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(1)Current Issues in EFL Education: Task-based Instruction Re-examined AProposal of Corel Peripheral Tasks Boku. Current Issues in EFL Education: Task-based Instruction Re-examined A Proposal of Core/Peripheral Tasks Mariko Boku. I. Introduction For the past decades, task-based language teaching has been widely accepted in the field of second language acquisition (SLA). On the other hand, efficacy of task-based instruction has been always questioned. The major criticisms of this approach are: 1. learners do not learn from their errors; 2. systematic, careful control of variables is not possible; 3. the definition of task is too vague; 4. focus is on the meaning not on form; 5. negotiation of meaning is inadequate due to the complexities of interaction pattern; and 6. teachers' roles are not clear. In spite of these attacks on task-based learning, the method has been frequently adopted in various classes all over the world because of the extensive possibilities of promoting learners' communicative competence. The purpose of this paper is to explore more effective ways of incorporating task-based instruction into Japanese EFL (i.e., English as a foreign language) education in order to resolve the problems mentioned above. First, I will describe the historical background of how the communicative approach emerged in the SLA field. Second, I will explain the theoretical background which supports the efficacy of task-based instruction. Third, I will state the definition and problems of task-based instruction. Fourth, core/peripheral tasks will be proposed with exam-67-.

(2) )(~ • ~{Alr • )( it. 16~. 1 . 2 ij-lrHf:ij-. 2005. 2. pIes of task-based instruction in Phonetics class. Finally, I will conclude by suggesting that adopting the core/peripheral tasks to classes contributes to solving the problems concerning teacher roles in EFL education.. n.. Historical Background. A. Emergence of Communicative Approach. By the beginning of the nineteenth century, foreign language (e.g., Latin) was being learnt by the analytical grammar translation method. In the late nineteenth century, the Direct Method, in contrast, emphasized exclusive use of language in the classroom rather than analyzing a language as the goal of instruction. While the Direct Method became more popular and spread in Europe, the Reading Method which emphasizes the importance of reading target language through the work of literature and philosophy, gathered attention in countries with few foreign language teachers. In the early 1930s-1940s, due to the influence of World War II, the Audio lingual Approach (Fries, 1945) was introduced into the military. The war made immediate and accurate communication among people essential, so that they could be ready to engage the enemy or prepare for a sudden attack. This is based on the behaviorist approach. As a reaction to the behaviorist audio lingual approach, Chomsky devised the cognitive approach, in which language learning is viewed as rule acquisition, not as habit formation.. More recently, the comprehension-based. approach (Krashen & Terrell, 1983) was proposed in response to· the shortcomings of the cognitive approach.. In the framework of compre-. hension-based approach, second language acquisition is treated the -68-.

(3) Current Issues in EFL Education: Task-based Instruction Re-examined AProposal of Corel Peripheral Tasks Boku. same as the first language acquisition.. According to the comprehen-. sion-based approach, error correction is secondary to 'comprehensible input (i. +1). (i.e., input that is just one step beyond learners' level of. competence)'. The comprehension-based approach emphasized the primary importance of comprehension. On the other hand, the communicative approach which was developed by anthropological linguists and Firthian linguists emphasized communication not comprehension as its purpose. According to Yalden (1983), one type of syllabus is organized around notion (meaning, such as spatial location, time, degree) and functions (social transactions and interactions such as asking for information or complimenting someone) in the communicative approach (qtd. in Ceke-Murcia, 2001 : 9).. B. Solution to the Problems in the Communicative Approach. So far, we have looked very briefly at the process of how the SLA approach has been changed and integrated into today's communicative approach. With the emergence of the communicative approach, it had a great impact on English Education in Japanese universities which had used the teacher-directed instruction based on grammar translation method. Especially native-speaker teachers (NST) tended to prefer the task-based approach to the traditional approach because classes became more communicative. However, cynically enough, the reality is that the more communicative and interactive the class becomes, the less teacher-directed explicit instruction takes place. Medgyes (1994) described the role of the teacher in the classroom.. When teacher is a native-speaker (NS) of English, he or she. tends to ask learners to form discussion or task-oriented groups. How-69-.

(4) ever, this does not necessarily include enough instruction or feedback. On the other hand, non-native speaker teachers (NNST) are not likely to adopt task-based instruction. Possible reasons why they do not are as follows; 1. As Saito & Ebsworth (2004) suggest, Japanese EFL teachers know that learners tend to prefer those teachers who do not ask questions randomly or embarrass them in front of their classmates, and expect teachers to explain grammar items explicitly. 2. Planning and conducting task-based instruction is time and energy consuming in terms of preparing materials, time management in the task and inspiring learners' motivation.. As a result of this entire situation, EFL teachers tend to choose either teacher-directed or task-based instruction.. Considering that EFL. learners need to be pushed for output and to integrate their knowledge for more accuracy and fluency than learners in ESL (English as a second language) context, both NST and NNST are encouraged to adapt the task-based instruction resolving the problems of teacher roles.. In. the next section, I will address the theoretical background which supports the efficacy of task-based instruction.. ill. Theoretical Background A. Output Hypothesis. Swain (1985) proposed the output hypothesis that through processing either spoken or written language, language acquisition/learning -70-.

(5) Current Issues in EFL Education: Task-based Instruction Re-examined A Proposal of Corel Peripheral Tasks Boku. may occur (qtd. in Swain, 1993 : 159). Swain (1993) emphasizes that producing language might serve the language learning process by forcing the learner to move from semantic processing to syntactic processing. When learners notice a gap, they can 1. ignore it; 2. search their own linguistic knowledge for information which might help to close the gap by generating new knowledge or consolidating existing knowledge; or 3. identify it and pay attention to relevant input (159). In sum, the functions of output are 1. noticing function, 2. the hypothesis-testing, and 3. the metalinguistic function (Swain, 1995 : 141). Unless learners produce output, they have no chance to test the hypothesis and develop their metalinguistic knowledge.. B. Noticing Hypothesis in the Interlanguage Development. According to Selinker (1972), interlanguage is at least partially different from the native language, and the target L2 is a linguistic system in its own right. This may be one of the few points agreed on by all SLA researchers (qtd. in Lakshmann & Selinker, 2001: 395). It. IS. widely accepted that L2 (second language) learners'interlanguage. IS. developed according to the sequence at extensively divergent individual speeds. According to Swain (1993), when producing output, learners notice the gap between their existing knowledge and what is supposed to be, thus acquiring the ability to internalize the linguistic rules. Schmidt (1990) claims that 'noticing' deeply relates to the developmental sequence. A prior degree of awareness is important for material to be incorporated into developing an interlanguage system (qtd. in Skehan, 2001 : 48). Therefore, before pushing learners to produce output to enhance 'noticing', teachers must provide a certain quality and -71-.

(6) xl!f-: . ~1iJir . x1t. 16~. 1 . 2 ~B1~~. 2005.2. quantity of input to which learners are ready to attend. Schmidt (1990) discusses six influences on 'noticing': 1. repetition; 2. salience; 3. instruction; 4. task demands; 5. processing ability; . and 6. readiness. According to Schmidt (1990), all things being equal, the more frequent a form, the more likely it is to be noticed and then become integrated into the interlanguage system. Again, all things being equal, the more a form stands out in the input stream, the more likely it is to be noticed (qtd. in Skehan, 2001 : 48-9). Also, as for the 'instruction' it channels attention and brings into awareness what would otherwise have been missed. In relation to instruction, 'task demands' reflect the degree of demand. Schmidt explains 'processing ability' as the capacity to deal with the range of forms in input. Some people will be more effective input processors than others, and be more able to notice, for given input,. Input qualities -frequency -salience. Focused input - instruction - selective effects of tasks. Task demands on processing resources. Noticing. Internal factors -readiness -IDsin processing capacity. Working memory 1 language processing 2 consciousness enhanced processing • matching • feedback appreciation • recombination, transformation • rule-based exemplar generation. Long-term memory • rule-based analytical system • memory-based formulaic system • schematic knowledge. Influences on noticing and components of UJorking memory and long-term memory. Figure 1 (Skehan, 2001 : 57). -72-.

(7) Current Issues in EFL Education: Task-based Instruction Re-examined A Proposal of Corel Peripheral Tasks Boku. new forms which may then be integrated into their language development.. 'Readiness' refers to the current state of the interlanguage sys-. tem in which noticing might be a function of what the internal structures or mechanisms are predisposing the learners to be ready to attend to (qtd. in Skehan, 2001 : 50). So far the Noticing Hypothesis has explained the internal mechanism of the learners' input enhancement into intake and to processing input (or intake) into long-term memory. Izumi (2002) compared two groups based on Noticing Hypothesis: one engaged in output-input activities; and the other engaged in same input for the sole purpose of comprehension in learning gains.. This investigation found that. pushed output can induce the learners to process the input effectively for their greater interlanguage (IL) development. This result signifies that exposure to the input alone does not help promote learenrs' competence. In addition to the aspects of the internal mechanism of comprehension and output, learner types also are important factors to examine. As Skehan (1998, 2001) shows in Figure 2, there are three types of learners: 1. analytic learners; 2. memory-oriented learners; and 3. balanced learners. 1. Analytic learners have no instructional pressures to take a more communicative, memory, and exemplar-oriented view of language learning. 2. Memory-oriented learners' predispositions are towards fluency, synthesis, and integration, and away from analysis, and for whom the environment has also pushed more towards communication than analysis, either through a one-dimensional diet of -73-.

(8) Y:.~. . ~f;IIj . Y:. ft. 16~ 1 . 2 ~ir1*~. 2005. 2. task-based instruction or perhaps the urgency of actual, realworld communicative encounters. 3. Balanced learners' aptitude profile balances analysis and memory, and is naturally equipped, therefore, for balanced development (270). high analysis. Analytic learners [BJ Balanced ~-----I-- learners [AJ. low memory. --+--------+------~-. high memory. Memoryoriented learners [C). low analysis. Paths of interlanguage development Figure 2 (Skehan, 1998, 2001 : 270). EFL learners need more opportunity than ESL learners to notice the gap between their existing knowledge and native-speakers' performance because of the difference in the number of the native speakers of English. To increase the output opportunities, it is necessary that EFL education adjust the ratio of teacher-directed and task-based instruction according to the learner types. For more discussion, I will deal with the definition of the task in the next section. -74-.

(9) Current Issues in EFL Education: Task-based Instruction Re-examined A Proposal of Corel Peripheral Tasks Baku. N.. Task. A. The Definition of 'Task'. Over the decades, classroom activity in the SLA field has been replaced with 'task'. However, defining a task is quite problematic. Ellis. (2003) provides a number of dimensions, such as, 1. the scope of. a task; 2. the perspectives from which task is viewed; 3. the authenticity of a task; 4. the linguistic skills required to perform a task; 5. the psychological processes involved in task performance; and 6. the outcome of a task (2).. Depending on which dimension is examined,. the definition varies considerably. Nunan (1989) defines the task as 'a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while the attention is primary focused on meaning rather than form (qtd. in Ellis, 2003: 4).. On the other hand, Skehan (1996) defines it as 'an activity. in which: meaning is primary; there is some sort of relationship to the real world ; task completion has some priority ; and the assessment of task performance is in terms of task outcome (qtd. in Ellis, 2003: 4)' . Recently, Bygate, Skehan, and Swain (2001) define a task as an activity which requires learners to use language, with emphasis on meaning, to attain an objective (qtd. in Ellis, 2003: 4). In sum, the definition of the 'task' is meaning-oriented; however, strictly speaking, it is still under examination.. Naturally, the definition of task influences its classifica-. tion. Therefore, for now, I will just show the general types of tasks in the next section.. -75-.

(10) x'#- .. ~Wj. . x1t. 16~. 1 . 2 -j}itHf:-j}. 2005. 2. B. Types of Tasks. Below are the general types of tasks classified by a number of dimensions or criteria. 1. information-gap task: a task where one participant holds information that the other participant (s) do (es) not have and that must be exchanged in order to complete the task (Ellis, 2003 : 343) . 2. opinion-gap task : a task that requires the participants to exchange opinions on some issue, e.g. a balloon debate.. Such. tasks typically involve controversial issues about which the participants are likely to hold different views (Ellis, 2003 : 347). 3. decision-making task: learners are provided with several pro blems in which they have to take on the role of judge (Skehan, 1998, 2001 : 108) and make a decision. 4. consciousness-raising task: tasks in which a) a specific feature of language itself is part of the task, b) the focus is on explicit learning (Ellis, 2003, qtd. in Skehan, 2003 : 7). 5. structure-based production task: a focused task directed at eliciting production of a specific structure (Ellis, 2003 : 350). 6. comprehension task (Ellis, 2003) : tasks based on the assumption that acquisition occurs as a result of input-processing. 7. input-enhancement task: tasks in which some feature of the input is highlighted (Doughty, 1991, Jourdenais et aI., 1995, and Trashey and White, 1993, qtd. in Skehan, 2003 : 7).. 8. input processing task: tasks in which learners are given instruction on how to process input more effectively, so that they will go beyond meaning-extraction, and also notice structural regu-76-.

(11) Current Issues in EFL Education: Task-based Instruction Re-examined A Proposal of Corel Peripheral Tasks Baku. larities in the input language (Van Pattern, 1996, qtd. in Skehan, 2003 : 7). 9. knowledge-constructing task (Samuda, 2001) : tasks intended to induce learners to pressure their interlanguage systems to develop new forms. 10. knowledge-activating task: task which does not push learners to develop new knowledge, but which instead promotes salience, so that learners are more likely to mobilize language which they do know, but otherwise not be so likely to use (Samuda, 2001, qtd. in Skehan, 2003 : 9) . 11. transactional and referential task: tasks which emphasize information transmission and exchange (Yule, 1996, qtd. in Skehan, 2003 : 3). 12. narrative/descriptive task: pairs of students have to construct a story based on a series of pictures with common characters but no obvious storyline (Skehan, 1998, 2001 : 108). 13. reciprocal task: a task that involves information or opinions being exchanged between two or more people (Ellis, 2003: 349) . 14. focused task: an activity that has all the qualities of a task but has been designed to induce learners' incidental attention to some specific linguistic form when processing either input or output (Ellis, 2003 : 342). 15. open/closed task: open task refers to a task where the participants know there is no predetermined solution (Ellis, 2003 : 347). A closed task refers to a task that requires students to reach a single correct solution or one of a small finite set of solutions (Ellis, 2003 : 339). -77-.

(12) -x.l!f- . ~1$r . -x.1t. Tasks 1. ~4,. and. 14~15. 16~. 1 . 21}B1:jf1}. 2005.2. are well-accepted among teachers and re-. searchers, however, the other tasks have not gained wide recognition yet. The classification or categorization of tasks is still in the process of adjustment.. c.. Problems of Applying Task-Based Instruction to EFL Education. Task-based instruction can create a learner-centered atmosphere. However, because of its autonomous characteristics, teachers tend to stand back and have few chances to offer instruction or feedback.. Or. teachers may simply inspire learners to work in pairs or groups. In this way, teacher roles can be very vague. Moreover, learners' levels, preferences, personalities and cognitive styles are extensively divergent from each other.. Japanese EFL learners particularly tend to depend on. teacher-directed instruction and avoid exerting their own effort to participate in the activity. In addition to the problems shown above, definitions of tasks vary widely and criteria of categorization are inconsistent. Therefore, in order to resolve the problems of teacher roles and categorization of tasks, I will propose to change the task phases in the following section.. V. A Proposal: Core / Peripheral Tasks The framework of the task consists of the three phases as shown in Table 1 (Ellis, 2003 : 244) below. However, it is too complicated to follow the steps within a single 60 to 90 minute class. Rather than having a fixed concept about task focusing on time line (i.e., pre-, during-, and post-task), it is more useful and practical to clarify teacher roles divid-78-.

(13) Current Issues in EFL Education: Task-based Instruction Re-examined A Proposal of Corel Peripheral Tasks Boku. Phase. Examples of options. A. Pre-task. framing the activeity, e.g. establishing the outcome of the task planning time doing a similar task. 8. During task. time pressure number of participants. C. Post-task. learner report consciousness raising repeat task A framework for designing task-based lessons. Table 1 (Ellis, 2003 : 244). ing the task into two: core and peripheral parts. A core task is a learner-centered activity where most of the input. and output is processed through peer interaction a peripheral task is defined as the part where teachers give the instruction or feedback either explicitly or implicitly. The former plays a central role in learning and the latter helps or assists through teachers' support.. I will propose. core/peripheral tasks in light of the types of learners, teachers, tasks,. and teacher roles as a replacement for time line based three task phases.. A. LearnerITeacher Type. As already mentioned, Skehan (1998, 2001) describes three types of learners: analytic, memory-based, and balanced learners (270). Teachers are distinguished between two: native speakers of English (NS) and non-native speakers of English (NNS).. B. Task Types. OT refers to open task while CT refers to closed task as shown in -79-.

(14) )e'F . ~Hj:j . )eft. 16~. 1 . 2 ~ifHf~. 2005.2. task type 15.. C. Teacher Roles. There are several types of teacher roles. For example, I will suggest teachers give explicit instruction/feedback or implicit instruction/feedback in the peripheral task. As shown in Table 2 below, EI stands for explicit instruction (e.g., teacher-directed grammar explanation) and EF as explicit feedback (e.g., error correction). On the other hand, II refers to implicit instruction (e.g., instruction via worksheet) and IF stands for implicit feedback (e.g., recast).. Tasks. Core. NS. Teachers. NNS. Peripheral. NS. NNS. Analytic learner. OT. IF. II. Memory-based learner. CT. EF. EI. Core/Peripheral Tasks Table 2. Table 2 makes clear the task-type and instruction/feedback distinction depending upon learner and teacher types. Analytic learners are pushed more to varieties of answers or interaction and provided with implicit instruction/feedback whereas memory-based learners are provided with the chance of analyzing the form and pushed to the correct answer with the assistance of explicit instruction/feedback.. However,. depending on the learners' individual levels of readiness and teacher characteristics, core/peripheral tasks should be adjusted flexibly.. -80-.

(15) Current Issues in EFL Education: Task-based Instruction Re-examined AProposal of Corel Peripheral Tasks Boku. D. Examples of Pronunciation Task. I will present two examples of task-based instruction in Phonetics class. The former is for phoneme discrimination and the latter is for integrated task. Since core/peripheral tasks playa role of pair or set, it is desirable for teachers to adopt both within the same class period.. 1. Student-centered Pronunciation Task (Segmental phonemes). Level of the learners:Alllearners have experienced need in discriminating phoneme by minimal pair practice. Class size: More than 20 students. Length: 40-60 minutes for core-task. (Phoneme instruction should be conducted in the previous lesson or first half of the lesson). Type of task: Reciprocal task, transactional and referential task, narrative task, closed task. Objectives: a . To distinguish the phoneme correctly. b . To pronounce the phoneme accurately in terms of international phonetic alphabet (IPA) , not in terms of American English or British English. Materials: a . Passage (see Appendix A) which contains minimal pairs and both of the words can be a possible answer in terms of the meaning of the context. b . Audio material which includes passages read by a native speaker of English. c . MD/CD player or tape-recorder in case of using audio material.. (Optional) It is possible for teacher not to use. audio material if preferred. As for the passage, if teacher him/herself makes the passage on his/her own, several mini-81-.

(16) mal pairs should be included which do not damage the whole context regardless of the answer.. Procedure: Core task. a. Teacher provides a worksheet (Appendix A) to the learners. b. Teacher either reads the passage or lets learners listen to the passage recorded by a native-speaker of English. c. Learners are asked to choose the correct number. d. Mter listening to the passage twice, learners are asked to exchange the sheet with a partner. e. Teacher shows the correct answer. f . Learners work in pairs and see how different the outcome of. the story is when learners do not distinguish the phoneme correctly. g. Teacher asks learners to make groups of three or four. Group. leader is asked to decide the number of the answer and read the passage to all the group members. h. Group members check each other to see if the passage which. group leader read to the rest of the members was correctly understood or not. I.. Group leader reads his/her passage to learner A, and A reads for learner B, and B for C and so on. Check if the passage that the group leader read for A was correctly conveyed to C or not.. J•. Using the same manner as in i, all the members of the class can participate in the exercise and see which group successfully conveys the passage's meaning. -82-.

(17) Current Issues in EFL Education: Task-based Instruction Re-examined A Proposal of Corel Peripheral Tasks Boku. Peripheral task a. Learners return the answer sheet to the teacher and teacher. gives more chances to let them listen to or read the passage individually. (Optional) b . Teacher provides explicit instruction on phoneme discrimination using pictures. c . Teacher adopts implicit feedback 'recast' when he/she finds incorrect pronunciation.. This task aims for learners to notice the gap between their performance and the input. Again, they have frequent chances to notice the gap between what they know explicitly and what they can pronounce in the group task. The core task includes both open (e.g., f, g and j) and closed tasks (e.g., e, hand i), whereas the peripheral task includes explicit instruction (e.g., b) and implicit feedback (e.g., c). If beginners depend too much on the context when learning, fossili-. zation (i.e., a process which sometimes occurs in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language, Richards & Schmidt, 2002 : 211) cannot be avoided. To help attain higher level competence, it is best to allow them to focus on the form at the beginning level. By using only bottom-up processing (i.e., knowledge about phoneme) without activating top-down processing (i.e., schematic knowledge), learners have to pay attention only to the sound itself without being dependent on the context. It is important for learners to realize that wrong phoneme discrimination or incorrect pronunciation affects not only the partial meaning of the text but also in-83-.

(18) r iI. x'#- . ~f,IIr . xft. 16~. 1 . 2 %1rHf:%. 2005.2. fluences the meaning of the whole context.. 2. Student-centered Pronunciation Task (Suprasegmental). Level of the learners: beginner- advanced (Learners need to know phoneme, stress, pitch, rhythm and intonation.) Class size : More than 20 students. Length: Each task takes about 60-90 minutes (90 minutes class x . 2 sessions at least). Materials: a. Video which contains mOVIe scene (2-3 minutes length) . b. Transcription sheet of the scene. (Appendix B) c . Questionnaire. (Appendix C) d. Teachers' feedback sheet. (Appendix c.1.) Type of task: Input-processing task, closed/open task, focused task. Objectives: a . To make learners memorize the transcription. b . To help learners integrate phoneme, pitch, intonation, stress, and rhythm with natural speed.. Procedure: (Day 1) Core task. a. Learners watch a mOVIe scene once and transcribe all the words they hear. b. Teacher provides a worksheet. (Appendix B) c. Learners have a chance to notice the gap between what they hear and what was said. (CT) -84-.

(19) Current Issues in EFL Education: Task-based Instruction Re-examined AProposal of Corel Peripheral Tasks Boku. d. Learners are asked to transcribe phonetic symbols for the entire scene. (CT) e. A transcription sheet made by the teacher is provided.. f. Learners find gaps between what they transcribed and model. transcription. Peripheral task. a. Learners watch the entire scene once again. b. Learners practice mimicking according to the transcription. c. Teacher reads the script slowly so that learners can recognize the correct pronunciation for each word. (II) (Day 2) Core task. a. Learners work in pairs and modify their reading at the speed of the movie picture. b. Learners fill in the questionnaire on their own to reflect on their own performance. (Appendix C) (OT) c. Each learner plays a part of a character in the movie and mimics the scene with a partner. d. Rest of the learners listen to classmates' performance and fill in the evaluation sheet. (Appendix C.l.) Peripheral task a. Teacher marks the check sheet for individual learner's feed-. back. (APPENDIX C.1) (EF) b. Learners come to teacher for feedback after practicing pronunciation where teacher marked. (EF) (EO c. Those learners who improved their pronunciation can sit down; however, learners who did not show any improvement -85-.

(20) x'¥- . ~1*j . x1t. 16~. 1 . 2 ~%Hf~. 2005.2. need to ask learners who are seated for help. d.. All the learners perform in pairs and decide who the best actor and actress are. (IF). Recently innovative audio-visual pronunciation software has been developed for learners to access as a tool for independent study.. How-. ever, no audio-visual software can be found that allows learners to reflect the suprasegmental (i.e., elision, liaison and assimilation). What we can do to promote learners' accurate and fluent pronunciation is to provide the opportunity for learners to notice the gap between their own pronunciation and that of native speakers in the movie scene. Furthermore, learners need to be encouraged to produce output in a vernacular style with increased speed in performance. By creating a natural communication environment via open/closed tasks with teachers' explicit/implicit instruction/feedback, learners' intake will be incorporated into long-term memory, and still more, accuracy and fluency will be promoted.. VI. Concluding Remarks This paper has explored the most effective way to promote learners' language ability through the use of task.. To help them, it was sug-. gested to introduce simplified tasks more often in class so that EFL learners can have more chances for output. Although there are several problems in adapting tasks in the EFL class, such as vagueness of teacher roles, whether teacher speaks native English, categorization of task types, learner types, and their individual differences, the concept of core and peripheral task phases proposed in this paper will resolve -86-.

(21) Current Issues in EFL Education: Task-based Instruction Re-examined A Proposal of Corel Peripheral Tasks Boku. these problems rather than applying pre-, during-, and post-task phases. By changing the framework of the task and clarifying the teacher roles according to their characteristics and learner types, applying tasks in the classroom becomes much easier and more effective. Through more chances for output in vernacular style in class, not only analytic but also memory-based learners will benefit from chances to notice the gap between IL and given input, without which higher level achievement is far too difficult unless they live and study in an ESL environment. Taskbased instruction should be revised and applied to all types of learners and teachers in a more simplified way using core/peripheral tasks. This will improve not only with a balance between input and output, but also between the quality and quantity of instruction/feedback, which is invaluable to enhance EFL learners' communicative competence.. REFERENCES Boku, M (1998). 'Student-centered pronunciation practice: More than 'right' or 'light'.' The Language Teacher 22 : 54-6. Bygate, M., Skehan, P. and Swain, M. (2001). (Eds.). Researching Pedagogic Tasks : Second Language Learning, Teaching, and Testing, London: Longman. Ce1ce-Murcia, M. (2001). Teaching English as a Second and Foreign Language. (3 r <l Eds,). Heinle & Heinle. Doughty, C. (1991). 'Second language instruction does make a difference: Evidence from an empirical study on SL relativization.' Studies in Second Language Acquisition 13 : 431-69. Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based Language Learning and Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Fries, C. (1945). Teaching and Learning English as a Foreign Language. Ann Arbor:University of Michigan Press. Izumi, S. (2002). 'Output, input, enhancement, and the Noticing Hypothesis' SSLA 24 : 541-77. Cambridge University Press. Jourdenais, R., Ota, M., Staiffer. S., Boyson, B. & Doughty, C. (1995). 'Does textual. -87-.

(22) 16~. 1 . 2 ~ir1Jt~. 2005.2. enhancement promote noticing? A think-aloud protocol analysis.' In R. Schmidt (Ed.), Attention and Awareness in Foreign Language Learning, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press (pp.183-216). Krashen, S. and Terrell, T. (1983). The Natural Approach: Language Acquisition in the Classroom. Oxford: Pergamon. Lakshmann, U. & Selinker, L. (2001). 'Analysing interlanguage : how do we know what learners know?' Second Language Research 17 : 393-420. Medgys, P. (1994). The Non-native Teacher. London: Macmillan. Mikhan, A. & Reuther, S. (Producer), Marshall, G. (Director) & Lawton, ]. F. (Writer). (1990). Pretty woman. [Motion picture]. United States: Touchstone Pictures. Nunan, D. (1989). Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Richards, ].C. & Schmidt, R. (2002). Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching & Applied Linguistics. (3'd Eds.). London: Pearson Education Ltd. Saito, H. & Ebsworth, M.E. (2004). 'Seeing English language teaching and learning through the eyes of Japanese EFL and ESL students.' Foreign Language Annals 37 : 111-24. Samuda, V. (2001). 'Guiding relationships between form and meaning during task performance : The role of the teacher.' In Bygate, Skehan & Swain (Eds.) Schmidt, R. (1990). 'The role of consciousness in second language learning.' Applied Linguistics 11 : 17-46. Selinker, L. (1972). 'Interlanguage.' IRAL 10 : 209-31. Skehan, P. (1998, 2001). A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning. Oxford: Oxford University. Skehan, P. (2003). 'Task-based Instruction.' Language Teaching 36:1-14. United Kingdom : Cambridge Universtiy Press. Swain, M. (1985). 'Communicative competence: Some roles of comprehensible input and comprehensible output in its development.' In S. Gass & C. Madden (Eds.) , Input in Second Language Acquisition (pp. 235-53). Rowley, MA: Newbury House. Swain, M. (1993). 'The Output Hypothesis :Just speaking and writing aren't enough.' The Canadian Modern Language Review 50 : 158-64. Swain, M. (1995). 'Three functions of output in second language learning.' In G. Cook, & B. Seidlhoffer (Eds.) Principle & Practice in Applied Linguistics (ppI2544). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Trashey, M. and White, L. (1993). 'Positive evidence in the second language classroom.' Studies in Second Language Acquisition 15 : 181-204. Van Pattern, B. (1996). Input Processing and Grammar Instruction, New York: Ablex. Yalden,]. (1983). The Communicative Syllabus: Evolution, Design and Implementation. Oxford : Pergamon. Yule, G. (1996). Referential Communication Tasks, New York: Erlbaum.. -88-.

(23) Current Issues in EFL Education: Task-based Instruction Re-examined AProposal of Corel Peripheral Tasks Boku. Appendix A : Student-centered Pronunciation Task. (segmental phonemes). Sample story :. A. John went to buy 1. shorts. the other day. But he had to. 1. walk. for several. 2. work 2. shirts hours beforehand. After he bought them, he found a nice calendar which had a picture of beautiful 1. glass. On his way home from shopping, he met 1. Don. They went 2. grass.. 2. Dawn.. in a coffee shop and talked about the 1. sheep which they had to paint for the assignment. 2. ship. B. Alice asked her sister, Joan, "Would you 1. wash my 1. cups for me?" 2. watch. 2. caps. "Sure," she answered. But later, she forgot to do it, and disappeared. When Alice came back, she found her brothers, who were playing with 1. cards. "Do you know where Joan 2. cars.. is now?" she asked. Then they smiled and said, "She said that she and Tony would go and see some 1. girls. Look, Tony gave us very pretty 1. birds. Aren't they nice?" 2. gulls.. 2. buds.. (Boku, 1998 : 55). Appendix B : Dictation/Transcription Worksheet (suprasegmental) Clerk 1 : May I help you?. /. /. Vivian: I'm just checking things out.. /. /. Clerk 1 : Are you looking for something particular?. /. /. Vivian: No, well, yeah. Uh, something conservative.. /. /. Clerk 1 : Yes.. /. /. Vivian: You've got nice stuff.. -89-.

(24) 16~. 1 . 2 ~it1:jf~. 2005. 2. /. / Clerk 1 : Thank you.. /. / Vivian: How much is this?. /. / Clerk 1 : I don't think this would fit you.. /. / Vivian: Well, I didn't ask if it would fit. I asked how much it was.. /. / Clerk 1 : How much is this, Marie?. /. / Clerk 2 (Marie) : It's very expensive.. /. /. (Mikhan, A. & Reuther, S. 1990). Appendix C : Questionnaire/Teacher's Feedback Sheet. 1. Describe how well you,ve pronounced. Very poor. Poor. Average. Good. Very good ~. a b c d e. . . . . .. f .. g . h .. . 1 .. k .. . m .. n .. vowels consonants elision liaison assimilation aspiration pitch stress intonation rhythm pause speed voice clarity abdomen breath. 2 . Describe the difference (gap) between your pronunciation and that spoken by na-. -90-.

(25) Current Issues in EFL Education: Task-based Instruction Re-examined A Proposal of Corel Peripheral Tasks Boku. tive speaker of English. 3. How many times have you seen the scene (listened to the audio material of the scene) ? 4. What is the most difficult part of the pronunciation for you in this scene? (e.g. consonant If! sound, rhythm and so on.). 5 . Would you like to have a teacher's feedback in detail or prefer not to be given feedback when the performance is not good enough? Please circle one of the two and state the reason for the answer. Yes No (reason:. -91-.

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