Theological Perspectives

(a) The Nitrogen Cycle. Nitrogen (N) is an important element for life. All enzymes and proteins are composed of nitrogen. Furthermore, nitrogen is an important component of DNA. Although nitrogen is quite abundant in the atmosphere as N2, it is not available to life owing to the strength of the N-N bonds.

Only particular bacteria can make this nitrogen available for others. This pathway of nitrogen is known as the nitrogen cycle.

(b) The Hydrologic Cycle. Water is also a very important inorganic compound that all life needs. The presence of water is one of the first requirements for life.

Water is continuously circulating from the atmosphere to the earth as rain, into plants and animals and then comes out from them. On the land, water either evaporates thus moving back to the air or is carried to the oceans where it eventually evaporates. This complex cycle of water is known as the hydrologic cycle.

(c) The Carbon Cycle. Carbon is an important inorganic molecule in life as all life is based on it. Carbon occurs inorganically in the air and water as dissolved CO2

and on the earth in the form of certain rocks (e.g. limestone as calcium carbonate). In organisms, it exists as organic molecules. Carbon is removed from the air by plants when they fix carbon dioxide into organic molecules such as glucose (through photosynthesis). Animals then eat the plants and thus accept carbon into their own bodies. Later, the decomposition process of plants and animals releases the carbon to the environment.

2.2. Relationship between Nature and Human Beings: Theological and

harmony between human beings and nature. From the structural point of view, some religions, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, and Taoism, also affirm the harmony between nature and the integrity of human beings.

(a) Vedic Religious Response

Most religions from the east such as Vedism, Jainism, Buddhism, and Taoism show that nature includes not only all forms of life but also animate, inanimate, and invisible objects. Before 1500 BC, for the first time ever, the relationship between humanity and nature was deeply pronounced in Vedic scriptures, particularly in the Rig-Veda. I will discuss this issue in the forthcoming chapter to explain the earliest version of the biocentric view of nature. Vedic texts uphold the view of Madhu Vidya, which suggests interdependence between humanity and nature. There is another concept in this regard, Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam, which sees the world as one family. Both these ideas beautifully refer to the relationship between human beings and nature. In the Bhagavad-Gita, this very relationship has been represented in an idealistic manner, established through the intermingling of Rta⁴³ (a cosmic reality), the concept of eka⁴⁴ (one), idam⁴⁵ (this) and Atman-Brahma (self-Being)⁴⁶. Here idam is a very important notion, indicating the meeting point between humanity and nature, consciousness and the world, Atman and Brahman.

The humanity-nature unity, for Vedic metaphysicians, means the unity of being (Brahman). In Vedic theology, this fundamental truth means: “Being is God, the Light of all lights, the acoustically mind-elevating symbol of all symbols "Aum"”.

Therefore, we understand that the concept Brahman does not allow any possibility of duality, plurality, chaos, or disorder. The idea of Brahman conveys transcendental cosmo-centric order. On the other hand, its counterpart Atman suggests anthropocentric unity. Therefore, it can be claimed that Vedic metaphysics do not create any separation between [humanity] man (Atman)⁴⁷ and nature (Brahman)⁴⁸.

43 Rta is cosmic reality by which we get human and worldly experience. The Hindu terminology Rta describes it as the 'logic' of the entire history of metaphysics.

44 Eka is one, that is, the unity of diversity.

45 Idam is used in this literature as a holistic process.

46Sinari, Ramakant, 2000. “Introduction” in Katerina Wolf, Man-Nature Union in Hindu Metaphysics, New Delhi: Deep and Deep Publishers.

Web: http://www.here-now4u.de/eng/introduction__man-nature_union.htm, accessed on 20 March 2012.

47 The term Atman is an exploration of human consciousness.

The central pre-suggestion of this cosmology is based on the idea of the dynamical system. This term — dynamical system — refers to an order, force, or energy. It also guides everything that takes place in this world. The causes of human suffering lie in the fact that human beings are not aware of the unity between human beings and nature and, for that reason, they feel somehow uprooted and ever lonely in this world.

So, human beings must become aware of the principles of atman and brahman as well as of the place and task in the world. In this scriptural viewpoint, human beings are instructed to maintain harmony with nature by showing their reverence for the presence of divinity in nature.⁴⁹

The metaphysics found in the Bhagavad-Gita are a persuasive and frank dialogue between Krishna⁵⁰ and Arjuna⁵¹. The terms ― worldly jiva (atman)⁵² and the eternal spirit (Brahma)⁵³ ― are presented very graphically through this scripture which proved that the entire cosmic entity as the body of God has become the ultimate ideal of human life, forming a union with Him. Thus, the Vedic cosmic view found in the Gita explores the idea of the relationship between human beings and nature.

(b) Buddhist and Taoist Responses

Buddhism as a religion upholds the view of living with nature and deals with life following the norms of nature. Like the Vedic religion, it also affirms the coexistence of nature and human beings as the relationship between them exists in the different parts of the organic body. Interestingly, the place of human beings in Buddhism is not that of the master of nature. There are certain specific virtues in Buddhism, which can be enumerated as follows: ahimsā (non-violence), cāga (generosity), pannā (insight), arāga (simple living), etc. In the context of the environment, ahimsā is important as it suggests showing respect for all patterns of life. Ahimsā is certainly the basis of the biocentric attitude towards nature in which nature and humanity have equal place. It implies a sense of the interconnectivity between humanity and nature.

48 The term nature is reflected in the Gita as the idea of the cosmos. Sometimes, the term Brahman is used.

49 Sinari, Ramakant, 2000.

50 In Gita, the term Krishna is meant as an Absolute incarnate

51 The term Arjuna means as a man-in-the-world.

52 Human being is represented in the Gita as the empirical.

53In the Gita, Brahman is explained as the cosmic entity which is also transcendental.

The rigorous consequences of environmental crisis that we are already facing are shown as interlinked.

The Pratītyasamutpāda (dependent origination) of Buddhism implies that the existences of all patterns of life are interdependent. Every type of component in nature has an intrinsic value of its own. Having an intrinsic value refers to their dignity also as being of equal value. But the values individually cannot survive without having the values of others as all things are interconnected with each other.

On this planet, our lives, all the small microbes, and living beings are interconnected with one another in a wide spectrum. The Buddhist principle of Pratītyasamutpāda also affirms the view that all things experience the same natural processes comprising the same contents. In Buddhism, the world is taken as an “existential boat”. Here, compassion is the common feeling of human beings towards all forms of life. In the Karaniya Metta Sutta, GautamBuddha says:

“May everything that lives be well!

Weak or strong, large or small, seen or unseen, here or elsewhere, present or to come, in heights or depths, may all be well!

Have that mind for all the world, get rid of lies and pride,

a mother's mind for her baby, her love, but now unbounded.”⁵⁴

Buddha emphasizes caring for the components of nature in the verses of the Karaniya Metta Sutta. We should show love for all things in the way that it happens between a mother and her baby. This means that connectivity among the natural components does not depend on an artificial relationship; rather, it depends on love and dignity.

In Taoism, the relationship between human beings and nature is stated with great emphasis. Taoism⁵⁵ refers to four principles of environmental thought. They are as

54 Buddha, Karaniya Metta Sutta

55 Taoism is based on the philosophy of Lao-tzu, a philosopher from China. For more details, see:

Lao-tzu, Tao Te Ching, (English translation by S. Mitchell), Project Gutenberg, Gutenberg.org 2007. Retrieved 13 September 2012.

follows: (i) “follow the earth”, (ii) “harmony with nature”, (iii) “too much success”, and (iv) “affluence in biodiversity”.

Within the first principleof Taoism, it is stated that humanity, earth, heaven and Dao are commonly interrelated. It explores in Tao Te Ching:

“Humanity follows the Earth, the Earth follows Heaven, Heaven follows the Dao, and the Dao follows what is natural.”

Tao’s second principle is connected with the concept of Yin and Yang. These concepts are opposite to each other and their opposing forces are constantly struggling. These two opposite forces compose together the notion of Taoism. Tao is a way; it is a kind of harmony from where the energy of life emerges. If people can understand Tao, they will never exploit nature. This has been well explained in the second poem of the book:

“Therefore having and not having arise together.

Difficult and easy complement each other.

Long and short contrast with each other;

High and low rest upon each other;

Voice and sound harmonize each other;

Front and back follow one another.”⁵⁶

The third principle in Taoism suggests the idea of maintaining the balancing of nature, which human beings should do to protect nature from the over-exploitation of natural resources. The last principle —“affluence in biodiversity”— connotes that all species in the environment have the same value. If we help them to grow properly, the environmental community will be an affluent one. This is the oldest version of the nature conservation view.

Through these four basic principles, the Taoist school of thought assumes the relationship between humanity and nature. Nature and humanity have a harmonious relationship with each other, and humanity is an integral part of the whole. Without keeping harmony with nature, human beings will not be able to survive on the planet.

Taoism has two ethical implications: it prescribes that: (i) we should follow the law of nature and not “go against the Tao” and (ii) we should act naturally and thus not

56Lao-tzu, Tao Te Ching.

harm nature. The term nature has a significant meaning in Taoist philosophy.⁵⁷ In Taoism, the term nature means: “to be spontaneous, to be genuine, not to be artificial.”⁵⁸ According to the Tao Te Ching, the relationship between humanity and nature could be formalized within the formula⁵⁹: (i) “letting things be in their natural way” (renwu ziran), (ii) “letting things follow their natural phases” (yinying wuxing), and (iii) “the Heavenly Way is non-interference” (tiandao ziran wuwei). Therefore, it can be said that Taoism maintains a harmonious relationship between humanity and nature. This relationship can help us to maintain biodiversity as well as to protect species and plants that are disappearing from the world.

(c) Judaic and Christian Responses

Human beings and nature are separated in Judaism and Christianity. Critics like Lynn White, Jr.⁶⁰, John Macmurray⁶¹, Yi-Fu Tuan⁶², and Jeanne Key⁶³ emphasize that Genesis 1:26-28 in the holy Bible has affirmed the truth that gave human beings the rights to dominate over the various categories of animals and natural beings. Human beings are further instructed to “fill the earth and subdue it”.⁶⁴ They also claim that Christianity is the only cause of the destruction of the effective relationship between human beings and nature.

Dualism, as a philosophical paradigm, was practiced in religion, especially in Christianity. In this regard, in his Essex Hall lecture in 1944, John Macmurray argued that “… religion, and specifically Christianity, was infected with a dualism that could

57 For this information, I am grateful to this article:

Xia, Chen, Daoism and Environment Protection, Institute of Religious Studies, Sichuan University,

URL: http://www.crvp.org/conf/Istanbul/abstracts/CHEN%20XIA.htm, (accessed June 2012).

58 Xia, Chen.

59 Once again, my gratitude to the author for being able to quote these four principles from Daoism and Environment Protection.

60 White, Jr., Lynn, 1967. “The Historic Roots of our Ecological Crisis”, Science, 155 (10 March) pp. 1203-1207.

61 Macmurray, John, (1965). Search for Reality in Religion. London: George Allen & Unwin.

62 Tuan, Yi-Fu, 1984. Dominance and Affection: The Making of Pets, New Haven: CT: Yale University.

63 Key, Jeanne, 1985. “Preconditions of Natural Resource Conservation”, Agricultural History, 59: pp. 124-135.

64 Genesis, 1:26, 28.

destroy its effectiveness in meeting the central challenges of our time …”⁶⁵ In the book of Genesis, we notice this type of dualism. It influences contemporary western science in such a way that we also find here the dualism of human beings and nature.

These verses have also influenced the thoughts of civilized people in western society, who are consistently treating nature as God’s creation made for human consumption.

Lynn White, Jr.⁶⁶ has focused upon those verses which typify the western religious approach to nature in the same manner. He maintains that, according to western Christianity, the world solely existed for man's benefit. He blames western society, which is a product of westernized Christianity, for inheriting an exploitative attitude to the natural world which is the key to the ecological crisis at present and in future. In White's words, “Christianity bears a huge burden of guilt”.⁶⁷ To borrow the incisive and elegant expression of Loren Eiseley: Christianity “took God out of nature and elevated man above nature.”Like Lynn White, Jr., Eisely also holds that Christianity has an anthropocentric worldview, which holds human beings to be of great importance. Both of them come to this conclusion on the basis of the Biblical passage, Genesis 1:26-28.⁶⁸

In the 1:26-28 texts in Genesis, we see that God instructs Adam and Eve to subdue the earth. Biblical scriptures give human beings superiority over the rest of creation. This notion of Christianity has separated both humanity and God from the earth. Peter Singer agrees with Lynn White, Jr. that both the Old Testament and New Testament lack proper consideration of animals’ interests. Singer continues that, according to Judeo-Christianity, as they are given a superior place in the world, human beings can kill animals.

65 Berry, Thomas, 1989. Creative Energy: Bearing Witness for the Earth, San Francisco:

Sierra Club Books, p. 61.

66 White, Jr., Lynn, 1967, p. 1205.

67 White, Jr., 1967, p. 1205.

68 1:26 “So God created man in his own image, in the image of God created he him;

male and female created he them.”

1:28 “And God blessed them, and God said upon them, be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth, and subdue it, and have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over every living thing that moveth upon the earth.”

2.2.2 Relationship between Human Beings and Nature: Philosophical