2.2 The Self-Determination Theory of Human Motivation
2.2.7 Self-Determined Motivation in Foreign Language Learning
through interweaving positive organizational and affective variables associated with school instruction that teachers promote students’ positive feelings for their school subjects, even when intrinsic task motivation may fail (Brophy, 2004, p. 11). Further, the applied educational-motivational theory of motivation to learn (Brophy, 2004; Stipek, 2002) mirrors much of the discussion on self-directed learning motivation in self-determination theory, especially with regard to descriptions of identified-integrated regulations and the development of value for the task and identity as learners.
Discussions of promoting interest and value for what is taught in schools parallels the ideas of autonomy-support, providing students with an internal locus of control and a sense of personal investment in their learning by convincing them that their schoolwork is constructive and personally worthwhile. Likewise, the goal of education in the context of lifelong learning is the promotion of self-directed and self-sustaining learning (Hattie, 2009), and thus self-determination theory may help to show how to direct learners toward greater educational achievement.
students, students’ competence and relatedness need satisfaction had the strongest effect on more intrinsic forms of motivation, and related negatively to extrinsic regulations (Hiromori, 2003). Using structural equation modeling and survey instruments, strong effects for relatedness and competence were found on intrinsic and introjected regulations. While autonomy and competence were found to correlate highly (> .5), no direct effects from autonomy were found on any of the latent variables. In a later study, Hiromori (2006) found that primarily extrinsically regulated university students could be scaffolded toward more intrinsic motivation through an autonomy-supportive teaching intervention during the course of a semester-long writing course.
Recent research involving Japanese elementary students has shown a positive correlation between autonomy, relatedness, and competence and more intrinsic motivations.
Carreira (2012) found that, prior to the implementation of the new foreign language activities curriculum, elementary school students recognized the intrinsic, identified, introjected, and extrinsic regulations from organismic integration theory as three factors, based on exploratory methods. She titled these intrinsic, identified-introjected, and extrinsic, based on the semi-simplex structure of her data. While psychological needs showed the strongest correlation with intrinsic motivation, students in this study were also broadly more extrinsically motivated.
In a later study, Carreira and colleagues (2013) also found that need satisfaction could influence intrinsic motivation. Using path modeling, this study found that teachers’
autonomy-supportive instruction positively influenced need satisfaction, as well as showing a mediated direct effect on intrinsic foreign language motivation. While this research indicated appropriate results, the variables treated were not fully latent, and therefore had lost the majority of the variance and error terms that would normally be associated with the directly
assessed items. As latent factors cannot be directly assessed, the variance and item errors of the indicators were lost due to compression of the items to mean values. These issues call for a reinvestigation of the research using similar instruments but with a fully latent approach in order to more appropriately verify the theory.
Looking at need satisfaction and development of intrinsic motivation, Nishida (Nishida & Yashima, 2010) showed how project-based learning could be used to promote self-regulated foreign language motivation. Using educational drama, students rehearsed and performed a play in English. This study made use of models similar to those used by Carreira and her colleagues (2013), also finding a relationship between the intercorrelated basic needs, intrinsic motives, and students’ willingness to communicate. Nishida’s model maintained the variance of the indicators through latent modeling, and for this reason may provide a slightly more accurate picture.
The above-mentioned studies in Japanese elementary schools must be considered in light of the fact that the data were gathered before the implementation of the new curriculum (MEXT, 2008a) during a period of experimentation with the curriculum. Considering the strength of their models, the findings presented by Nishida, Carreira, and their colleagues are likely still valid, though some of the changes and issues to be discussed in the following Chapter also have likely changed certain elements of how students perceive and process foreign language study in schools, including the normalization of English in the school environment and how and what teachers do to provide a supportive environment under the new course of study.
Research from outside of the Japanese foreign language context has also investigated pre-elementary children studying in private language classes (Wu, 2003). Using an
experimental observational comparison of two groups of learners, the study investigated the features of classes for young learners. The control group received a less interactive and independent sequence of activities, while the experimental group received a more interactive and formative approach to instruction. It should be noted that in both samples, teachers were central in organizing and directing class action due to the age and language ability levels of the students. This study showed that the use of routines, appropriate challenges, feedback, and support from the instructor promoted self-determined motivation for foreign language learning. Most important among these variables, by scaffolding classes with a greater number and variety of standardized activities, teachers were able to provide a predictable learning environment, and therefore create a sense of security that may be necessary to motivate students (Good & Brophy, 2008).
Other SDT-oriented research in China by Butler (2014) looked at how students’ social environments influenced their motivation to learn foreign languages among children.
Looking at learners in 4th, 6th, and 8th grades, this study assessed the relationship between parental attitudes, students’ internal beliefs, and outcomes on a standardized proficiency test.
Among younger learners, parents’ perceived outlook and orientations toward school and foreign language learning showed greater influence on learning outcomes and motivation, though this was not perceived as negative top-down control. Older learners showed a desire for increased autonomy, and in this situation parents’ values were at times perceived as negatively controlling. One interesting finding showed that among all of the learning groups, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation were positively correlated in this sample, showing some indication that students in Confucian-collectivist samples may perceive some motivation slightly differently from those in western environments.
Looking specifically at the motivational environment created by the teacher, Noels
and colleagues found that the teachers’ autonomy-supportive, informative communication style was positively correlated with more motivated student attitudes, while more controlling teacher behaviors were associated with feelings of helplessness and disconnect between students’ efforts and outcomes (Noels, Clemént, & Pelletier, 1999). Later studies showed that controlling behaviors similarly thwarted autonomy self-perceptions, while more informative feedback and growth-oriented interactions improved competence perceptions (Noels, 2003).
While these studies show a general trend toward of positive evidence for self-determination theory, they are not free of methodological flaws preventing more complete theoretical validation. One of the primary flaws comes from the fact that, with the notable exception of Wu (2003), the majority involve single sample cross-sectional investigations, and thus are subject to changes both over time and between groups. Without appropriate statistical and methodological steps to account for how these motivations may influence behavior over time, true causality cannot safely be inferred from the studies, even with the use of structural equation models (Kline, 2011). Further, aside from the work by Butler (2014), these studies have often involved primarily intra-psychic phenomena, meaning that they exist solely in the head of the individual. All changes are documented based on self-report, and thus may have questionable validity. Without an external validation of the instruments, be it through observed behavior, teacher grades, or standardized test scores, very little can be said about the actual outcomes of students’ self-reported motivation.