Data Gathering Instruments

motivation over time beginning in this period (Kim & Seo, 2012) an investigation of this period is appropriate for understanding both the how and why of this trend.

behavioral, and cognitive engagement (Skinner et al., 2008; Wolters, 2004). Confirmatory procedures validating these survey items are detailed in Chapter 6. The Japanese survey items are presented in Appendices 2 through 6.

4.6.2 Student Self-Report Surveys: Internal Regulations of Motivation.

In order to understand and control for students’ internal motivational orientations, as well as to measure the motivational outcomes of the current course of study, pre-post surveys of students’ regulatory orientations will be given. These surveys will be based on the original work outlined by Ryan and Connell (1989) and translated by Tanaka (Yamauchi & Tanaka, 1998) and Carreira (2012). Confirmatory procedures used to demonstrate internal validity and theoretical integration are outlined in Chapter 6, and the data is applied in Chapter 8.

4.6.3 Teacher Surveys

Teachers’ assessment of in-class behaviors may offer further understanding of how students engage with classroom materials. Using a four-item instrument created to measure students’

in-class engagement and motivation in line with ideas in both previous research (e.g., Lee &

Reeve, 2012) and the Japanese Course of Study for Elementary Schools (MEXT, 2008a). The four items in this survey measured teachers assessment of students’ interest, willingness to learn, in-class behavior, and communication ability with regard to foreign languages. As assessment is not considered part of foreign language learning, this instrument is designed to stand in as an external measure of students’ foreign language achievement. This survey is presented in Appendix 7, and will be discussed in greater detail in Chapter 8.

4.6.4 Observer Ratings

External observation was used as a check on students’ self-reported engagement. As behavioral engagement is theoretically visible (Fredricks, Blumenfeld, & Paris, 2004), and

other aspects of engagement may be likewise recognizable to outside observation, rating scales were created to assess students’ collective engagement at each minute of the class.

These observation instruments are presented in Appendix 8, and with in-depth discussion in Chapter 8.

4.6.5 Qualitative Observation Procedures

Recognizing the strengths and limitations of the quantitative procedures listed above for creating objective measurement, this study made use of qualitative procedures to promote trustworthiness and verifiability in data analysis. This study used multiple data points to triangulate students’ perceptions of motivating classroom practice. In order to consistently label classroom events, codes were created from a pre-existing series of categories based on existing the existing classroom practice literature, as outlined in Chapter 2. As discussed, using a theoretical background recognized beyond the foreign language motivation literature offered opportunities to connect with the existing body of knowledge from first language and general education studies, and thus gives access to a greater variety of valid strategies and codes for interpretation. While much of the documentation of these observation and analysis practices will be discussed in depth in Chapters 5 and 9, this Chapter will offer a brief outline.

In order to generate new theory, fresh observations unclouded by existing bias are necessary. It is in this mindset that Grounded Theory operates (Corbin & Strauss, 2008).

Based originally on the notion that researchers should approach their data as blank slates with minimal pre-conceived notions, this theory is designed to create new theoretical perspectives on observable events, statements, and interactions. At the same time, practical limitations prevent a researcher from ever being fully empty of preconceived notions regarding the target of their data.

Chapter 5 was conducted from a relatively fresh perspective, using my own observations and notes to look at how teachers structure their classrooms to engage students in foreign language learning. At this early phase in the research, I was still developing an understanding of the field, and so had only my own personal classroom experiences to work from. My own bias in this matter tends to favor classes where students are active, organized, and on-task. Recognizing this, I chose classes who fit this profile as the main target of analysis.

Recognizing the danger that my own theories and observations taken from Chapter 5 could potentially influence my analysis, I chose to work through intermediary observers in Chapter 9. These observers were less likely to rely on the heuristic lens of theory to explain phenomena they observe. These observers were closer to the expected tabula rasa recommended by grounded theory. Through interacting with them and their perceptions of how teachers influence students’ behavior in the classroom, while at the same time interpreting their independently noted phenomena through my understanding, I aimed to integrate their observations with the theoretical background to this work.

This Chapter has clarified the philosophical, theoretical, and methodological issues to be used in the following Chapters. As each stage of the study uses a slightly different approach, exact procedures, goals, and hypotheses will be clarified at the individual stage where they are most pertinent. Each Chapter will outline the research goals of the individual study in regard to the framework of the larger study. While each phase of the overall study differs from the others, all are working towards a single project goal of describing actionable classroom management, activities, and scaffolding choices based on empirically sound results for the purpose of improving practice in elementary foreign language classrooms in Japan.

Chapter 5–Defining Structure: Optimizing New Language Use by Employing Young

Learners’ Own Language

Keywords: Structure, classroom practice, observation, qualitative, multi-national

Based on the issues outlined in the previous three Chapters, one key issue in promoting positive motivation for foreign language learning is the problem of engaging learners in class activities. While research has documented motivational strategies that teachers may use in class (Dörnyei & Csizér, 1998; Sugita & Takeuchi, 2010), these strategies may differ from engaging, autonomy-supportive teaching principles. In order to better engage learners with both the classroom environment and language, a catalog of actionable interaction features based on current practices by veteran teachers may provide an example for teachers searching for ways to better draw students into class activities. To define these practices, this study began with the assumption that with regard to foreign language classes, greater exposure is necessary to facilitate more complete and efficient learning (Turnbull, 2001).

As discussed in Chapter 3, the use and appropriate amount of students’ own language (OL) in foreign language classes remains a subject of debate, even with the employment of native English-speaking teachers. While exclusive new language (NL) use may not necessarily always benefit all learners, especially young language learners (YLLs), overuse of the students’ OL may not provide the same range of communicative experiences as greater NL exposure. At the same time, based on much of the controversy in elementary foreign language use and the fear of damage to YLLs’ own language development (Otsu, 2005;

Torikai, 2006), teachers may feel pressured to use large amounts of the OL as opposed to the NL to prevent confusion and potential damage to students’ OL development (Inbar-Lourie,

2010). As discussed in Chapters 2 and 3, damage to learners’ own language development is unlikely, and previous studies have shown no significant positive or negative relationship between a new language and own language self-concept (Xu et al., 2013).

Thus, while exclusive new language use may not be necessary or desirable, well-organized and carefully planned use of both languages may lead to positive outcomes (Macaro, 2009). Following this argument, from a self-determination standpoint, structured and autonomy-supportive teaching has been shown to have a positive effect on learning. By organizing instruction in a positive and carefully managed fashion, teachers may be able to improve engagement and achievement (Jang, Reeve, & Deci, 2010). Recognizing that the course of study (MEXT, 2008a) intends to improve positive affect for the foreign language through foreign language activities, a certain amount of competence-focused practice must then be necessary to meet students’ basic needs (see Chapters 2 and 3). In order to bridge the current gap between the linguistic, educational, and psychological fields that seem to exist in discussion of Japanese elementary foreign language activities, this Chapter reports on a preliminary study investigating how teachers of elementary-age YLLs use the students’ OL in a systematic fashion to create an optimally rich NL environment.