l uence. ・
9Fl et chert r eat st hebusi nesscommuni t y l ar gel yasacohesi veuni ti nhi sst udy,buthei sawar eoft hel i mi - t at i onsoft hi sappr oachandacknowl edgesvar yi ngvi ewpoi nt s andbackgr oundsamongstbusi nessl eader s.Thr oughshowi ng howt hebusi nesscommuni t yemer gedasapol i t i calf or ce,t he f or msandext entofi nf l uencet hati tcamet owi el d,andt hede- vel opmentofamul t i f acet edr el at i onshi pwi t ht hegover nment , Fl et chermakesasi gni f i cantcont r i but i ont ot hehi st or i ogr aphyof t hepr ewarper i od.
Thesecondkeywor kf r om1989i sWi l l i amD.Wr ay・ sconf er - encevol ume,Manag i ngI ndus t r i alEnt e r pr i s e :Cas e sf r omJ apan・ sPr e war Expe r i e nc e .Wr ayi nt r oducest hevol umebydi scussi ngt heemer - genceofbusi nesshi st or yasasepar at edevel opmentf r om t he br oaderf i el dofeconomi chi st or y,andr at hert hanl i mi ti t sscope t ot hehi st or yofapar t i cul arcompany,hest r esseshow l abor r el at i ons,t echnol ogi caldevel opment ,andgover nment - busi ness r el at i onscanal lf al lundert hi sheadi ng.
10Whi l eeconomi chi st or y i sor i ent at edar oundmacr o- l evelconcer ns,expl ai nsWr ay,busi - nesshi st or yi sf undament al l yor i ent at edar oundmi cr o- l evelanal y- si s.
11Wr ay・ sbr oadconcept i onofbusi nesshi st or y,cont ext ual i zed wi t hi ndevel opment si neconomi chi st or ymor ebr oadl y,i san i mmensel ybenef i ci alappr oacht hatal l owsbusi nesshi st or yt o devel opt hr oughi nt er act i onwi t hvar i ousf i el dsr at hert hanr i sk ghet t oi zat i onwi t hi nt heacademy.
８ Fletcher,1.
９ Ibid.,2.
10 Wray,ManagingIndustrialEnterprise,1-2.
11 Ibid.,2-3.
Thear t i cl esi nt heWr ayvol umear esubdi vi dedi nt ot wocat e- gor i es.Thef i r sti st hemat i cover vi ews,andconsi st sofMor i kawa Hi demasaont hepowerofsal ar i edmanager si nl ar gecor por a- t i ons,andAndr ewGor donont hebusi nessl obbyandbur eaucr - at s・r el at i onswi t hl abori nt heear l yt went i et hcent ur y( dovet ai l i ng wi t hsomeoft het hemest hatFl et cherdr awsout ) .Thesecond cat egor yi scasest udi es,andconsi st sofSt evenW.McCal l i onon t heTomi okaSi l kMi l l ,anambi t i ousf act or yi nst i t ut edbyt heMei j i gover nment ;
12St evenJ .Er i csononr ai l waymanagementdur i ng t heeconomi cpani cof1890;Wr ayonKagamiKenki chi( N. Y. K.
pr esi dent ,1929- 1935)wi t haneyet obusi nessst r at egy,or gani za- t i on,andcompanyaut onomy;Bar bar aMol onyonNoguchiJ un andNi t chi t su,t hechemi calcompanyt hathef ounded;and Mi chaelA.Cusumanoont he・sci ent i f i ci ndust r y・i nt hef or mof t het echnol ogyandent r epr eneur shi pt hatdevel opedar oundt he Inst i t ut eofPhysi calandChemi calResear chi nt heear l yt went i et h cent ur y.Whi l et heGor don,Wr ayandCusumanopi ecesar emost r el evantf oraconsi der at i onofwor kont hef i r sthal foft het wen- t i et hcent ur y・ par t i cul ar l yGor don・ spi ecet hatoper at esf r om whatonemi ghtconcept ual i zeasat hr ee- pr ongedappr oach,con- si der i ngt hei nt er act i onbet weenbur eaucr at s,busi nessmen,and l abor・ al loft hepi ecesi nt hevol umeser veasgoodexampl es oft hevar i et yofEngl i sh- l anguagebusi nesshi st or y.
Wr ayhi msel fmaybemostwel l - knownf orhi swor kont he J apaneseshi ppi ngi ndust r y,not abl yt heNi pponY・senKai sha ( N. Y. K. ) ,havi ngpubl i shedanexempl ar ypi eceofbusi nesshi s- t or yi n1984ent i t l edMi t s ubi s hiandt heN. Y. K. ,1870- 1914:Bus i ne s s St r at e g yi nt heJ apane s eShi ppi ngI ndus t r y .Anot herschol art opr oduce
12 ImyselfhavestudiedTomiokaSilkMill;see,forexample,・世界遺産から見た日本３：
富岡製糸場・inthiscurrentissue.
af ul l - l engt hEngl i sh- l anguagebusi nesshi st or yst udyofapr ewar cor por at i onar oundt hi st i mewasYasuoMi shi ma,whosemono- gr aphonMi t subi shiwasal sopubl i shedi n1989.Whi l et hewor k doesnotof f ermuchofasust ai nedsyst emi canal ysi s,i tr i chl y chr oni cl est heemer genceofMi t subi shif r om t hehi st or yofi t s f oundert hr ought oi t sdevel opmentasazai bat s uanddi ssol ut i on.
Mor i kawaHi demasa,t henot edaut hor i t yonzai bat s u,al sopr o- ducedanEngl i shwor ki n1992,ent i t l edZai bat s u:TheRi s eandFal l ofFami l yEnt e r pr i s eGr oupsi nJ apan.Whi l eMi shi ma・ swor kt r aced t hedevel opmentofapar t i cul arzai bat suovert i me,Mor i kawa consi der st hezai bat s uasaset .However ,heavoi dst het endency ofear l i erschol ar shi pt oover gener al i zet hezai bat s uexper i ence, andi nvest sconsi der abl eef f or ti ncover i ngi ssueswi t hdef i ni ng whatconst i t ut edazai bat s u,whi l edi st i ngui shi ngamongt hem i n t hecour seoft hewor k.Heassessest hemi ncont extanddel i ne- at est hest r engt hsandweaknessesofpar t i cul arst r at egi es,pol i ci es andeconomi cposi t i ons,ser vi ngt or emi ndt her eadert hatt he zai bat s uwer esuccessf ulnotonl ybecauseoff avor abl eeconomi c ci r cumst ances,butal sobecauseofst r at egi c- mi ndedandi nsi ght - f ulmanagementwhi chr espondedt ot hoseci r cumst ances.
Thus,dur i ngt he1980s,wi del y- hel dandendur i ngessent i al i st
vi ewsofJ apaneseeconomi candbusi nesspr act i ceswer eunder cut
byani mpr essi veacademi cat t ackont hosevi ews.Whatemer ged
wasar angeofschol ar shi pt hatwasmor econsci ousofJ apanese
busi nesspr act i cesandeconomi cst r uct ur esasdevel opi ngi nspe-
ci f i chi st or i calcont ext s.Att hesamet i me,busi nesshi st or ybegan
t oemer geasacl ear l ydi st i nctf i el d,j usti nt i met owi t nesst he
economi ccondi t i onsi nJ apant hathadmadeJ apanesebusi ness
suchapopul art opi c,bot hi nandout si det heacademy,col l apse.
V.Faci ngaFal t er i ngPhoeni x(1993- pr esent )
Wi t ht hecol l apseoft hebubbl eeconomy,Engl i sh- l anguage wr i t i ngonJ apanesebusi nessandeconomi cst ookashar pt ur n.
Wher easbef or egr eatpr ai sehadbeenheapedupon・J apan,Inc. ・, nowi twast r eat edwi t hscor n;Amer i cansemi nar son・J apanese- st yl emanagement ・qui et l ydi sappear ed.Anewt hemeemer gedi n muchwr i t i ngonJ apan:howt or epai rt hecount r y・ seconomy.
Ir oni cal l y,t hi st ur nofevent sdi dnotunder mi net hepopul ar not i ont hatJ apan・ seconomi candbusi nesswor l dwast hepr oduct ofauni quel yJ apanese・t r adi t i on. ・Thenot i onofadi st i nctsys- t emofJ apanesepr act i cesr oot edi nanessent i al i stvi ewofcul t ur e cont i nued,butnowr at hert hanbei ngpr ai sedf orcont r i but i ngt o J apan・ ssuccesst hi swasbl amedf orJ apan・ seconomi ccol l apse.
Thi swasbynomeansl i mi t edt opopul arwr i t i ng:manyr esear ch- er sf ol l owedt hesamel i ne,evenat t empt i ngt osal vaget hepecu- l i arnot i onsof・J apanesemanagement ・andt hel i kei nspi t eoft he war ni ngsf r om t hebusi nesshi st or i ansoft he1980st hatt hese wer edeepl yf l awedgener al i zat i ons.
Forexampl e,Yoshi oIt o,i nSt r at e g y& I nnov at i oni nJ apane s e Bus i ne s s( 2003)not esoft heeconomi csi t uat i on,・Manybel i eve t hatt he・ J apanesest yl eofmanagement ・hascausedt hi scr i si s. ・
13Hegoesont oar guet hat ,i nspi t eoft hi s,accumul at edJ apanese t echni calknowl edger epr esent sagr eatweal t hf orJ apanesef i r ms.
Whi l ehehol dst hata・mi smat ch・bet weenqual i t y- or i ent at ed R&D andconcept ual i zat i on- or i ent at edR&D i nmanyf i r msi sa l ar geel ementoft hepr obl em,heneveract ual l yr epudi at est he i deat hatt henat ur eof・J apanesemanagement ・i t sel fhaspl ayed ar ol ei nt hedecl i ne.
14Toyohi r oKonoandSt ewar tCl eggi nTr e nds
13 YoshioIto,xi.
14 Ibid.
i nJ apane s eManag e me nt( 2001)al soaccent uat eposi t i veel ement si n
・J apanesemanagement ・whi l esuggest i ngpossi bi l i t i esf orover - comi ngt hecur r enteconomi cwoes;t heyt oonegl ectt opr obl em- at i zet henot i onofadi st i nct ,f undament al l y・J apanesemanage ment ・st yl e,i nst eadt r eat i ngi tasagi venandar gui ngt hatwhi l e
・J apanesemanagementi snol ongert he・ f l avouroft hemont h・ ・ i twoul dnever t hel ess・beagr eatmi st aket owr i t eof fJ apanese management . ・
15Ot herwor kswer especi f i cal l yconcer nedwi t hof f er i ngsol u- t i onst oJ apan・ seconomi cwoes,suchasJ apan・ sLos tDe c ade :Pol i c i e s f orEc onomi cRe v i v al( 2003) .Ther ewasal soaper si st entsenset hat J apanhadent er edast at eofcr i si s,exempl i f i edbywor kssuchas S.J avedMaswood・ sJ apani nCr i s i s( 2002) ,t het i t l eofwhi chr ecal l s t heSi l ber manandHar oot uni anvol umeont heTai sh・er a,al - t hought hewor ki si nf actconcer nedwi t ht heeconomi csi t uat i on oft he1990s.Yeteveni nt hi ssi t uat i onquasi - Or i ent al i stnot i ons wer enotabandoned,per si st i ngi nst eadi nbot hmi l dandext r eme var i et i es.Anexampl eoft hef or meri sMi l t onEzr at i ・ sKawar i :How J apan・ sEc onomi candCul t ur alTr ans f or mat i onWi l lAl t e rt heBal anc eof Powe rAmongNat i ons( 1999) ,whi chr est sont hei deat hatJ apan st i l lconst i t ut esa・speci alcase・exemptf r om nor mat i ve( i . e.
West er n)st andar ds.Farmor edi st ur bi ngi sHi deoYamashi t a・ s Compe t i t i v e ne s sandt heKamiWay ,at extt hatat t empt st osee J apanesemanagementandeconomi cpol i ci esasspr i ngi ngf r om anci entJ apanesekamiwor shi p.Yamashi t abegi nshi swor kwi t h asomewhatl engt hydi scussi onoft heanci entchr oni cl eKoj i kiand t henut i l i zest hi sasaf r amewor kf r omwhi cht oi nt er pr etcont em- por ar yJ apaneseeconomi cst r at egyandbusi nesspr act i ce!
15 KonoandClegg,xi.
Whi l emuchf eweri nnumber ,t her ewer eal sost i l lwor kst hat of f er edJ apanasaposi t i vemodelf ordevel opi ngcount r i est of ol - l ow.Oneofnot ei sE.WayneNaf zi ger ・ sLe ar ni ngf r omt heJ apane s e ( 1995) ,whi chr epr i sest hei deat hatJ apan・ spr ewareconomi cex- per i encecoul dser veasal ear ni ngmodelf orl at edevel opi ng count r i esel sewher e.Chal mer sJ ohnsonpubl i shedJ apan:Who Gov e r ns ?i n1995,cont i nui nghi swor kont her ol eofbur eaucr at s andt hest at easawhol ei nor gani zi ngJ apaneseeconomi cdevel - opment ,and addr essi ng t hef unct i onalcomponent soft he bur eaucr acyandst r uct ur esoft heeconomy.
1993sawKyokoSher i danassessi ngt her ol eofgover nmenti n t heJ apaneseeconomyi nGov e r ni ngt heJ apane s eEc onomy .Thewor k i sdi vi dedi nt osever aler as,wi t hsomef i f t ypagesdedi cat edt ot he f i r sthal foft het went i et hcent ur y.Atf i r stgl ancet hewor kap- pear st obepr i mar i l yawor kofeconomi chi st or y,butSher i dan・ s st at edpur posei st ol ear nf r omt hepastandconsi dert hepot ent i al r ol eoft hest at ei nsubsequentJ apaneseeconomi cdevel opment . Thi si st hust hehi st or i cal l y- mi ndedf or m ofeconomi cst udyof t he1980scomi ngt of ul lf r ui t i oni nt hef or m ofpossi bl eeco- nomi cpol i ci esbei ngsuggest edbaseduponbr oadanal ysesof economi chi st or y.Whi l et hewor ki snotover l yi nnovat i veasan exampl eofeconomi chi st or y,i ti snoveli ncombi ni ngahi st or i cal per spect i veandcont empor ar yeconomi cpol i cyf or mul at i on.
Meanwhi l e,Nakamur aTakaf usa,whoof f er edaser i esofl ec-
t ur esatt hebehestofpubl i sherIwanamiShot eni n1986,hada
t r ansl at i onoft hesel ect ur espubl i shedi n1994asLe c t ur e son
Mode r nJ apane s eEc onomi cHi s t or y .Mor ebr oadl yanal yt i calt hanhi s
l andmar kt extdi scussedear l i er ,t hel ect ur esar ei nf or mat i veand
accessi bl e.Eachoft hesevenl ect ur escover sappr oxi mat el yt en
year s,r angi ngi nsumf r omt he1920st ot he1980s,andf ol l owed
byapost - bubbl eepi l ogue.Fur t her mor e,t heyar er epl et ewi t hde- t ai l sper t ai ni ngt opar t i cul arcompani esandanecdot esabouthow t heysucceeded,suf f er ed,oradapt edt oeconomi cci r cumst ances:
notj ustMi t suiandt heot hergr eatzai bat s u,butNi sshi n,Toshi ba, andSuzukiShot en( not edf ori t senor mousbor r owi ngsf r omt he BankofTai wan)al lf eat ur e.
Ani nnovat i veappr oacht ot heeconomi chi st or yoft hef i r st hal foft het went i et hcent ur ycamei nt hef or m ofBaiGao・ s Ec onomi cI de ol og yandJ apane s eI ndus t r i alPol i c y :De v e l opme nt al i s mf r om 1931t o1965,publ i shedi n1997.Themostsi gni f i cantcont r i bu- t i onofGao・ swor ki st obef oundi nhi sr econcept ual i zat i onof cont i nui t i esf r om t hepr ewart ot hepost warer a.Heposi t st he exi st enceof・J apanesedevel opment al i sm・・ af or m ofeco- nomi cdevel opmentmodelt hatai msatcr eat i ngweal t hf oral at e- devel opednat i on・ t hathehol dsemer gedi nt he1931- 1945er a, ar gui ngt hatt hi s,combi nedwi t hpol i cyi nnovat i onsbyt hest at e andi nst i t ut i onalr ef or msi nt hesameer a,l eadt oJ apanesecapi t al - i sm si gni f i cant l ydepar t i ngf r om i t spr e- 1930i ncar nat i on,whi l e pr oceedi ngont oi nf l uencepost wardevel opment saswel l .
16Gao ar guesf ort heexi st enceof・J apanesecapi t al i sm, ・andmor e br oadl y,f ort heexi st enceofv ar i anc eofcapi t al i sm,r at hert hana si ngl ef or mofcapi t al i smbasedonWest er nmodel st owhi chal l el sei scompar ed.
17Int hi sr egar d,hi sar gumentr ef l ect sdebat es overmoder ni t y,andr esembl esMar uyama・ saf or ement i onedar gu- mentf ormul t i pl emoder ni t i es.Gaoi si mpl i ci t l yr ej ect i ngt hecon- ver gencet hesi s,asGor dondi d.Fur t her mor e,hecaut i onst hatt he di f f er encesbet weendi f f er ent・br eeds・ofcapi t al i smar enotper - manent ,asdevel opment al i sm,f ori nst ance,i sdynami cand
16 BaiGao,2-3.
17 Ibid.,4-5.
r espondsdependi ngont hesi t uat i on.
18ForGao,pr ogr essl i esnoti nf or ci ngcount r i est osubscr i bet o onemodelofcapi t al i sm somuchasl ear ni ngt oaccommodat e eachot her ・ svar yi ngsyst ems;hef ur t herst r essest hathet akest he mar ketashi sf ocus,nott hest at e,whi chi mmedi at el ydi st i n- gui sheshi m f r om t hegener at i onsofschol ar shi pt hathaddi f f i - cul t ymovi ngawayf r omf ocusi ngont hest at east hepr i memover i neconomi cdevel opmentandi nnovat i on.Indeed,hest at est hat t hebi ggestdi f f er encebet weenl i ber alcapi t al i sm ( e. g.t heWest ) anddevel opment al i sm ( e. g.J apan)i snothow t hest at ei sr e- st r i ct edbyt hepr i vat esect or ,butr at herhowt hemar keti sor gan- i zedbyt hest at eandnon- mar ketgover nmentst r uct ur es.
19Mor epr obl emat i cal l y,heposi t st heexi st enceof・f asci st ・eco- nomi cpol i ci eswhi chi nGer many,It al yandJ apanshapedt hei r i ndust r i aldevel opment ,buthecaut i onst hathei snotusi ngt he t er muni l at er al l yf orpol i t i calsyst ems,butr at herf orasetofeco- nomi cpol i ci est hatemer gedatt het i meandt hatt hesecount r i es shar ed・ f ur t her mor e,t heeconomi cpol i ci esi nt r oducedunder f asci smwer enotdependentonl yupont hepol i t i calst r uct ur esof t hatt i me,andcoul dbecompat i bl ewi t hdemocr acyi nt hepost - warer a.
20Whi l et hi sconcept ual i zat i onmayneedf ur t herdevel op- ment ,i ti sst i l lani nsi ght f ulconsi der at i onf ordi scussi ngt he i mpactofeconomi cdevel opment sdur i ngt he1930sont hepost - warer a.
In1998,anext ensi veseven- vol umeser i esent i t l edJ apane s e Ec onomi cHi s t or y ,1600- 1960,edi t edbyMi chaelSmi t ka,waspub- l i shed.Thesevenvol umesar e:1)J apane s ePr e warGr owt h,2)The
18 Ibid.,15.
19 Ibid.,7.
20 Ibid.,12-13.
I nt e r warEc onomyofJ apan,3)Hi s t or i c alDe mog r aphyandLaborMar ke t s i nPr e warJ apan,4)TheTe xt i l eI ndus t r yandt heRi s eoft heJ apane s e Ec onomy ,5)J apan・ sEc onomi cAs c e nt ,6)TheJ apane s eEc onomyi nt he Tokug awaEr a,1600- 1868,and7)Ag r i c ul t ur alGr owt handJ apane s e Ec onomi cDe v e l opme nt .Inaconsi der at i onofJ apanesebusi nessi n t hef i r sthal foft het went i et hcent ur y,t hef i r stt hr eevol umesar e mosthel pf ul .Eachi saconf er encecompi l at i on,andmanyoft he paper sar ewor ksofbusi nesshi st or yori ncor por at eel ement sof busi nesshi st or yi nt ot hei rappr oach.J apane s ePr e warGr owt hbr i ngs t oget herar t i cl esont echnol ogyandconsi der st her el evancet hat pr ewareconomi cdevel opmentcanhavef ordevel opmentt heor y, whi l eTheI nt e r warEc onomybr i ngst oget herwor koncapi t al ,f i nanc- i ng,andexchanger at es,amongstot hert opi cst hatar er el evant f orbusi nesshi st or i anst oconsi der .
The2000swi t nessedar angeofst udi est hatbui l tonmuchof
t hef oundat i onest abl i shedi nt he1980sand1990s.Onesi gni f i -
cantwor kwasCar lMosk・ sJ apane s eI ndus t r i alHi s t or y( 2001) ,whi ch
consi der st hedr amat i cchangei nt echnol ogy,andt heeconomi c
andsoci alconsequencest hatr esul t ed,dur i ngt hecour seofmod-
er nJ apanesehi st or y.Thewor ki si nnovat i vei nbui l di ngupa
soci o- economi csyst embasedont het echnol ogyoft het i me;t he
monogr aphr ef l ect st hi sbybei ngdi vi dedi nt ot wosect i onst hat
r ef l ectt hedomi nantt echnol ogyatt het i me:1)wat erandwood,
and2)el ect r i ci t yandst eel .Thi swor kr ef l ect sani ncr easi ng
awar enessi nschol ar shi p,al r eadymani f esti nsever alwor ksdi s-
cussedt husf ar ,oft hei nt er connect ednessofvar i ousel ement si n
soci et y:economi cdevel opmentcannotbedi scussedt hr ougha
consi der at i onoft hest at eal one( asi nol derschol ar shi p) ,but
mustconsi derent r epr eneur s( asi n1970sschol ar shi p) ,andl abor
( asi n1980sschol ar shi p)t obui l dt owar dsacohesi veanal ysi s.
Managementcont i nuedt or ecei veat t ent i on,not abl yf r om Mor i kawa,whoi nA Hi s t or yofTopManag e me nti nJ apan( 2001) bui l tuponhi sanal ysi si nZai bat s ubutcar r i edi tt hr ought ot he post warke i r e t s uer a.Laborhi st or ywasst i l li nspi r edbyGor don butcont i nuedt odevel opi nnewdi r ect i ons,suchasdedi cat ed st udi esofwomenwor ker s,f ol l owi ngonf r omPat r i ci aTsur umi ・ s t r ai l bl azi ngFac t or yGi r l s( 1990) ,andt hr oughnewconcept i onsof t hel aborexper i encet hati ncor por at edwhi t e- col l arwor ker s,edu- cat i on,andot heri ssues,asr ef l ect edi nShi nj iSugayama・ s・Recent Devel opment si nJ apaneseLabourHi st or y・( 2014) .Fori nst ance, Kazut oshiKasedi scussesunempl oymentpol i cyi npr ewarJ apan, ar gui ngt hatt heconvent i onalvi ewofJ apanesepr ewarsoci alpol - i cybei ngbackwar di sf l awed,andi nf acti nmanyr espect si twas mor epr ogr essi vet hant hatexi st i ngi nWest er ncount r i esdur i ng t hesameer a( ・Unempl oymentPol i cyi nPr ewarJ apan, ・2004) .
Ther ehaveal sobeennumer ousst udi esofspeci f i ci ndust r i es t hati ncor por at edhi st or i calcover ageoft heear l yt went i et hcen- t ur y,suchasMakiUmemur a・ sTheJ apane s ePhar mac e ut i c alI ndus t r y : I t sEv ol ut i onandCur r e ntChal l e ng e s( 2011) ,whi chspendsasect i on chr oni cl i ng J apan・ spr ewardevel opmentofdomest i c dr ug- manuf act ur i ng,aswel lasi nsi ght f ulnewwor ksofbusi nesshi st or y suchasJ ef f r eyW.Al exander ・ swor kont hemot or cycl ei ndust r y ( J apan・ sMot or c y c l eWar s ,2009)andbeer - br ewi ng( Br e we di nJ apan:
TheEv ol ut i onoft heJ apane s eBe e rI ndus t r y ,2014) . Concl usi on
Tosomeext entt hi st r eat menthasnegl ect edcl oseengagement
wi t hspeci f i ccasest udi esi nbusi nesshi st or yi nf avorofout l i ni ng
br oadert r endsi neconomi chi st or yasawhol et hathaveshaped
howt went i et h- cent ur yJ apanhasbeenunder st oodi nt heEngl i sh-
l anguagewor l d.Iti sessent i alt oconsi dert hecont exti nwhi ch busi nesshi st or yemer ged,andunder st andi ngt het r aj ect or yof t houghtconcer ni ngt hepr ewarer ar equi r esanunder st andi ngof bot ht hemacr o- l eveleconomi cassessment st hatwer et henor m f ormanyyear s,andt hemi cr o- l evelcasest udi est hatemer gedt o conf i r morchal l engeol dercat egor i esandconcept i onsofi ndus- t r i esasmonol i t hi cent i t i es.
Muchoft hehi st or i ogr aphyr eveal st heper si st enceofani dea
ofauni quesyst emofJ apanesebusi nesspr act i cest hatwasseen
ast hesour ceofJ apaneseeconomi csuccessi nt he1980s,and
conver sel y,ast hesour ceofi t sdecl i nei nt he1990s.Muchoft he
busi nessandeconomi chi st or yschol ar shi pneededt oengagewi t h
t hi si ssue,ul t i mat el ybr eaki ngdownt hepr esupposi t i onsupon
whi cht hear gumentr est edal t houghatt hatpoi nti thadal r eady
becomeadef ac t omet hodofconsi der i ngJ apanesebusi ness
i nmor epopul arwr i t i ngs.Ther ehasbeenapr ocesswher eby
Engl i sh- l anguageschol ar shavebeendi sabusedoft henot i ont hat
J apani s,orshoul dbe,onat r ackf ol l owi ngWest er nmodel s,al -
t houghatabr oaderl evelt hecont i nui ngi nf l uenceofmoder ni t y
t heor yandi t sat t endantassumpt i onsabouteconomi cdevel op-
mentandsoci alandcul t ur alhi st or ymayhavedet r act edf r om
someofbusi nesshi st or y・ sdevel opmenti nt hi sr egar d.Gener al l y
speaki ng,t hehi st or i ogr aphyovert hel astt wodecadesi npar t i cu-
l ari schar act er i zedbyamoveawayf r omessent i al i stexpl anat i ons
andt owar dsmor enuancedappr oachest hatconsi derel ement si n
busi nessandeconomi csi nr el at i ont oeachot herandst r i vet oun-
der st andsuchel ement sbot hasdynami ci nchar act er ,andast he
pr oductofpar t i cul arhi st or i calci r cumst ances.
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English-LanguageScholarshiponEarly Twentieth-CenturyBusinessHistoryinJapan
