Laos, Myanmar/Burma, Vietnam

The literatures on heritage tourism in Laos, Myanmar, and Vietnam are grouped together, given that few studies have been found so far on these three countries.

Ass et al. (2005) examined the relationship between heritage management and tourism development in Luang Prabang, Laos. They argue that stakeholder collaboration is necessary to balance heritage management and tourism development or sustainable heritage management.

Philp and Mercer (1999) discussed the link between Buddhism and tourism development in Myanmar/Burma. The junta government which is strongly criticized by the international community regarding human rights violations and dictatorship tries to promote Buddhism for the purpose of maintaining its legitimacy in the country. In addition, tourism is considered as an important tool in improving the economic situation and political legitimacy in the country. As a result, Buddhist temples and cultures are commoditized to meet the demands of the tourism industry.

Thanh Ha (2005) conducted an empirical study to investigate tourist satisfaction among domestic and foreign visitors with cultural heritage sites in Hue City, in the central part of Vietnam. The study found that domestic tourists were more satisfied with the cultural attributes of the site than the international tourists.

Tuan Anh and Cooper (2009) examined the image of Vietnam as a tourist destination for Japanese travelers through the analysis of travel books and brochures. The study found that Vietnam is an attractive destination for Japanese tourists. Low prices and culture are the main assets/attributes of its tourism industry.

2.2.6. The literature on heritage tourism in Cambodia

Angkor is the most important site for tourists in Cambodia. Cultural heritage tourism in Angkor has been increasing rapidly since 2000. There are about 1 million foreign tourists who come to visit Angkor annually. Such mass tourism creates a lot of opportunities and challenges

for the preservation of Angkor. Moreover, tourism has a considerable impact on the local culture and socio-economic development. Despite the increasing popularity of heritage tourism in Cambodia, and Angkor heritage tourism in particular, there are few studies on sustainable Angkor heritage tourism so far.

Soubert and Hay (1995) investigated the impacts of tourism on culture and the environment in Cambodia, with a particular focus on Angkor. The study raises concerns that, without proper management of the Angkor heritage, proper distribution of the benefits of tourism, and participation of the local community, tourism in Cambodia will face serious problems.

Winter (2003) explores the impacts of the media (e.g. the film Lara Croft: Tomb Raider) on tourist behavior at the Angkor heritage site. It provides another perspective on how to balance heritage sites management and the actual tourist encounters. Winter (2004) examines the motivations of Northeast Asian tourists to Angkor and analyses the complex linkage between landscape, memory, and heritage tourism in the Asian context. The study suggests that

“exploring the values and meanings associated with Angkor’s cultural heritage” is very important to explain the linkage. The cultural similarity between Cambodia and other Northeast Asian countries is one the main factors explaining the motivations of the Northeast Asian tourists to Cambodia. Winter (2006) discusses the narratives of Preah Khan. The study found that perceiving and branding Preah Khan as a “ruin” is central to the tourist experiences and tourism promotion. Winter (2007) discusses the social, cultural, and political context of Angkor heritage tourism within the framework of postcolonial and post-conflict Cambodia. He concludes that Angkor has emerged as a space for the restoration of Cambodia’s cultural heritage, national identity construction, production of material and non material culture, and as a source for economic growth.

Besides academic studies on Angkor heritage tourism there are short reports on heritage management in the context of mass tourism in Angkor. Wager (1995: 419-434) discusses the environmental management plan of the Angkor heritage sites. The study provides a zoning and

environmental framework for the management of the world heritage monument. Hall and Ringer (2000: 178-182) provide a short overview of tourism potential and challenges in Cambodia focusing on the period from 1994 to 1998. Barré (2002: 126-130) looks at the sustainable development of cultural tourism in Siem Reap, Angkor. He provides several recommendations for promoting tourism in Angkor through the preservation of the temple and through human resource development. Leisen (2002: 85-92), Sandy (2002: 93-97), Nakagawa (2002: 98-103), Beschaouch (2002: 104-109), Molyvann (2002: 110-116), Lemaistre and Cavalier (2002: 117-125), look at Angkor restoration and management from archeological perspective. Durand (2002:

131-137) provides a short overview of tourism in Angkor from 1992 to 2002. Candelaria (2005:

253-288) examines the Angkor site preservation and the role of Cambodia and international community. She calls for more attention to preserving Angkor in the context of increasing mass tourism.

Conclusion

Together with the growth of tourism in Southeast Asia, there has been an increasing awareness of the need to understand the dynamics of tourism and its impacts in the region. The methods used in the studies are diverse, divided into two main types: qualitative and quantitative.

The findings show both positive and negative impacts of tourism on local society, economy, cultural identity, ethnicity, and environment. The findings also illustrate the role of the state in promoting tourism for political economic and national cultural interests. Preservation of the archeological sites has a political function in order to promote nationalism. Southeast Asian states are using heritage tourism as a source of national pride, national integration, and education.

But it may also create a sense of xenophobia and political manipulation as emphasized by Glover (2003).

Studies on tourism in Southeast Asia provide a basic analytical background of the complex relationship between tourism and the issues of ethnicity, cultural identity, nationalism,

political ideology, socio-economic development, and the environment. Southeast Asian states are the main players in developing tourist destinations in the region and shaping the directions of the tourism industry in the context of national vested political, economic and cultural interests.

Literatures on tourism in Southeast Asia in general neglect to focus on the role of the private sector in tourism development. The state is projected as the main actor in most of the literatures. It must be noted that tourism development is almost impossible without the participation of the private sector. Political goals through tourism can not be achieved without the participation of interest groups especially the business and local community.

Regarding heritage tourism in Southeast Asia in general, it tends to focus more on the interrelationship between tourism and culture in which state and local community are the main actors. The complexities of heritage tourism were identified. Heritage tourism development in Southeast Asia links more with the political than economic interests. However, there is a gap in analyzing the issues of heritage site management, including tangible and intangible heritages, and the issues of sustainability particularly there is a scant attention to analyze the perceptions of tourists, local residents and experts in respect to heritage tourism.

This thesis contributes to the existing literatures on tourism in Southeast Asia in general and heritage tourism in particular by analyzing the perceptions of the three main stakeholders namely tourists, local residents and experts by using a case study methodology with a mixed data collection and analysis approach. More importantly, it provides a broad based perspective on looking at sustainable heritage tourism management. It is believed that theories can be constructed based on the perceptions. Perception analysis is an alternative way to study tourism.