:
✍✎✍✑✏✓✒✕✔✗✖✙✘✛✚✢✜✎✜✤✣✦✥✑✧✎★✪✩
’
✫✭✬✯✮’
✰✲✱✴✳ ✍✭✒✕✔✦✵✷✶✸✵✺✹✼✻✭✍✷✥✑✧✽★✤✩✴✾✼✿✪❀❂❁✲❃❄✒❆❅✤❇✭✖❈❊❉●❋■❍❑❏✺▲✎▼
✶✼◆✎❖✯P✼❅✤❇✽◗❘❁❙❃❚✔✯❯
▼✪▲
✾✑❱●❲❨❳✑❩✢❬✪P✑❭✪❩❪✖
❈❊❫✽❴
✵✑✹
✫
✥❵❖✷❛●❲❝❜
❋
✶✼◆✺✻
✍✺✥✲✧✪★✗✩✸✾✲❞✪❡❪❳❣❢✐❤
✱✪❥✎❦✺❧✪♠✪♥
✥✑♦❵♣
✰rq✽s
✔✕t
❴ ✵
▲✤▼
✶✺◆✺✻❘✵✕✹✯❖
❏✲▲
❞✪❡❚❳
✫
✥✯✏✽✾✗❳
✘✉P✗✈✎✇❘①✗✔✕②
✳✤③✴④✼⑤⑦⑥⑧✰
❢⑨✶✸✒❙⑩✎✹
✫ ✥ ❦ ✒
▼❪❏
✹✑❶❚❷❵❸✭❹✪✥
✫
✥❵✏✪◆✺✻
(
✿✗❀❑❺✯❻ ⑥ ✒⑧❼❏
✹✑❽✭❖✷❾
▼ ✖
✫❨❿➁➀
✶✺➂✽➃❵✻
)
✒❙✔✯✖✓✘■✜✗✣➅➄➇➆✪✣✪➈✤★❚✥❙➉✪➊✸✾✲✚✤✜
✰
➈✸✥✪✾✕➋✭⑩
▲ ✖
✫⑧❿✽➀
✶✑➂✎➃❘✵❆P✦✶❵✹✕➌✗➈➅➄➍✚✤➎❚✥✲❽➏❲⑧✾✲➐
➑✢➒
➈✭◗✪➓✎➔✎→✤➈✴✾✺➋✸⑩
▲ ✖
✫❝❿✭➀
✶✺➂✢➃❵✻❚✵✺✹✪❖
❏✺▲✭➣
✥❚✍✭✒
✰✷↔✯↕
✵ ▲
✍✷✥✼✿✪❀❑❺❵❻
⑥⑧✰
✩ ▼
▲✎▼
✳ ❯ ✫ ❋
✏✪◆✎❖✯P✯➙✗➛✎➜❚❳✺➝✸✾✑❛●❲❝❜
✳
✒➟➞
▼
✶✼◆✼✻➁✍✤✍✕✏✢✾✽✶
s✯➠
✖✼➡✦✔✪❳
❏
✹➢❢➥➤
✮✷➦
▼ ❦
✥✕➧✦➨
✫❨➩
⑩ ▲
✩➫✘✑✍➁✒✲✔✸✵✼✶✼◆✺✻
2007
➭➲➯✪➳➸➵✷✰✯➺➁➻✕➼✔✤➽
izumi
➽1
➚ ➪ ➶ ➹ ➘ ➴ ➷ ➬❢➮✚✎✜
❦✸✰
✜✪✣✤➈✦✥
❍✤➱
✖
❈❊✃
✹
➱✎❐
,
❱●❲❨❳✃
❽✭❖✷❒✤❮✡✵✼✶✼◆✺✻
❰✎Ï✸Ð❝❻✯Ñ❪Ò
⑤✕Ó
❻
(Erwin Schreodinger
Ô ❜✪✥✤❰✎Ï❚ÐÕ❻✯Ñ❪Ò⑤✲Ó
❻✯✏✗◆
)
❖1950
➭✤Ö ✔✲×❏✑▲
✚✤✜
✔✑Ø✸➨
✰❙Ù
✵❨P✙❢➮Ú✤Û✤✚✎✜
❦ ➈ ✰
➋❚⑩✎✹✤✥
✫❝♠➁Ü
❳✼Ý➁✏✪◆⑦✵❨P
α
Þ✪ß P❂à✢á✼â✲ã ⑤ ◗CMB
ä✤å1
✥✣✎❭✸æ✪❳✑ç✢❼✢✏
♠➁Ü
❳
(
✏ ✫ ❺✯❻✷è✪é✗ê✸✾❘✒➀
❳✗✖
❏
✹➅➄ë➽✑ì
❈✷í✸❋
10
➆ ➭✎î ✔✽ï✗✹CMB
✥✕✣✎❭✰ t
❏✺▲✼ð✢ñ
æ✤✔
CMB
✰✃✤ò
❹✪✹✕ó✴①✷❖
Ö✢ô
❋
✔✑õ✤ê✡✵
▲
✶✼◆➁➽
)
Ó✗ö❪÷(George Gamow1904
ø1968)
✾DNA
✥✑ù✤ú ✰✷û✺➭ ✔✑ü❏✑▲✎▼
✹❪✍➁✒
✫❝♠➁Ü
✏✪◆✺✻✪✶✗✹✑➐
➑✽➒
➈✎ý❑þ✑➃✤❖❣❢➮✚✎✜
❦❚✰
✃
➀✭ÿ
❢✁✄✂✆☎✞✝
ä✠✟✽❦
✒
▼❪❏
✹
❍✤➱
✖ ❈
✥☛✡✪❭✭❖✸þ
➀❚✳
✍➁✒✲✔✪❳
✳
✏✴✵✌☞✎✍✛✻
✍✷✥
í
✍✲✔✺✜✤✣✎➈✸✖
❈➟✃
✹✑✚✢➎✽P✕✚✽✜✦✾
➯✠✏
❛✎❱✸❳
✫
✥✪✏✤◆✽❖❵P❚✍✎✍✺✏➁✾✒✑➫❲❆❖✷➈❚➃✽✏✔✓✦✹✺➐
➑➁➒
➈✽◗❵➓✗➔✪→✗➈✆✕✸✥✗✖
❴
✒❵✵
▲
✥✲✚✤✜❚✥
✃ ❽
✰✙✘✆✚
◆ ✳
✍✢✒❙✔❚✵✑✶✭✵✛☞✜✍ ✻
➼✷➭
✖ ❈
❢➮➌✗➈➅➄➍✚✤➎✪★✗➈
★ ❦
✥✕❽❄❲
✫
✍✑✥✑✿❵❀✸✔✗✢✎✣✡✵
▲ ✘ ➦ þ ✳
✍✢✒❝✏❵◆✤✖
❈
P❪✍✗✍✲✏✔✤✆✥✭✥✤✶❚✒r⑩
✰r✱✸✳
✒ ▼ ✍ ➝✢✖
❈ ✫
✍✤✍✕✏✦✍✼✥✺✿✗❀❑❺✯❻
⑥⑧✰❙✱❘✳
✍➁✒✲✔✸✵✼✶❪✵✌☞✎✍✛✻
1
✦★✧✪✩✬✫✬✭✯✮✱✰2.7K
✲✴✳✬✵ ✭✬✮✔✶✸✷✙✹✻✺✯✼✾✽☛✿❁❀✙❂✻❃❅❄✙❆★✶❇✰❉❈✬❊✾❋❉●✒❍❏■✯❑▼▲✬◆❅❖✒P✸◗✱❘❉❙✾❚✱❋❅❯❲❱❏❳❨❈✬❊✙❋✴●✒❍❏■❑✪✰✯❩★❖❭❬❏❪✔P❨❫✪❂✻❃❅❄❴❆★✶❵❑❨❛✯❜✱❩✱❝✗❍✴❞❅❘▼❡
2
➚❢ ❣ ❤ ✐ ❥ ❥ ❦ ❧ ♠ ♥ ♦ ♣ q r s
t
✤✌✉✇✈✑✥✼✿✪❀❘✾✺✚✽✜✦✔
í
✳②①✄③
Û❘✥✕Ú❘✥✒④
▼
✔✯❯
▼✪▲✎⑤
✏❵Ý✡✵
❐
✍✷✍✭✒Õ✏❵✿✪❀✦✥✺➋❘✶
❋
✒✪✵✼✶
✵✞☞⑥✍✛✻✴✍✤✍✼✔✤❜✠⑦
✳✔⑧
✾✺P
S.Ueno Nishio
⑨❶⑩(
✍ ➀ ❖✜❷ ➭ ✥ ➯✪➳!!)
❖✭✶✸✒❙⑩✎✹✒❸❶❹✸✥✕✚✎✜✸✥②❺✭❯①✠③ Û✦✥✕Ú
✰ ❢
➯❶❻✆❼
1
1.0
10.0
100000.0
100.0
Total Genom Size
(1.0=4,700,000bp=E.Coli)
4.7x10 bp 6
Lilium longflorum
❽❿❾❏➀➂➁✴➃❨➄✪➅➇➆Tradescantia adriensis
❽❿➈➉➈➊➆Vicia faba
❽➌➋➎➍➐➏✸➑❁➆Vicia grandiflora
❽✁➒➔➓➣→↕↔❵➍➐➙✸➛➐➜❉➝❏➞➟➃➂➆Anemone blanda
❽✁➠➢➡➥➤❵➡❭➦➣➍↕➝➥➧➨❇➩❵➫❇➫✸➭➐➯➐➲❇➳➳➆
Cassiopeia
❽➸➵❇➍➐➺➥➆Tectarius
❽➻↔↕➼➐➽➢➾✪➅➇➆Eclinometra
❽➚➃❁➪➥➆Plagusia
❽➻↔➥➪➥➆Eucinostomus
❽❿➪↕➶✸➝➟➆Gallus
❽➘➹➐➅➇➆Cyprinus(
➴➐➷➟➬Alligator (
➮➱➪➂➬Mus(
➡➥✃❏❐❒➬Equus(
➃❁➏➂➬Canis(
➷✸❮➇➬Homo(
❰②ÏÑÐCarcharius(
Ò✴➑Ó➬Bufo(
Ô➎➒➥Õ➢➜➥Ö❁➬Rana
❽➻↔➥➜➥Ö❁➬×❇Ø➣Ù↕Ú➔Û
➬
Necturus
❽❿Ü✸➍➎➷➢➤✪➅ÞÝ➩
Triturus(
➷➢➤✪➅➘➬Protopterus(
ß❇à➔➬Amphiuma(
Ò▼➝➐➶❏á➔➃❇➃➱â➱➬10000.0
1000.0
Esherichia coli
❽➊ã❇ä➢å❵➆Drosophila
❽Ù
➜➎æ✴➶❏á➔➃➎ç❏á➔➃➂➓❵➜➥➆
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
❽è➷➣é➥➙✱➹Ñ➆Aspegillus nidulans
❽ê➴➣➃➎ç➢↔✸ë➂➆Neurospora crassa
❽✁➠➢↔➐ì▼➝➔↔✸ë➂➆Ustilago maydis
❽➘➹➟➃❁➤✸í➣➴➥➶➱î➣ï❇ð➢å❵➆Aguilegia
❽❿ñ➣➷✻ò❇➃➱â✴➧➔➏↕➒➔➆Lupinus albus
❽✁➶➣í❁➓➣→Ù
➃❁ó➢â❏➮➱➏✸➑❁➆
Anemone parviflora
❽è➷➢ó✪➅➐➝❇➋➢➃➂➆Zea mays
❽➘➹➟➃❁➤✸í➣➴➥➶➔➆Anemone tetrasepola
❽❿➈➉➈➉➈➊➆Vicia pannonia
❽❿➈➉➈➉➈➊➆Anemone virginiana
ô➸õ➥ö❇÷❇ö✙ø➘ù✻ú➂û➣ü➣ý➣õ➥þ➂ÿ✥✁❪❺✄✂✺Ú
❦➁✰✆☎✞✝
✒✯✵
▲✠✟
➆☛✡✞☞✽❻✺é✽✏✺✩➁✖
➀
▲✤▼
✶✑◆✼✻❘✵✕✹✯❖
❏✕▲
✍✑✥✽â✍✌
÷
✾✕P
➣
➀☛✎✺➀
✥✲✚
✜✭❖
➯❶❻✆❼
✔✠✏✒✑
▲✎▼❪❏
✹ ▼
➠✔✓
✥
①✠③ Û ✰ ❺
❏✺▲✎▼
✳ ✖
✰✆✕
✵✑✹
✫
✥❵✏✪◆✺✻
✍✼✥
⑧
✏✠✖
s
→✭❖✪❯✙✘✑✍➁✒✲✾✺P✆✗❶✕✸❳✑✚✎✜✙✘
✬✛✚✍✜
✥✞✢✽✥✔✘ ✍r✔✤❜
✳ ✒ ▼
✍✤✣✤✥❪✥❪✍✢✒Õ✏✗◆
??!!
➯❶❻❼
í✸❋
❰✧✦✩★✫✪✧✦✩★Õã☛✬✽✥✑❽✭❖✠✗❶✕❪✏✯P✮✭➁❰
⑤
◗✙✯✗✥✑❽✭❖✸þ
❈
✔✞✢✪✏✢➽
✰ ❏
!!??
✱✳✲✔✴
(
✵❑⑤ ❰✧✦✩★✔★✤✶)
✥✔✘ ✍❝❖✸✷ ⑥í✸❋✺✹
✖✢✔✄✗
▼
✒✯✍✁✻✗✔✤❜
✳
??!!
❳✁✼
??
✒ ▼
✍✺✍✢✒❝❖✸✍✺✥✳✽✸✥
⑥✿✾ á ➻
✡✪✏❵◆✺✻Õ◆✽❳
ô❁❀
❢
➠✔❂✔✵✴⑤
❰✸✦✳★✍★✳✶✽✾☛✷
⑥ ✥
30
✓ ✥✁✭❺❃✂ ✰ ❺❏
▲✎▼
✳ ✖
?
❦✦✰✼↔ ✰ ✳ ✍➁✒Õ✖❈
✍✼✥✺✿✗❀✦✔✑×
❏✺▲
ü ✮ ✹ ▼ ✒ ↔ ✰
▲✎▼
✶✼◆✺✻
✍✤✍✕✏✔❄✍❅
❋
✵✕❳✽❹
➀✭ÿ
▼
❹✗❳
▼
✍➁✒❙✾✄❆✤❮✸✥✄❇☛❈✪✏✽✾ ❢
➠✒❂✒✵❑⑤
❰❉✦✄★✔★✤✶➁✾❁✷
⑥ ✥
30
✓ ✥❊❚❺✂ ✰ ❺
❏✺▲✎▼
✳ ✖
?
❦ ✒▼
✍✆❋✎✔
✟ ◆
✳✤●
✰ ✰
❞✒❍✸✔✤✾✩■
✫❨❿
❈ ❳ ▼ ✒ ▼
✍✷✍➁✒Õ✏✪◆✺✻❪✵✑✹❵❖
❏✺▲
✍
✍✲✏✽✾❙➈✪✚✸✥✕❽❄❲⑧✥✙❏✤❑
✘✆✚❘✰✤▲✒▼
▲ P ⑤
þ✕➃✽✥
↔ ✰
✰❖◆
✑
▲✩P
✘✕✍✢✒r✔ í✯❏✲▲
P❚✍✺✥✲✈✤✇
✰
➋❪⑩✤✹
1
◗❙❘❙❚❁❯Escherichia coli, E. coli, Theodor Escheich(1857-1911)
✰❲❱❨❳❬❩ ✲ ●❙❭❙❪✆❫✯❋❅❯✯❱❏❳❵❴❙❛②❍✸❞❅❘▼❡❝❜470
❞✲❢❡✿❣✐❤
❂❦❥✺❧❬♠
✲✤♥
❧ ✲ ❜
90%
❑✺♦q♣ ✲sr✛t❙✉ ✶❝✈✛✇②P❵❞✱❳✬■q①❉❡(
② ✿ ✲s③❙④30
⑤bp
✲s⑥✿❡✿❣⑦❤★✲✳♥❧s❜
5%
⑧⑩⑨:
❛❜✿❶❦❷
2%
❸❙❹ ❑ r❙t❙✉ ✶❻❺❦❼✯❞✱❳✱■q①❉❡)
❜3000
❽✾✲sr✛t❙✉ ❂✸❃❅❄❴❆★✶↕❑❢❼✱❖✾❱❏❳✱■❦①❉❡✒➟➞ ✶✼◆✺✻
❾✮❿
✔✗❜
✳r➭
✥✲➈✗✚❑þ✕➃✪❖✯❼
❏
✹✭✍✽✒
✰✆➀
✥✄➁
✮
❳❊➂
⑤✕Ó
✔❚✵
▲✔➃
✶➁✵✕✹✺✻✤✍✪✍✲✏✎✾
➀
✥✄➁
✮
❳❃➄➆➅
➇
✏✽❜
✳✫➈✁➉✫➊➆➋
✖✪✚✙✒
Star Trek(
✍ ➀ ✾✁➂ ⑤ ❖✪✏✽✾✪❜❋
✶✑➂✤➃✪❖
)
✔✤➌✪➧ ✰✿➍➏➎✆➐✩➑❁➒❊➐✮➓→➔✿➣❃↔❃↕A
➙ Ô⑦➛➜✵→➝ ❰✧✦✩★✔★✤✶➆➞✄➟✔➠✸➡ í✞➢➐✁➤✁➥
✰
ÿ❃➦✍➧❉➨❊➩❉➫❖➭✁➤✁➯✒➲☛➭✙➳❊➵ í ✍
➩✩➸➻➺q➩✩➼➆➽➚➾
❺ ➢
➐✔➒➪➵✁➶✞➹
❁➘❃✂✒➴✤➷✙➞✗✔➬❁➡✄➮
➳❃➒
➴
➭✞↔✩↕➚➎✆➱✃➎❦➤✩❐☛❒
➡✄❮✞❆
➎✆➐✍➒➪➵
➴✍➞✔❰❃ÏÑÐ✆➴
➼➪➽
➴✃Ò
❀
✘❊Ó➪➴✫Ô✒Õ
➱✔➭✍↔✩↕×Ö
➀
(
❾➪Ø
N)
Ùs➛Ú↔❁➵✙Û❙Ü➆Ý➡✮Þ
➶ß➔✛↔❁➵✙Û❦✵→➝✠à
✦✩★✔★✤✶➆➞
Ü➆Ý✸á✫â➪ã
➡❃ä✍å
↔❁➵
➴
➭✍↔✒➱
?
ÖA
➙æÙ⑦➛ ❰✍➴ Û Ò ➔⑩➭✍↔✩↕çÖN
Ùs➛è➙ ➞✍é ➝❊ê ✂➪➴❃ë ↔✸ì❃➭ ➞ ➩✍➒✍➭✍↔✒➱?
Öí ➡
B
➙ ➴❃❮✮î✧ïqð➆ñ➐ ❄
➳❊➣❁➎☛ò Ò ↕
B
➙æÙs➛ ✷→ó❖ô ➔❬✵→➝✠à ✦✩★✔★✤✶➆➴❃õ☛ö✠✗✔÷✸ø➱ Ð
➭✍↔✩↕çÖ
N
Ùs➛ ❍ ➱ ➡ ➙ ô ➔ ➞✄✗✔÷ ➱ ïqù➆Ï ➩✍➒✞▼✞↕çÖB
➙ ➞N
ú ➴❃➮✍û❁ü➪➡✄ý✔û➎✠➣❁➎❃➶✠↕✁þ
➞
N
ÿ➪➝✤➭IC
✂✁ ➡☎✄ ↔❁➵✝✆✟✞✧➾☛➎✳➐✒➒➆➣✠↔✩↕✠☛✡✌☞
!!
✍✏✎✒✑✔✓✖✕✔✗✌✗✙✘✌✚✜✛✣✢!!
3
✥φx174
✦ ✧φx174 1
➞✝★✟✩☛ö✫✪✂✬➚➡✝✭✂✮✰✯➾✲✱☛➐✴✳✟✵→➎✄➶✆➯✂✶➪➭✞↔✩↕✄➶
ø
➎✰✷✄➒✹✸
➞✫✺✼✻✾✽❀✿❂❁✙❃☎❄❆❅✂❇
(bac-
teriophage :
❈ ❃✂❉ ➝✝❊✹❋ ➛✺●✻✴✽❍✿❏■ ➾▲❑◆▼➚➵❃Ö ➴P❖✼◗☛❘✟❙✸➡✫❚✟❯↔❁➵❲❱✩â❨❳◆❊
)
2
➭✍↔
➴ ➭ ➛➯
✶✒Ö✸Û î ➢
➐✴❩☛➒✞➱
➞✫❬❪❭➚➴P❫
➱ Ï
➵➚Û❨✷✴❴✠➱ ï❦ù➪Ï
➣
ñ✒Ó
↕✰✷
➴
φx174
➡✞➞✫❵➪ö ➓➢ ➶ ➴
➭✞↔✩↕
❰
➴✾❵
Û ➞
φx174
❛✼❜☛❝✔❞✜❡❣❢(DNA)
❛●❤✌✐<
φx 174
❥❀❦♠❧♦♥♣✑☎q♠r✙st❛●✐☛✉✇✈❪①③②✇④☞
❧⑥⑤❣⑦⑨⑧
DN A
❛●✐➭✍↔✩↕✰⑩☛↔❁➵
➡
φx174
➾▲❶✃➵ ➡✔➞φx174
➴P❷➢✾❸
➒➆➵
DNA
➭➞✫❹
➔q➩✍➒
➴
➭✍↔
!!!
✷✟✷✤➭✾✶❪❺❉➾✝❻
➢✝❸✾❼❲❸❾❽
➷✟✯◆❿✠û
ÖP❻
❽➁➀✾➂
✶✰❺✮Ö
❽➄➃✂➅
❿✫û
Ö✴➆●➇✫➈✝➉❨➊✂➋✟➌⑥➍✾❻✙➎
❸✴❼⑥➏
õ❣➐
➍
DNA
➍❨✸➒➑❸✾➓✣➔➣→✙↔
➈
➔❆❸
❈⑥↕✹➙
➔ ò
Ò➜➛
DNA
➝4
➞ ✩➚➴❲➟✰✻➡➠❏❁❪➢✜➤(nucleotide)
ö1
í➒➥➧➦
➍❨✸☎➆ ö ➎ ➏
ï✾➨
(
➩ ✿P➟✰✻➡➠❂❁✟➢✜➤)
➨2
➫✂➭ ö✫➯✂➲✙➳✂➨P➵✟➸❪➺✟➻➍
ô✙➼
2
➽❲➾✴➚➪➈❆❶✼➎➏
ï✫➨✹➶❨➹
➯✂➲
➍❪➝
A,T,G,C(
➘❨➴✟➷✼➬➹❨➢➪➮
➬
➹☎➱
➘❨➷➡➬
➹ à ó
à➧➬✃Ù
adenine, thymine,guanine, cytosine)
➨4
➞ ✩➚ö❲✃✣➼❒❐✜➐A
ÙT
❮G
ÙC
ö✹➵☎➸✂➺➒➻ ➍ ô✼➼➜➯☎➲☎❰ ➈▲❶●Ï➧✷➆Û ö☛Þ❼
Ï✫Ð
❐✜➐Ñ➨
➩
✿✾➟✟✻●➠Ò❁
➢Ó➤
➝✾Ô✟Õ
➶
➝✟➆✣Ö➜×➒Ô✟Õ➡➍
(
⑩➧Ø✙Ï❪➍PÙ➡Ú✙↕)
➍PÛ✂➽➧➾❨➚✔➈▲❶➼
➙✴Ø✾Ð❀✷
➨❉ÒPÜ❪➨
➉✰➫
ö✴✭➒✮✟✯
Û
➆ ➼
➙✫Ø
➛✰Ý
Ø ➍
DNA
➨CG
Þ✴ß●➈Ñà➔
➙✾Ø
➛✰á➧➨
➉✰â
➨✰ã
➝✝ä
➂✟å
➶
↕✹Ï ô➆Ò
➍✰➆◆➎
❸
➑◆➙✾Ø✔➱
Ð❂➹❪æÓ➼❨ç❆➶✹è
➔▲❸
Ö
ø➧é
➑ ➛
1 bacteriophage
êìë➜í❒îÑïìðòñ25nm
êôó20
õòö➣÷ùø➜ú❒ûÑüþý❒ÿ9nmφ
✂✁6nm
ê☎✄✝✆✟✞✡✠☞☛✍✌❂ë✏✎✒✑✲ê✔✓✒✕DNA
2 1915
✖
F.W.Twort
✗➜î✘☛✚✙✘✛✒✜1917
✖❆üF.H.d’Herelle
✗✏✢✚✣❆ü✥✤✚✦★✧✪✩✫✌✏✬✚✭✯✮ ÿÒ÷✫✰✚✱✲✧✔✜✏✬✒✭✂✞✔✳✵✴✒✶✸✷✔✹✺✫✻✯✼✾✽❀✿❂❁✥❃✘❄✾❅
✭✯✮➜ü✥❆✒❇❈✶✾❉✫❊
✻✫❋✂✺✡❃●✼✵✽❀✿❂❁✥❃✚❄
✗☞❍❈❉✥✌
➭⑥➍✴✸➒➑ ➑◆Ï✸❏▲❑✒▼
➸✙➨✟◆P❖⑥➨
Ú➧↕✂◗❙❘❒×P❚❪Õ
➶☎✃
Ï◆✷❯❑✵❱
❫
◗❲Ï❲❑✒❳➧➑◆➙✾Ø
➛ ✷
➨●❨
➴✹❳
➶ ➝
❩
✯✼➨❭❬
↕ é ❱
CPK
➨ ❳ ❅❳✙➍
➔✫➏
❱⑥➎
❸
❃✙❄
➬✝➴✰❳❙❪
❅
❳◆❊✲❫❵❴➡➍✯❛⑥➑✲❜➡➍★❝❡❞ é✂❢
❸
➑❲➙✴Ø
➛
➔✫➏
❱✙➎
❸
➯➒➲✂❰
❱●❚❤❣
➶◆✃
Ï❲✷✐❑✾❱❦❥➡➍❀Ö➣➑
➨✰➶❦❧
➍ ❩
✯✼➨✯❬
↕ é
➈✟♠ é Ö
➔✫➏♦♥
➨
➈❆à
➔
➙✴Ø
➛
✭➒✮✟✯
➝
ATGC
➨➉❤♣
➥✙➦
➆❭q❵r
➶✹➹❵s
ÖÑ➝✐t◆➬❂✉
✻✟✈➡➨
➘
➮●✇
▼Pq❵r➪➈✒ÿ
❅✌➤
➔▲❸
➑❲➙✴Ø
(
❬P①
❙➡➨✂②✟➻
➝
90%
❱✲③⑤④✈
➈✔ÿ
❅③➤
➔P➏⑥♥
➨❨➶
ØP❱⑧⑦☎⑨❶⑩
➶
➝✯❷❯◗
2%
❱❪Ø❢ ➍ ✃ ➏ ➎ ❸
➑◆➙✾Ø
➛❹❸⑥➨
❺
❫➡➨❭❻❡❼
➝☎➙❤❽★❾
↔ ➶ Ø ➛
)
➛✷ ➨ ➘
➮●✇
▼✼➝
20
➞✩✼✃
Ï
➏❡❿
➉❤➀●➙
➏ ➝
2
➀➨P➯➒➲➧➶
➝
20 > 4 1 = 4, 20 > 4 2 = 16
➶❲✃
Ï
➏P❿
➘
➮❹✇
▼ ➈✮ÿ
❅ ➤☞➁
❼
➙✲➂➄➃
➛✂➅❲➆❨✭☎✮➄➇P➈
➝
3
➀➨✾➯☎➲
q➄r✔➈✾➉➄➉❤➊➋❑
➔▲❸
➘
➮❹✇
▼
❻❲➌
➨❭❸➡➨
➽✂⑩➡➆
➇❡➈
➈✒ÿ
❅✌➤
➔▲❸
➑❲➙✴Ø
➛ ✷ ➨
❑❨↕
4 3 = 64 > 20
➶☎✃
Ï
➏❤❿
➹
➉➒✸
➨ ➘
➮❦✇
▼●➈✔ÿ
❅❣➤
Ø❲Ï
➏❤❿
➨P✭✂✮✰✯✼➨
➉❹➊
(
➔✯➍⑥➔✯➍
✭✟✮❪✯❲➎✯➏➡➨
➉●➊▲❑
♥❈➐
◗
❢ Ï ➹ ÿ ➤
➬➒➑
codon)
❱❦➓❡➔❵➀➡➍✟➆◆Ï✟→⑥➣●↔⑥❱✃❀➼
➙✴Ø
➛ ➙ ➏ ➘
➮●✇
▼✼➍
❰P↕
Ø✙Ï
✭➒✮✟✯❲Ý❹➙
➍ ♥
➛
⑩✼➆➚ÿ
❅ ➤
❱❦➜❯➝ é✯❢
➙❨Ø
➛ ➌ ❢ ➝
✭☎✮✂✯➪➨
(1)
❑(2)
➍ ❰❵↕ Ø⑥Ï➪ÿ ❅ ➤ò➶ Ø ➛ ✷☎✷ ➶✷ ➨ ÿ ➤
➬✾➍✹✸☎➑
❸
❬P➞
❣➟④✼Ö☞◗✟✸❨➽✂⑩➡➆⑥✷✐❑✾❱
❫
◗⑥➎
❸ ➑ ❸ ➹
❬P①✟❙
◗➟❘❦⑨❙⑩
➹➪é
❘▲➍❵➌
❢⑤➠➡➼
❽➢➡P➤
➆❦➥❡➦ ➬✲➧❶➨✾❱✂❱
❁ ➙ ➶ ÿ ➤
➬✾➝P➊➒✶
➨ ➞ ✩ ➍ ➠
❘❆➆✟➑
✷✐❑
➶ Ø
➛●➩P➫❲➭☎➨
➊❀↕✲✶➡➝P✱
❸➄➯➳➲
ÿ ➤
➬✹➈✟➵✔➎
❸
➑❲➙✴Ø
!!!
➏❤➸
➃❦➺
♥
!!
é ❸
3.1 64:22
✷
➨❹➻✙✻
➧❶➨✴➬
➶
➝P➊➒✶⑥❱✼✷
➨
64
➑22
➈✟➼P➽➡➍❭➾➄➚➔▲❸
➑❲Ï❦◗◆➍✹✸☎➑
❸
❈●➪●➈
ý
❿❪❸
Õ ↕✰➙
➔✐➶
➹
➛✐➘☎➨❪ã☎➨♦➠
➹ ➍ ➹ ÿ ➤
➬✾➝
4
3 = 64
➀ ➹ ➌ ❢ ➍ ❰
➔▲❸ ➛
⑩➡➆☛ÿ
➤
➬❈➔✼➝
22
➶
Ø❵◗➟❘
20
➴➒➷❙➬➱➮❲✃❤❐(1) (2)
64
❒❰❮ÐÏ Ñ➒Ò1
ÓÕÔÕÓÕÖ×ÙØ❰Ú
Ï Ñ➒Ò
❰❵↕
➝
➛❵Û✼➦
➍
s☎❰
1
❰❵↕ ➍✂➆ ➼ ➙❨Ø ➛ ♣ ➨❹Ü✙❅☎❇ ➍★Ý⑥➉➧➆❁ÿ ➤ ➬ ➨❭Þ ➈✴✸♦ß◆➙❨Ø ➛ ✷ ➨❭Þ ➈✂❥❸
♥ ❫
◗➧Ï✟à
➼
(
áâ❑➔▲❸
Leu
➶✲Þ➄ã✔é✂❢ ÏPä❹å➄➧✙➬✹➈✟❥❸
Ö✵❽
é
➑➱⑦
6
➀ ➨ ÿ ➤
➬✂❱
❰P↕
➔▲❸
➑❲Ï❲✷
❑✾❱
❫
◗➧Ï❪➝●æ
➶ Ø ➛
)
s Ö ➨ ➘ ➮●✇ ▼✼➍ ❰➔▲❸
➓❡➔
➨ ÿ ➤
➬✂❱
❰P↕
➔▲❸
➑❲Ï◆✷✐❑❂❱
❫
◗➧Ï❲❑✚❳✙➑◆➙
Ø ➛ ➏ ➎ ➏
➉●➀
➨ ÿ ➤ ➬ ➔ ◗
❰❡↕
➔✲❸
➑✂➆❪➑
➨ ➝ ❽
Trp
➥(
✪♥
➓❡ç
➶✲❬
↕✫➆➒➘
➮❦✇
▼è➑❂⑩
✿✸é
⑩
❃◆❄
➬
)
❑ ❽Met
➥(
✷ ❢ ➝ ✭➒✮✟✯✼➨ ➝➲ ➙ ➼
➈❆à➧Ø❨➽✂⑩➡➆☛ÿ
➤ ➬
➶❨➹❵ê✾➢✂❁
➷●➬✾➍
❰P↕
Ø✙Ï
)
➨
Û❵➀
➔ ◗
✃ ➼
➙✯➂❵➃
➛❭❸⑥➨
♥ ➨ ➝
✪Pë❲➶
♥
2
➀ ➨ ÿ ➤ ➬✟❱ ❰❤↕➔❆❸
➑◆➙✫Ø
➛ ➙ ➏ ➌
➨P❰❡↕✙➨
✆❡ì
♥ ❉
➬●í❭î
➶
➝✟➆✣Ö✾➧✹❊
✽Pï✂✽❲ð☞ñ✴✻
➆ ♥
➨✰➶◆✃
Ï❲✷✐❑✾❱
❫
◗➧Ï❪➝●æ
➶ Ø ➛
Phe TTT Ser TCT Try TAT Cys TGT Phe:
✿✚ò✏ó ✹❂ô✘õ ó✸✻ îSer:
ö✲÷ ✻TTC TCC TAC TGC Try:
ø❈ù✚ú ✻ îCys:
ú✫û✚❊☞ü ✻Leu TTA TCA Ter TAA Ter TGA Leu:
ù✝ü☞ú ✻ îTer:
ý✒þTTG TCG TAG Trp TGG Trp:
✼ ÷ ❋✲✼ÿ✿❂❁✝✻Leu CTT Pro CCT His CAT Arg CGT Pro:
❋ ù✟÷ ✻ îHis:
✥û✒ø ❄✵✻CTC CCC CAC CGC Arg:
ô✪✹✁
ó✸✻
CTA CCA Gln CAA CGA Gln:
✂✥✹☎✄✝✆ ✻CTG CCG CAG CGG
Ile ATT Thr ACT Asn AAT Ser AGT Ile:
ü✟✞✫ù✝ü☞ú ✻ îThr:
û ✺✡✠☞ó✸✻ATC ACC AAC AGC Asn:
ô✫û☞☛✟õ✁ ✻
ATA ACA Lys AAA Arg AGA Lys:
÷✔ú ✻Met ATG ACG AAG AGG Met:
✌✫ø ✠☞ó✾✻ î✎✍✑✏✓✒✕✔ ✻Val GTT Ala GCT Asp GAT Gly GGT Val:
✖❹÷ ✻ îAla:
ô✚õ ó✸✻GTC GCC GAC GGC Asp:
ô✫û☞☛✟õ✁
✻✘✗
î
Gly:
✂✟÷✔ú✻
GTA GCA Glu GAA GGA Glu:
✂✥✹☎✄✝✆ ✻✘✗GTG GCG GAG GGG
➙ ➏ ❽
Leu
➥❲➈✸á⑥➍➳❑PÏ♦❑CT
❑ ❼ ❢➍✓✙
➝✯➽✐❱
❼◆❸ ♥
Leu
➍❪➆ ➼ ➙✾Ø➔ ➹
TC
❑❼ ❢
➍✚✙
➝✯➽✐❱
❼
❸ ♥
Ser
➍✂➆ ➼ ➙❨Ø ➛ ✷ ❢ ➝ ✃➏ ◗ ♥
2
➀ ➨bp(
➯☎➲➒❰)
➶ ➘ ➮❹✇ ▼ ❱✜✛❵❞ é✯❢➏
(
♠P➔ ➨ ➘ ➮❹✇ ▼➔
◗❦➵✣✢
❢ ❸
➑➒➆❤◗✙➎
➏
)
✤✦✥⑥❱ ✃ ➎➏
✷✐❑✾➈✟❳✣✢P➂⑥➙✴Ø
➛☎é
❸✦✧✩★
➝✙✷
❢✫✪
❘✲➑☎➍
➔▲❸
➊➒✶⑥➝
✃ Ï
➘
➮❦✇
▼➪➈✟✬
➔
à◆Ø✮✭
➤
➬➄❑
➔❆❸
➹
◗➒➆
➼✫❬
↕✾➆✰✯✕✱✟✲●➈
❷ ➎ ❸
➑◆Ï◆✷➄❑▲➍❪➆
➼
➙✫Ø
➛ ✷
➨✓✳
➈☎✴
➔
Ö
❬✟❭
Ø✙Ï✶✵✙➍✙✷
➨P✭➒✮✟✯✼➨
➫
✈➧➶◆✃
Ï
➯➒➲✂❰
➍✹✸☎➑
❸✸✷
æ●❥
❸ Õ ↕✰➙
➔⑥➶❤➹
➛
3.1.1 A:T
✹✻✺✽✼✿✾G:C
✹✻✺❀✼➯➒➲
➝
é❂❁
➬
ATGC
❐✟➯➒➲
➝✶❃
➸
❑❅❄
➸
◗➟❘❆➆◆Ï✯❚❤❣
➭➒➨✶❆❈❇
➍ é
❘▲➍❈❉❋❊★❚●❣❍●❨➍
➵➒➸
➈✕■✐ß
➏
❚▲❘Ñ➆✶❏▲❑
➶ Ø ➛ ❃ ➸
❻✦❄
➸
◗❙❘✲➆➒Ï✂❚❹❣➪➈❆❶➡Ï
➏❤❿
➍✟➝
➹✹❐
❩
❑➡➝
sp
2
▼▲◆▲❖❋P➈♦❑✝Ï
➛▲◗
❱ ✃
➼
➙✴Ø
➛
❘❂❙❯❚❲❱❨❳❬❩❲❭
❪✽❫✽❴❛❵❝❜❡❞✽❢❯❣❂❤❯✐❍❜
❥❧❦✝♠✫♥ ❱❨♦❬❩❲❭q♣
rqs ❢
❙t❱❡✉✇✈❀❱
①❲② ❤❯✐❍❜❂③
C
Π
rqs
④✸⑤
SP 2
▼❈◆❋❖❈P ⑤ ❃✩⑥✐◗➟❘⑧⑦✣⑨✯❚❤❣✩⑩⑤
✥❋❶✰❷❋⑦✕❏❋❑➋❑▲❸☎❹✦✥❋❶✰❷❋⑦
♥ ⑤
❑▲❸☎❹▲❺q❻✓❼❽❻✟❾✰❿
➀❈➁❈➂
❻
(
❿➀❈➁❛➃
å➱⑩
⑤
➉❨➄
⑤ ♥ ⑤
)
❱✣➅❯➆⑧➇✸➈✕➉C
C
C C
C
C C
C
C C
C
C
C
C
C C
C
C C
C
C C
C
C
C
C
C C
C
C
C
C
C C
C
C
C
C
C C
C
C
C
C
C C
C
C
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π π
π
π
π
➊✮➋
④▲④✓➌
á✇➍❨❸✓➎❨➏
⑤✜➐
❿
➀❋➁▲➂
❻ ➌ ❿
➀❋➁❨➂
❻✚➑✓➒❂➓✟➔❡→✐ß✸❹✸➣↕↔✦➍✓➙✶➛
➐✸➜q➝⑧➞
➅❈⑨☎➟▲➠
➌
➡▲➢
⑦
2
➄⑤✶➤❋➥
➓☎➦❝➆⑧➇✸➈✕➧
C
C
C C
C
C
C C
C
C C
C
C C
C
C C
C
C C
C
C C
C
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
π
➨↕➩✽➫
➭ ➩✇➫
④☎➯➲➐
3
➄ ➞4
➄ ➞n
➄❲➍➵➳❛➸✕➺➻⑦❡➼✦➎✶➽➐ ❿
➀❈➁➾➃☎➚t➪ ➌
➈✕➉
④✸⑤
➙✸➛
⑤✶➶❛➹
➋
⑦❡➼✚❹✩➏❡⑨
⑤❨➐
π
➘▲❑❋➴▲➷❈➦✩➬➌✦➞
➑➻➮✎➴▲➷❈➦❈➬
➐✦➱❨✃➻⑤
❏▲❑
➌
➅✩⑨✟❐❈❒❋❏❋❑✮❮
➋➾❰
➜❍➝
➇✕➈✕➉
④⑧➯✩➐
DNA
⑤2
➺Ï✸Ð
➤❨➥
➓
➡❨➢❋Ñ
❸⑧❹❈➏✣⑨✓Ò➾➏✦Ó❋Ô❛⑨✸Õ❛Ö✣×✶Ø❡❻✦❿
3
➍✟Ù✩Ú
➯
⑨☎➴▲➷❈➦❈➬
➌
➈✕➉✰❿
➀❋➁➾➃⑧➚✫➪
➐✸Û➲Ü
➋✚Ý
➠➾➈❛⑨
④
➍✟Þ❯ß
❰
❏❽⑨❡à➾á
➋ Ò
④✸⑤
➴❋➷✩➦➲➬❛â✚ã✩ä
➋✜å
➏❨Ó❛æ
➌
â❈➅❯➆⑧➇✕ç➲è❨➉
(
❿➀❈➁❛➃✓➚t➪
⑤✶é✮ê
➋❨ë➾ì✦í✣î➲ï
➓☎ð❂➼✶❹
Ý
➈❯➍✚❿
➀❋➁➾➃☎➚t➪ ➐ Ý
➠❀❸✸➇✕➈✕➉❋➇▲➎✶ñ❋ò
⑤✚ó
â✣❿
➀❈➁➾➃⑧➚t➪
(
ô➵õ3 stacking:
öø÷úù✝ûýü
stacking chair:
öþ÷úù✝û➵ÿ✁✄✂✆☎✞✝➌
â✡✠☞☛q➇❋➎✩â✍✌➲ñ
)
⑤✡✎✩é➻ê
➓✦Þ➾➎☞✏➲➎
⑤❋➌
Ò✒✑
➯✣➌✔✓
➓✖✕❍⑨✰➍✸❿
➀✩➁❛➃✓➚❝➪
➐ ➐❋➯
❹ ✓
➋✘✗
➐✡✙
æ✩⑨✕Ó❛æ
➌
➈✕➉
DNA
⑤✘✚
➺
Ï✦Ð
➤❋➥
â
④✸⑤
Õ✮Ö✣×✶Ø➾❻✜❿✮➍✜✛❈⑥ é✣✢
➋
à✦➼✶❹
➡▲➢❈Ñ✥✤
➯ ❹
➏❡⑨▲➎✣✏
➋
Ò✦✑
➯★✧✪✩✞✫★✬
⑦
➤❋➥❛➌
â❋⑦❀↔ Ò
60
Þ❯ß80
✭C
➌✡✮✰✯☞✱
❸☎❹✳✲❨õ✰✴
➋✶✵
➠✇❸☎❹❂❸✸➇✜➏❡➇
➈✕➉✶✷☞✸✺✹
✵✺✻
â
④✕⑤
à❡á
➋✍✼✔✽
❷✿✾❲ßþÞ❈➏
➤▲➥
➓❁❀❂➼✓❹✣❂✽➆ Ò✰❃☞❄
➋
✮☞✯✺✱
❸⑧❹❽❸✕➇✸➏✣➇✕➈✕➉❆❅
❰
DNA
➐ ➍✟❹❰
✫★✬✦❇
➼✦➎❂ß❈✷✩➽➻â✘❉✰❊
✻
➓✿❋➾➸✦●✕➈
④ ➍ ➐
●✁❍✮⑦❨Þ❛➼✦➎
➌
❸✦■✜áý➉
④✸⑤✘✮
➡▲➢
✱ ➋
❏
➏❋❹✣â✕Ò✣❑
➌❆▲
❹✦➣
➝
➇✸➈✕➉☞▼❖◆
➋
A:T
P❘◗✰➍G
❙C
P❘◗ ⑤✶➤❋➥ ➓✁❚✇❸✸➇✸➈ ➐ Ò ✃ ➳➻❷➋
➏❛➼✕❹
❰
(
Õ❛Ö❡×✶Ø✣❻✦❿⑧➴▲➷❈➦❈➬➾â✃ ➍ ✃ ➍ ⑤
➴▲➷❈➦❈➬
➌
➈❈Þ❍ß
✃ ➳
➋✍✼✳❯
❸✕➇✸➈✕➉
)G
❙C
P✦◗⑤✘❱❡➐
➡✜➢
➌
➈✕➉
④✕⑤
➡❨➢
✱✮⑤✿❲
➏❡➓❳✷❈➽
➐✥✩☎⑤
à❡á
➋✘❨
➬q❸⑧❹❈➏✣⑨✸Þ
❰
❑✣❩✦❂❆❬✔❭✽❸✕➇✕➈✕➉
④❋④✓➌
❐❈❒
⑤
➴✣❪
✱ ➋ ❏
➏▲❹
▲
❹❈➏
➝
➇➾❸❖■✦á☞➉
④✕⑤
➴✣❪
✱✣➐
❉☞❊
✻
➍✜❸⑧❹
⑤
DNA
⑤ ➺✣❫✮⑦ ➜❂➝ Ò✩➈➲⑦✸Ó❘❴✘✲✜õ☞✴✣Þ ßDNA
➓✁❵✺❛➌✮➝❈④
➍ ⑤
➺✣❫✮⑦✶❒✣❜✽➍⑧⑦✣➼✓❹❈➏✣➇✕➈✕➉✰❝✔❞❂➓
✯✦❡✜➯
Ú✶Ò✦❐❈❒
➐✒❢
✵ ⑤
➴✺❣❂➓✖❤✺✐➲➈
⑨▲➎✣✏
⑤
❣☞❥
➐
➴☞❪
✱➾➌
➈✕➉
A:T
P❘◗î
â❆▼❖◆
⑤
à➾á⑧⑦
➤❋➥
➓➾❸☎❹✩➏❡➇✸➈✕➉
❦♠❧♦♥ ♣rq✿s
t✈✉①✇
♥
②④③⑥⑤①⑦
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
C
C
C
C
C
N
N
N
O
C C
C
C
N
N
N
N
C
H
O
2.80A
3.00A
11.1A
⑧⑩⑨❷❶
⑧❸⑨①❶
❹④❹✥❺❼❻❖❽❿❾
④✕⑤✚➤❨➥
Þ❍ß
④⑧➯
ß❳➀✩➎
❏ ⑤
❐❈❒✮â✶Ò✖➁☞✴
➋
é✣✢
❸✚➎✚⑩✣➂
➌
✛❈⑥ é✣✢
➋
à✜➼✚❹✺❂✕➷❛➏❡➓✖❤✺✐➲➈➾⑨
④ ➍
➐❈➌➻➝
⑨ ④ ➍ ➐ ✵
➆⑧➇✸➈✕➉✳➃
➋
G
➄C
P❘◗î ➓ ▲
❹✩➸❡➇❛❸★■▲á☞➉
H
N
10.8A
2.90A
2.90A
➅✿➆✿➇✍➈
➉➋➊✶➉➍➌ ➎➐➏
➑➍➒❖➓
➌➔➎➐→
H
H C
C
C
C
N
N
C C
C
C
N
N
N
N
C
O
3.00A
⑧⑩⑨❷❶
⑧❸⑨①❶
H
H
H
H
H
H
O
N
④❈④✚➌
❰
C:G
P❘◗î
â✘➁✰✴
➋ ❏ ⑦ ➐
➼✜➎✶⑩☞➂
➌
✛✩⑥ é☞✢
➋
à▲➼✕❹☞❂✸➷✮➏➾➓✿❤☞✐✣➈❛⑨
④ ➍
➐❈➌➻➝
⑨ ④
➍ ➐ ✵
➆☎➇✦➈✕➉✔➣✣↔
⑤✶↕➛➙✰✙
â
④✩④✶➌
❂q❸✦➇❨➏
➌ ➈ ➐ Ò
④✦⑤❘➜ î ➪ ➌
â✍➝✰➞ ➆✦❸✓❹
A
❙G
P➟◗ î ➍C
❙T
P★◗î
➓⑧➦➻➼☎❹
▲
➇➾❸✚➎✶➉
DNA
⑤
➁☞✴
⑤✘➠❘➡
➓✁➢✰➼✶➎✩➇❋➇
➌
P★◗
î
➓❁➤✺➥✣➦✣➥❈➦✽ß✎ç✩❹▲➸✣⑨❛➍
H
➸✥➸★➺⑩➻✦➼✥➽✪➾⑩➚⑩➪❘➶➘➹④➴
➷⑥➬
➼✥➽✪➾⑩➚⑩➪✒➮❸➱❘✃❒❐
❮✜❰✄ÏÑÐ❖ÒÔÓ
H
H
H
H
C
C
C
C
C
N
N
O
C
O
11.1A
Õ✖Ö✶×
C H
C
C
C
N
N
N
N
C
Õ✁Ö✍×
H
H
H
O
N
Ø✿Ø❁ÙÛÚ✡Ü✍ÝÛÞßÞ
à✍á✘â❖ã✞ä✡å✿æ
ÞçÞ
è❁é✶ê❆ë
ì✘íîíîï ð✘ñ✖ò
â Ý íôó✄õ✔ö
Ù✘÷❁ø✔ù
N
ú✿ûüú✜ý♦þ ÿ
:A
✁✄✂✆☎
H
H
N
C C
C
C
N
N
N
N
C
H
✁✝✂✞☎
H
C
C
N
O
H C
C
N
✁✄✂✆☎
H
H
✟
à❡á
➋✡✠
➆✟➇✕➈✕➉☞☛
➯❈➌
â✔❂✕➷❛➏
✟
✵✺✻
✟
✲✍✌
✟ ➶ ✻
➐✞✎✑✏
➓✓✒✝✔✕✒✕➇✦➏✸Ò❂á☎➇❂↔❈P★◗
î
➓⑧➦
➯ ✠
➏✖☛❡➍
➐
✵✘✗
➍✚✙❛➏❡➇✸➈✕➉✛☛
➯
➓✝✜✰✸✣✢✆✤
4
➍⑧➏❈➏❡➇✸➈✕➉
✥✧✦★✦✪✩
✫✧✬✮✭✰✯✱✭✳✲✡✴✝✵
✶✸✷✺✹✼✻✾✽✾✿❀✿
N
❁✄❂❃❁❅❄❇❆✪❈
N
❁✧❂❉❁✚❄❊❆❋❈
H
C
C
N
O
H C
C
N
●✝❍✞■
H
C
C
N
O
C H
C
N
●✄❍✆■
N
H
H
H
H
❏✄❑✆▲✧❏✧❑ ▼✄◆✡❖◗P❙❘✍❚❱❯◗❲✆❳✚❨✍❩❭❬
❚❱❯❃❪❫❩✼❴✧❵✺❛✍❜❅❝❞❬✺❡✺❢❤❣✆✐❥❘❞❦✍❧✧♠❫♥✾❩✼❵❥❩❭❬✧♦
H
♣✼q✆r❥s
H
t✾✉✾✈✍✇
①✚②④③◗⑤⑦⑥✪⑧
①✚②⑨③❭⑤⑩⑥❋⑧
C
11.1A
C H
C
C
C
N
N
N
N
C
❶✝❷✞❸
H
H
N
C C
C
C
N
N
N
N
C
H
❶✄❷✆❸
C
C H
C
C
C
N
N
N
N
C
❶✄❷✆❸
H N H
C C
C
C
N
N
N
N
C
H
H
H
H
O
N
H
H
H
O
N
☛ ➯ ß
✟✸❹
Þ❯ß
A:T,G:C
P❘◗î
▼✺❺
✟✆❻ ✢
ç⑩❼❆➤✣➥
✠
☛✓❽✎Ò✕✒✆❾✺❼✮➼✞✔✕☛
✟
P❘◗
î❱❿✆➀✘✗
➴☞❪✖➁
➤
➥ ❼
DNA
Ò➂✒✆❾✺❼❛➼✆✔✡❉✰❊✻ ✟
õ❫➃✰➄⑦➅
✗
☛✓❽✼❼✡➥❫➆✰➄
➝ ✗
❽❅✙☞➇✓➈✞➉✞➊❱➈✡❾✕Ò❆✛❫➋ é☞✢
✟
õ❱➌
✠
✩
Þ❍ß
G:C
P★◗ î ✟ ❱❼➻à☞➍
➡❨➢
➄⑩➅
✗
☛⑩❽
❰
➥✑➆⑦➄
➝ ✗
❽❅✙✓➇❫➈✞➉✞➊✺☛
➯
â✧➎➐➏ ✷❈➽
❿
❽✚➼✄✔
✩ è
✠✸➑✖➒
❼⑩➅
✗ ✟
➄✕✒❖■✜á✝Þ
?
➓ ❿ ✙➇❫❾✿↔❊➍ Ò⑩➔➻➮✶◗✰→
➜❞➣✛↔❱↕ î➛➙
➉ ✗ ❽ ➝ ➄ ❰
Ò❥➎❊➏◗➅
✗
❩✑➜
✟
❢❥➝
➜ ↔
❀❍➼✞✔
↕
➙✝➞
↔✝➟✣➠
☛✓❽✼❼❱➄✖➡✺➈❥➉✞➊✰☛
✟
❢❥➝
➜
↔➍✩
✟
à➾á
❿✆➢
➼❙❾❂ß❅➤☞➇
✟
➄✛✒★■▲áøÞ
?
4 steric-hindrance
3.1.2 Sanger
➥➧➦➧➨φx174
➩DNAsequence
➩➭➫➐➯☛❱☛
❿✸➲☞➳✍➵❱➸
❽✡✒✄✔
❏
æ❙✔⑦➅
✗❡❰
✟ ❼
1977
✟Nature
➺❿✆➻✑➼➘✤✧➽
❾
φx174
✟DNA
➾❫➚(se-
quence)
➄✡➉✞➊(F.Sanger et.al. N atureV ol.263 pp687-698)
▼➛◆☞☛ ✟✸➪✡➶ ↔➵✑➸
❽✺✒✝✔
➢✘➹
✔✺❂❆❬
↔
➘
✏✡✔✍➴➷➡✺➈☞✒★■✡➬④➊
5
GAGTTTTATC GCTTCCATGA CGCAGAAGTT AACACTTTCG GATATTTCTG ATGAGTCGAA\\
1 10 20 30 40 50 60
AAATTATCTT GATAAAGCAG GAATTACTAC TGCTTGTTTA CGAATTAAAT CGAAGTGGAC\\
70 80 90 100 110 120
TGCTGGCGGA AAATGAGAAA ATTCGACCTA TCCTTGCGCA GCTCGAGAAG CTCTTACTTT\\
130 140 150 160 170 180
GCGACCTTTC GCCATCAACT AACGATTCTG TCAAAAACTG ACGCGTTGGA TGAGGAGAAG\\
190 200 210 220 230 240
TGGCTTAATA TGCTTGGCAC GTTCGTCAAG GACTGGTTTA GATATGAGTC ACATTTTGTT\\
250 260 270 280 290 300
CATGGTAGAG ATTCTCTTGT TGACATTTTA AAAGAGCGTG GATTACATAG TGAGTCCGAT\\
310 320 330 340 350 360
GCTGTTCAAC CACTAATAGG TAAGAAATGA TGAGTCAAGT TACTGAACAA TCCGTACGTT\\
370 380 390 400 410 420
TCCAGACCGC TTAGGCCTCG ATTAAGCTCA TTCAGGCTTC TGCCGTTTTG GATTTAACCG\\
430 440 450 460 470 480
AAGATGATTT CGATTTTCTG ACGAGTAACA AAGTTTGGAT TGCTACTGAC CGCTCTCGTG\\
490 500 510 520 530 540
CTCGTCGCTG CGTTGAGGCT TGCGTTTATG GTACGCTGGA CTTTGTAGGA TACCCTCGCT\\
550 560 570 580 590 600
TTCCTGCTCC TGTTGAGTTT ATTGCTGCCG TCATTGCTTA TTATGTTCAT CCCGTCAACA\\
610 620 630 640 650 660
TTCAAACGGC CTGTCTCATC ATGGAAGGCG CTGAATTTAC GGAAAACATT ATTAATGGCG\\
670 680 690 700 710 720
TCGAGCGTCC GGTTAAAGCC GCTGAATTGT TCGCGTTTAC CTTGCGTGTA CGCGCAGGAA\\
730 740 750 760 770 780
ACACTGACGT TCTTACTGAC GCAGAAGAAA ACGTGCGTCA AAAATTACGT GCGGAAGGAG\\
790 800 810 820 830 840
TGATGTAATG TCTAAAGGTA AAAAACGTTC TGGCGCTCGC CCTGGTCGTC CGCAGCCGTT\\
850 860 870 880 890 900
GCGAGGTACT AAAGGCAAGC GTAAAGGCGC TCGTCTTTGG TATGTAGGTG GTCAACAATT\\
910 920 930 940 950 960
TTAATTGCAG GGGCTTCGGC CCCTTACTTG AGGATAAATT ATGTCTAATA TTGAAACTGG\\
970 980 990 1000 1010 1020
CGCCGAGCGT ATGCCGCATG ACCTTTCCCA TCTTGGCTTC CTTGCTGGTC AGATTGGTCG\\
1030 1040 1050 1060 1070 1080
TCTTATTACC ATTTCAACTA CTCCGGTTAT CGCTGGCGAC TCCTTCGAGA TGGACGCCGT\\
1090 1100 1110 1120 1130 1140
TGGCGCTCTC CGTCTTTCTC CATTGCGTCG TGGCCTTGCT ATTGACTCTA CTGTAGTCAT\\
1150 1160 1170 1180 1190 1200
TTTTACTTTT TATGTCCCTC ATCGTCACGT TTATGGTGAA CAGTGGATTA AGTTCATGAA\\
1210 1220 1230 1240 1250 1260
GGATGGTGTT AATGCCACTC CTCTCCCGAC TGTTAACCAA ACTACTGGTT ATATTGACCA\\
1270 1280 1290 1300 1310 1320
TGCCGCTTTT CTTGGCACGA TTAACCCTGA TACCAATAAA ATCCCTAAGC ATTTGTTTCA\\
1330 1340 1350 1360 1370 1380
GGGTTATTTG ATATCTATAG CGTATTTTAA AGCGCCGTGG ---ATGCCTG ACCGTACCGA\\
1390 1400 1410 1420 1430 1440
GGCTAACCCT AATGAGCTTA ATCAAGATGA TGCTCGTTAT CGTTTCCGTT GCTGCCATCT\\
1450 1460 1470 1480 1490 1500
CAAAAACATT TGCACTGCTC CGCTTCCTCC TGAGACTGAG CTTTCTCGCC AAATGACGAC\\
1510 1520 1530 1540 1550 1560
TTCTACCACA TCTATTGACA TTATGGGTCT GCAAGCTGCT TATGCTAATT TGCATACTGA\\
1570 1580 1590 1600 1610 1620
CCAAGAACGT GATTACTTCA TGCAGCGTTA CCATGA-CTT ATTTCTTCAT TTGGAGCTAA\\
1630 1640 1650 1660 1670 1680
AACCTCATAT GACGCTGACA ACCGTCCTTT ACTTGTCATG CGCTCTAATC TCTGGGCATC\\
1690 1700 1710 1720 1730 1740
TGGCTATGAT GTTGATGGAA CTGACCAAAC GTCGAATGGC CAGTTTTCTG GTCGTGTTCA\\
1750 1760 1770 1780 1790 1800
5 Sanger
➮
1958
➱❞✃✾❐❮❒❅❰✼ÏÐ❐ÒÑ❅Ó✾Ô❮Õ❃ÖØ×ÚÙ✼ÑÜÛÚÝ◗Þ❞Õ⑨ßÐàØá⑨â✄ãåäØâ✞æ❃ç❅è❭éÜê✆ë⑨ì✾íÒÑφx174
ÑDNA
×ÚÙ❞Ñ❤Û Ý✝îÒï✞æÜç1980
➱✝î❭Õ④ß❮àÚáØâ✧ãÜäÚâ❥æÜç✚è✾é❤ê✄í❮Ñ❤ð❅ñ✝ÑÒò❅ó✼î✾ôÚõÐç⑨ö❞÷Øç✼ø◗❐❃ù✝úÜû✾ü✚ý✞Ïÿþ✁✄✂✆☎(
Ó✾Ô④ÕåÖ✾ü1
✝✟✞✡✠
î☞☛✍✌❥æÐì✡✎❮Ñ
)
Þ✟✏❭é❭í✟✑❃ü✄✒✔✓✖✕❭ì❮êACAGACCTAT AAACATTCTC TGCCGCGTTT CTTTGTTCCT GAGCATGGCA CTATGTTTAC\\
1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860
TCTTGCGCTG GTTCGTTTTC CGCCTACTGC GACTAAAGAG ATTCATGACC TTAACGCTAA\\
1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920
AGCTGCTTTG ACTTATACCG ATATTGCTGC CGACCCTGTT TTGTATGGCA ACTTGCCGCC\\
1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980
GCGTGAAATT TCTATGAAGG ATGTTTTCCG TTCTGGTGAT TCGTCTAAGA AGTTTAAGAT\\
1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040
TGCTGAGGGT CAGTGGTATC GTTATGCGCC TTCGTATGTT TCTCCTGCTT ATCACCTTCT\\
2050 2060 2070 2080 2090 2100
TGAAGGCTTC CCATTCATTC AGGAACCGCC TTCTGGTGAT TTGCAAGAAC GCGTACTTAT\\
2110 2120 2130 2140 2150 2160
TCGCAACCAT GATTATGACC AGTGTTTCAG TCGTTCAGTT GTTGCAGTGG ATAGTCTTAC\\
2170 2180 2190 2200 2210 2220
CTCATGTGAC GTTTATCGCA ATCTGCCGAC CACTCGCGAT TCAATCATGA CTTCGTGATA\\
2230 2240 2250 2260 2270 2280
AAAGATTGAC TGTGAGGTTA TAACCGAAGC GGTAAAAATT TTAATTTTTG CCGCTGAGGG\\
2290 2300 2310 2320 2330 2340
GTTGACCAAG CGAAGCGCGG TAGGTTTTCT GCTTAGGAGT TTAATCATGT TTCAGACTTT\\
2350 2360 2370 2380 2390 2400
TATTTCTCGC CACAATTCAA ACTTTTTTTC TGATAAGCTG GTTCTCACTT CTGTTACTCC\\
2410 2420 2430 2440 2450 2460
AGCTTCTTCG GCACCTGTTT TACAGACACC TAAAGCTACA TCGTCAACGT TATATTTTGA\\
2470 2480 2490 2500 2510 2520
TAGTTTGACG GTTAATGCTG GTAATGGTGG TTTTCTTCAT TGCATTCAGA TGGATACATC\\
2530 2540 2550 2560 2570 2580
TGTCAACGCC GCTAATCAGG TTGTTTCAGT TGCTGCTGAT ATTGCTTTTG ATGCCGACCC\\
2590 2600 2610 2620 2630 2640
TAAATTTTTT GCCTGTTTGG TTCGCTTTGA GTCTTCTTCG GTTCCGACTA CCCTCCGGAC\\
2650 2660 2670 2680 2690 2700
TGCCTATGAT GTTTATCCTT TGGATGGTCG CCATGATGGT GGTTATTATA CCGTCAAGGA\\
2710 2720 2730 2740 2750 2760
CTGTCTGACT ATTGACGTCC TTCCCCGTAC GCCCGGCAAT AACGTGTACG TTGGTTTCAT\\
2770 2780 2790 2800 2810 2820
GGTTTGGTCT AACTTTACCG CTACTAAATG CCGCGGATTC GTTTCGCTGA ATCAGGTTAT\\
2830 2840 2850 2860 2870 2880
TAAAGAGATT ATTTGTCTCC AGCCACTTAA GTGAGGTGAT TTATGTTTGG TGCTATTGCT\\
2890 2900 2910 2920 2930 2940
GGCGGTATTG CTTCTGCTCT TGCTGGTGGC GCCATGTCTA AATTGTTTGG AGGGGGTCAA\\
2950 2960 2970 2980 2990 3000
AAAGCCGCCT CCGGTGGCAT TCAAGGTGAT GTGCTTGCTA CCGATAACAA TACTGTAGGC\\
3010 3020 3030 3040 3050 3060
ATGGGTGATG CTGGTATTAA ATCTGCCATT CAAGGCTCTA ATGTTCCTAA CCCTGATGAG\\
3070 3080 3090 3100 3110 3120
GCCGCCCCTA GTTTTGTTTC GTGTGCTATT GCTAAAGCTG GTAAAGGACT TCTTGAAGGT\\
3130 3140 3150 3160 3170 3180
ACGTTGCAGG CTGGCACTTC TGCCGTTTCT GATAAGTTGC TTGATTTGGT TGGACTTGGT\\
3190 3200 3210 3220 3230 3240
GGCAAGTCTG CCGCTGATAA AGGAAAGGAT ACTCGTGATT ATCTTGCTGC TGCATTTCCT\\
3250 3260 3270 3280 3290 3300
GAGCTTAATG CTTGGGAGGG TGCTGGTGCT GATGCTTCCT CTGCTGGTAT GGTTGACGCC\\
3310 3320 3330 3340 3350 3360
CGATTTGAGA ATCAAAAAGA GCTTACTAAA ATGCAACTGG ACAATCAGAA AGAGATTGCC\\
3370 3380 3390 3400 3410 3420
GAGATGCAAA ATGACACTCA AAAAGAGATT GCTGGCATTC AGTCGGCGAC TTCACGCCAG\\
3430 3440 3450 3460 3470 3480
AATACGAAAG ACCAGGTATA TGCACAAAAT GAGATGCTTG CTTATTC-AC AGAAGGAGTC\\
3490 3500 3510 3520 3530 3540
TACTGCTGCG TTGCGTCTAT TATGGAAAAC ACCAATCTTT CCAAGCAACA GCAGGTTTCC\\
3550 3560 3570 3580 3590 3600
GAGATTATGC GCCAAATGCT TACTCAAGCT CAAACGGCTG GTCAGTATTT TACCAATGAC\\
3610 3620 3630 3640 3650 3660
CAAATCAAAG AAATGACTCG CAAGGTTAGT GCTGAGGTTG ACTTAGTTCA TCAGCAAACG\\
3670 3680 3690 3700 3710 3720
CAGAATCAGC GGTATGGCTC TTCTCATATT GGCGCTACTG CAAAGGATAT TTCTAATGTC\\
3730 3740 3750 3760 3770 3780
GTCACTGATG CTGCTTCTGG TGTGGTTGAT ATTTTTCATG GTATTGATAA AGCTGTTGCC\\
3790 3800 3810 3820 3830 3840
GATACTTGGA ACAATTTCTG GAAAGACGGT AAAGCTGATG GTATTGGGTC TAATTTGTCT\\
3850 3860 3870 3880 3890 3900
AGGAAATAAC CGTCAGGATT GACACCCTCC CAATTGTATG TTTTCATGCC TCCAAATCTT\\
3910 3920 3930 3940 3950 3960
GGAGGCTTTT TTATGGTTCG TTCTTATTAC CCTTCTGAAT GTCACGCTGA TTATTTTGAC\\
3970 3980 3990 4000 4010 4020
TTTGAGCGTA TCGAGGCTCT TAAACCTGCT ATTGAGGCTT GTGGCATTTC TACTCTTTCT\\
4030 4040 4050 4060 4070 4080
CAATCCCCAA TGCTTGGCTT CCATAAGCAG ATGGATAACC GCATCAAGCT CTTGGAAGAG\\
4090 4100 4110 4120 4130 4140
ATTCTGTCTT TTCGTATGCA GGGCGTTGAG TTCGATAATG GTGATATGTA TGTTGACGGC\\
4150 4160 4170 4180 4190 4200
CATAAGGCTG CTTCTGACGT TCGTGATGAG TTTGTATCTG TTACTGAGAA GTTAATGGAT\\
4210 4220 4230 4240 4250 4260
GAATTGGCAC AATGCTACAA TGTGCTCCCC CAACTTGATA TTAATAACAC TATAGACCAC\\
4270 4280 4290 4300 4310 4320
CGCCCCGAAG GGGACGAAAA ATGGTTTTTA GAGAACGAGA AGACGGTTAC GCAGTTTTGC\\
4330 4340 4350 4360 4370 4380
AAGCTGGCTG CTGAACGCCC TCTTAAGGAT ATTCGCGATG AGTATAATTA CCCCAAAAAG\\
4390 4400 4410 4420 4430 4440
AAAGGTATTA AGGATGAGTG TTCAAGATTG CTGGAGGCCT CCACTAACAT ATCGCGTAGA\\
4450 4460 4470 4480 4490 4500
GGCTTTGCTA TTCAGCGTTT GATGAATGCA ATGCGACAGG CTCATGCTGA TGGTTGGTTT\\
4510 4520 4530 4540 4550 4560
ATCGTTTTTG ACACTCTCAC GTTGGCTGAC GACCGATTAG AGGCGTTTTA TGATAATCCC\\
4570 4580 4590 4600 4610 4620
AATGCTTTGC GTGACTATTT TCGTGATATT GGTCGTATGC TTCTTGCTGC CGAGGGTCGC\\
4630 4640 4650 4660 4670 4680
AAGGCTAATG ATTCACACGC CGACTGCTAT CAGTATTTTT GTCTGCCTGA GTATCGTACA\\
4690 4700 4710 4720 4730 4740
GCTAATGGCC GTCTTCATTT CCATGCGGTG CACTTTATGC GGACACTTCC TACAGGTAGC\\
4750 4760 4770 4780 4790 4800
GTTGACCCTA ATTTTGCTCG TCGGGTACGC AATCGCCGCC AGTTAAATAG CTTGCAAAAT\\
4810 4820 4830 4840 4850 4860
ACGTGGCCTT ATGGTTACAG TATGCCCATC GCAGTTCGCT ACACGCAGGA CGCTTTTTCA\\
4870 4880 4890 4900 4910 4920
CGTTCTGCTT GGTTGTGGCC TGTTGATGCT AAAGGTGAGC CGCTTAAAGC TACCAGTTAT\\
4930 4940 4950 4960 4970 4980
ATGGCTGTTG GTTTCTATGT GGCTAAATAC GTTAACAAAA AGTCAGATAT GGACCTTGCT\\
4990 5000 5010 5020 5030 5040
GCTAAAGGTC TAGGAGCTAA AGAATGGAAC AACTCACTAA AAACCAAGCT GTCGCTACTT\\
5050 5060 5070 5080 5090 5100
GCCAAGAAGC TGTTCAGAAT CAGAATGAGC CGCAACTTCG GGATGAAAAT GCTCACAATG\\
5110 5120 5130 5140 5150 5160
ACAAATCTGT CCACGGAGTG CTTAATCCAA CTTACCAAGC TGGGTTACGA CGCGACGCCG\\
5170 5180 5190 5200 5210 5220
TTCAACCAGA TATTGAAGCA GAACGCAAAA AGAGAGATGA GATTGAGGCT GCGAAAAGTT\\
5230 5240 5250 5260 5270 5280
ACTGTAGCCG ACGTTTTGGC GGCGCAACCT GTGACGACAA ATCTGCTCAA ATTTATGCGC\\
5290 5300 5310 5320 5330 5340
GCTTCGATAA AAATGATTGG CGTATCCAAC CTGCA\\
5350 5360 5370
☛
✟✔✗✙✘✛✚
➽ ❾
DNA
➾❫➚✢✜✤✣✆✥✟✧✦
➬ ❿
✒✄✔✩★✫✪✆✬
↔✮✭
✒✩✯☞✒✆❾✰✣
✦ ➇ ✟
➄✛✒✢✱✡➬✁✜
?
➈✡❾✳✲✫✴✶✵✷✹✸
✥
✟✢✦
➬ ❿
✒✼✔✺★✙✪✻✬
↔✽✼✿✾❁❀
✯✰✒✼✔
➢✘➹
✔❱➇
✗ ✟
➄✕✒✿✱❙➬❂✜
?
☛✡☛✧➄✫❃✳❄➛❽✠⑩✗
✟
❼✺★✆✪✻✬
✟
❅❇❆
↔✮❈
➉ ↕
➙✝➞
❼
ATG
❽✝➇➷➬✔❉✺❊✙❋✫●➞
(methionine:Met
❽✽❍❇■ ✚➽✣✗
)
❏✣→❇❑ ➣✮↔✮▲ ✒ ❈ ➉ ↕➙✼➞
➄❫➅
✗
☛⑦❽❞➄✺➉❥➊✖✒✧❾❙❼
➹
✔✖☛
➽ ↔
★✆✪✻✬
✟
❅▼❆
❽✺✒✸❾❖◆✙P
❿✆✸✔◗✩❘
➌ ✟
★✆✪✻✬
✟ ❆
➈✘➍✚❼⑩➅
✗
☛⑦❽
❿❚❙⑦➹
✔✕✒✞➈✍➇⑦➈✞➉✞➊✮❯✢❱
φx174
❿✆✸
➌✆❲✙❳
(
❨ ✟➼✖❿
✦
➽❁❩
42
❳)
❬❭❉✔❊✆❋✆●➞ ❼
➢❭❪✡➽✫❫
➇
➈✞➉✙✜❴✣❛❵✆❜✓➄✡➉✞➊❁❝✮✜❡❞✧❢✡❣❇❤
➞▼✐✆❥✹❦
❣❇❧
(reading frame)
↔ ❜✢♠❫❾❖◆✙P❿✆✸
✚ ✣
❿❖❘♦♥
❬
ATG
❼✩♣
➽
➈❥➉❁❬✺➄
✚ ✣ ❿
❵✙❜✰➄✑➉✞➊
reading frame
↔✮q ➆✓➉✧r✡❾✆s❿▼t
❨❭❬
DNA
➾❫➚↔✉✼
❫✶♥✁✈
✚ ➇
|ATG|ATT|GTT|CTT|AAT|GGT|
Met Asn Val Leu Asn Gly
✇✙①✓➉✧r✆❏✣→❇❑➣
② ➽
❼✩③✫④
❙
reading frame
✈
❽✻❝❥➈✧❝✢✱✡➬④➊✧⑤
➽
↔✳⑥❭✾
✈
❀✳⑦
❿✫⑧❭❥⑩⑨✄❶
r❡❷
A|TGA|TTG|TTC|TTA|ATG|GT
Ter Leu Phe Leu Met
✇✙①❶
r✆❏✹❸❇❑✽❹
② ❬ ✦
➬✮❺
❙✤❻✽❼✔❶✩❽
②✆②❖❾
Ter
✸
❏✧❸▼❑✁❹✹❺✳✇✆①❿❝
❫✆➀✙❙✻➀✺➁✻➂✰➃✤➄✽➅
❾ ❶
✜✛✣
② ❬