Chapter 3 Creating and maintaining identity: personal reference to others . 17
3.3. Attitudes towards address terms
3.3.2. Japanese results
The first question asks about the preferred form of address given by one’s own child. Choosing multiple forms was possible in this question. The vast majority of speakers chose kinship terms, some with an added honorific –san, but most without it. None of the pronominal forms were chosen, confirming previous findings that this part of the Japanese language is generally not appropriate when addressing a person of higher status. Respondents without children were allowed to skip this question and the following one, or alternatively they could imagine a hypothetical setting in which they do have children and think about their preferences for that scenario.
63 Table 13: Japanese address from own children
When talking to your own children, how would you like to be addressed? Please select any number of acceptable terms. If you do not have children, the question can be skipped.
Answer Options ɸ +san +sama +chan +kun Response Count
FIRST NAME 2 1 0 0 1 4
LAST NAME 0 0 0 0 0 0
NICKNAME 3 0 0 0 0 3
KINSHIP TERM
（e.g. PAPA ） 19 8 0 0 0 24
RANK TERM
（e.g. BUCHO） 1 0 0 0 0 1
OMAE 0 0 0 0 0 0
KIMI 0 0 0 0 0 0
ANATA 0 0 0 0 0 0
ANTA 0 0 0 0 0 0
OTHER (PLEASE SPECIFY) 2
The following question asks about the opposite direction of address:
from parent to child. Here we see more variety: While most people call their children by their first names – a highly familiar form – some respondents use an unmodified form while others add various suffixes. The most common are – chan and –kun. In this direction within this relationship, the use of a variety of pronominal forms was reported. A handful of unusual terms of address was also found, such as address based on an official rank (which a child is unlikely to possess) and combining the highly familiar first name with the highly formal suffix –sama. Such uses may be sarcastic, or alternatively a playful display of friendliness.
64 Table 14: Japanese address to own children
When talking to your own children, how do you address them? Please select any number of acceptable terms. If you do not have children, the question can be skipped.
Answer Options ɸ +san +sama +chan +kun Response Count
FIRST NAME 15 3 1 11 8 21
LAST NAME 0 0 0 1 1 1
NICKNAME 2 1 0 4 3 5
KINSHIP TERMS
(E.G. PAPA) 0 0 0 0 1
RANK NAME
(E.G. BUCHO) 1 0 0 0 0 1
OMAE 1 0 0 0 0 1
KIMI 4 0 0 0 0 4
ANATA 3 0 0 0 0 3
ANTA 3 0 0 0 0 3
OTHER (PLEASE SPECIFY) 0
When asked how they would like to be called by children of other people, most respondents choose the combination of last name and –san, while first name and –san was the second most popular choice.
When addressing the children of others, first name combined with either –chan or –kun was the most common choice, followed by last name with the same suffixes. There is a notable difference between the usage of an unmodified first name (chosen 10 times) and an unmodified last name (not chosen at all). The former is familiar and warm, while the latter was apparently too blunt and harsh for this particular relationship.
65 Table 15: Japanese address from others' children
When talking to other people’s children, how would you like to be addressed?
Answer Options ɸ +san +sama +chan +kun Response
Count
FIRST NAME 1 17 0 10 2 27
LAST NAME 2 29 0 1 0 31
NICKNAME 7 4 0 3 0 11
KINSHIP TERMS
(E.G. PAPA) 10 6 0 2 0 14
RANK NAME
(E.G. BUCHO) 1 2 0 0 0 3
OMAE 1 1 0 0 0 2
KIMI 1 0 0 0 0 1
ANATA 1 2 0 0 0 3
ANTA 1 0 0 0 0 1
OTHER (PLEASE SPECIFY) 6
Some Japanese informants noted that in their opinion forms like omae, kimi, anta would rarely be used by children to adults, and such use would be the source of unpleasant feelings to the adults. While they were generally right, some respondents did choose these forms as acceptable ones, showing the flexibility of potential address. Other respondents showed sensitivity to the viewpoint of the child, and input their own forms like “first name+kun” no otosan/okasan, where the first name belongs to their own child, who in this case may be a friend of the child performing the address. Finally, one of the speakers remarked that in Japanese schools around 20 years ago it was typical to call the boys with kun and the girls with san, but now san has become the usual form for both groups. Perhaps it is a policy aiming for equal treatment of all students, without making a separation between the genders if it is not necessary.
66 Table 16: Japanese address to others' children
When talking to other people’s children, how do you address them?
Answer Options ɸ +san +sama +chan +kun Response Count
FIRST NAME 10 9 0 36 28 49
LAST NAME 0 4 0 9 9 13
NICKNAME 7 0 0 8 2 14
KINSHIP TERMS
(E.G. PAPA) 1 1 0 1 0 3
RANK NAME
(E.G. BUCHO) 0 2 0 0 0 2
OMAE 1 1 0 0 0 2
KIMI 4 0 0 0 0 4
ANATA 5 0 0 0 0 5
ANTA 1 0 0 0 0 1
OTHER (PLEASE SPECIFY) 2
The two tables below show address forms chosen for romantic partners and desired from them. Respondents were asked to use their imagination if they are not currently in a romantic relationship. The results are similar in both directions, suggesting that the two people involved in a partnership are on equal footing. Unmodified first names or nicknames were chosen most often, followed by the same address terms but with suffixes. However, the deferential suffix –sama was not chosen by any respondent.
Table 17: Japanese address from partner
When talking to a partner in a relationship (eg. wife, husband, girlfriend, boyfriend) how would you like to be addressed?
Answer Options ɸ +san +sama +chan +kun Response Count
FIRST NAME 22 12 0 8 7 40
LAST NAME 3 2 0 2 3 8
NICKNAME 18 1 0 4 0 23
KINSHIP TERMS
(E.G. PAPA) 4 4 0 0 0 8
RANK NAME
(E.G. BUCHO) 1 1 0 0 0 2
OMAE 1 0 0 0 0 1
KIMI 3 1 0 0 0 4
ANATA 3 1 0 0 0 4
ANTA 2 0 0 0 0 2
OTHER (PLEASE SPECIFY) 0
67 Table 18: Japanese address to partner
When talking to a partner in a relationship (eg. wife, husband, girlfriend, boyfriend) how do you address that partner?
Answer Options ɸ +san +sama +chan +kun Response Count
FIRST NAME 17 11 0 11 11 40
LAST NAME 2 4 0 2 1 7
NICKNAME 15 4 0 3 2 21
KINSHIP TERMS
(E.G. PAPA) 3 2 0 0 0 5
RANK NAME
(E.G. BUCHO) 1 1 0 0 0 2
OMAE 1 0 0 0 0 1
KIMI 3 0 0 0 0 3
ANATA 4 1 0 0 0 5
ANTA 3 0 0 0 0 3
OTHER (PLEASE SPECIFY) 0
When talking to adult family members, a majority of Japanese speakers prefer to be called by their first name, especially with a suffix. Modified last name, kinship name or nickname were other major choices. Pronominal forms were chosen relatively rarely and a form modified by –sama was chosen only once. One of the informants noted that he makes a distinction between his own biological family and the relatives of his spouse. In the first, more intimate relationship he preferred just his first name, but he would rather receive a suffix like kun or san from in-laws.
68 Table 19: Japanese address from adult family
When talking to other adult family members, how would you like to be addressed?
Answer Options ɸ +san +sama +chan +kun Response Count
FIRST NAME 12 22 0 19 10 45
LAST NAME 2 10 0 2 4 13
NICKNAME 5 2 0 2 1 9
KINSHIP TERMS
(E.G. PAPA) 4 6 0 0 0 10
RANK NAME
(E.G. BUCHO) 0 2 0 0 0 2
OMAE 1 2 1 0 0 2
KIMI 2 1 0 0 0 2
ANATA 3 1 0 0 0 3
ANTA 3 1 0 0 0 3
OTHER (PLEASE SPECIFY) 1
The pattern when calling other adult relatives is somewhat different.
First name is still a popular choice, but the tendency to have it modified with –san is stronger. Last name is chosen more often and always with –san.
Kinship terms (unmodified or with –san ) were a more common choice, while pronominal forms were chosen slightly less often. All of the above may be explained by the relatively young age of the respondents. Since most of them do not belong to the eldest generation in their family yet, they are more likely to find themselves in a situation where they are expected to use more deferential forms and where they themselves expect more familiar ones.
Furthermore, three of the respondents input their own term, that is a combination of a first name and kinship term such as obachan.
69 Table 20: Japanese address to adult family
When talking to other adult family members, how do you address them?
Answer Options ɸ +san +sama +chan +kun Response Count
FIRST NAME 3 30 0 11 4 38
LAST NAME 0 18 0 0 0 18
NICKNAME 4 4 0 2 0 9
KINSHIP TERMS
(E.G. PAPA) 14 14 0 2 0 28
RANK NAME
(E.G. BUCHO) 2 3 0 0 0 5
OMAE 0 1 0 0 0 1
KIMI 0 1 0 0 0 1
ANATA 2 1 0 0 0 3
ANTA 0 1 0 0 0 1
OTHER (PLEASE SPECIFY) 3
In communication with close friends the pattern of address is similar in both directions, yet again suggesting an egalitarian character of the relationship. Unmodified first or last names as well as nicknames were the most common choices. When a suffix was added, -chan was a more popular choice than –san.
Table 21: Japanese address from close friends
When talking to close friends, how would you like to be addressed?
Answer Options ɸ +san +sama +chan +kun Response Count
FIRST NAME 28 6 0 15 5 39
LAST NAME 12 7 0 2 2 22
NICKNAME 27 1 0 6 1 31
KINSHIP TERMS
(E.G. PAPA) 1 1 0 0 0 2
RANK NAME
(E.G. BUCHO) 1 1 0 0 0 2
OMAE 1 1 0 0 0 2
KIMI 2 1 0 0 0 3
ANATA 1 1 0 0 0 2
ANTA 3 1 0 0 0 4
OTHER (PLEASE SPECIFY) 0
One of the informants stated that the acceptable terms may depend on the time when the friendship was conceived. For childhood friends, a very familiar nickname with chan is frequent, while it would be rude to use it to friends one has made as an adult. In this case, a first or last name with san is in order.
70 Table 22: Japanese address to close friends
When talking to close friends, how do you address them?
Answer Options ɸ +san +sama +chan +kun Response Count
FIRST NAME 26 10 0 13 6 38
LAST NAME 18 9 0 2 3 27
NICKNAME 26 0 0 9 1 31
KINSHIP TERMS
(E.G. PAPA) 1 1 0 0 0 2
RANK NAME
(E.G. BUCHO) 1 1 0 0 0 2
OMAE 2 1 0 0 0 3
KIMI 1 1 0 0 0 2
ANATA 1 1 0 0 0 2
ANTA 2 1 0 0 0 3
OTHER (PLEASE SPECIFY) 1
When talking to people who are not very close, in both directions a last name with –san is the most desirable form, with first name modified by the same suffix taking second place. Rank names were selected relatively rarely in the previous questions, but more speakers chose them in this relationship.
Table 23: Japanese address from acquaintances
When talking to acquaintances with whom you are not very close, how do you want to be addressed?
Answer Options ɸ +san +sama +chan +kun Response Count
FIRST NAME 1 21 0 2 5 25
LAST NAME 4 40 0 1 7 46
NICKNAME 0 2 0 0 0 2
KINSHIP TERMS
(E.G. PAPA) 0 2 0 0 0 2
RANK NAME
(E.G. BUCHO) 6 2 0 0 0 8
OMAE 0 1 0 0 0 1
KIMI 0 1 0 0 0 1
ANATA 2 1 0 0 0 3
ANTA 0 1 0 0 0 1
OTHER (PLEASE SPECIFY) 0
71 Table 24: Japanese address to acquaintances
When talking to acquaintances with whom you are not very close, how do you address them?
Answer Options ɸ +san +sama +chan +kun Response Count
FIRST NAME 0 19 0 2 3 21
LAST NAME 2 43 0 1 5 45
NICKNAME 0 3 0 0 0 3
KINSHIP TERMS
(E.G. PAPA) 1 3 0 0 0 4
RANK NAME
(E.G. BUCHO) 8 5 0 0 0 12
OMAE 0 1 0 0 0 1
KIMI 0 1 0 0 0 1
ANATA 1 2 1 0 0 4
ANTA 0 1 0 0 0 1
OTHER (PLEASE SPECIFY) 1
The tables below show the results concerning preferred address forms when communicating with unfamiliar people. The pattern is similar to the previous question, but the pronominal form anata takes a larger share. In this kind of relationship the persons have the least knowledge about each other, which can mean that they don’t even know each other’s names. Anata may then be used simply because the speaker does not possess sufficient information to pick anything else. That is precisely what the speakers themselves said in the comments, showing awareness of this issue concerning address. However, for some informants anata sounds rude, which means the available forms are quite limited. In fact, another informant stated that in this context address is almost impossible to perform. Suzuki (1999 : 113-114) notes that the use of second-person pronominal forms in Japanese is actually quite limited.
72 Table 25: Japanese address from strangers
When talking to strangers, how do you want to be addressed?
Answer Options ɸ +san +sama +chan +kun Response Count
FIRST NAME 0 11 0 0 1 11
LAST NAME 1 39 0 0 1 39
NICKNAME 0 2 1 0 0 3
KINSHIP TERMS
(E.G. PAPA) 1 2 0 0 0 3
RANK NAME
(E.G. BUCHO) 7 3 0 0 0 10
OMAE 0 1 0 0 0 1
KIMI 1 1 0 0 0 2
ANATA 7 2 1 0 0 10
ANTA 0 1 0 0 0 1
OTHER (PLEASE SPECIFY) 6
8 speakers chose “other” and explained that when speaking with strangers they avoid using address terms altogether. As the Japanese language permits the omission of the subject in sentences, this strategy is not difficult to employ. Some speakers commented that sumimasen – an analog of “excuse me”
in this case – can be used instead of a direct address. It is sufficient to perform the attention-requesting function of address terms and ambiguities arising from its lack of specificity can be cleared up by the non-verbal message sent by the caller. Although sumimasen is not a reference to any identity, appropriate physical distance, the direction in which the speaker is facing and making eye contact help ascertain identify the person that is being called.
Table 26: Japanese address to strangers
When talking to strangers, how do you address them?
Answer Options ɸ +san +sama +chan +kun Response Count
FIRST NAME 0 10 0 0 1 10
LAST NAME 1 35 0 0 1 35
NICKNAME 0 2 0 0 0 2
KINSHIP TERMS
(E.G. PAPA) 0 3 1 0 0 4
RANK NAME
(E.G. BUCHO) 6 8 0 0 0 13
OMAE 0 1 0 0 0 1
KIMI 1 1 0 0 0 2
ANATA 8 2 1 0 0 11
ANTA 0 1 0 0 0 1
OTHER (PLEASE SPECIFY) 8
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Finally, the last question in this section concerned the most explicitly unequal relationship in the scope of this survey: that between the speaker and somebody recognized by the speaker as a person of higher status. When asked how they would like to be called by such persons, most speakers chose last name with –san, followed by first name with –san and last name with –kun.
Conversely, when calling their superiors most users would choose a rank name such as bucho. The significant asymmetry between the two directions of address may seem very predictable, since the premise of the query is a hierarchical power setting. But in fact, a system of address is not and can not be a perfect reflection of power structures. As Hudson (1996 : 241-242) remarks, human relations are analog. That is, the many ingredients that form them give limitless number of complex combinations. It is not an exaggeration to say that no two social relationships are exactly the same. Language, on the other hand, is digital. Although systems of address have an infinite potential to change and grow, at any given point of time all of them are finite. That means that when describing or referencing human relations, some of them will be represented by the same linguistic expression, not because they are identical but because that expression happens to be the closest available approximation. An asymmetrical relationship will then only result in asymmetrical address if the system possesses words adequate to describe it.
Even if it does, the question is whether speakers will choose to reference the power relation in their discourse or act as if it does not exist. Sakamoto and Naotsuka (1982) discuss what they call “polite fictions,” and how they differ between the Japanese and American culture. In the United States, equality between citizens has long been an important value in society. That is why for some superiors communicating with subordinates it may be considered polite to pretend that the two of them are actually equal. Those aspects of their identity which create the hierarchical distance may not be summoned in their discourse.
The fact that Japanese speakers display a recognition for this distance is then not as insignificant as one may think. According to Ide (1989), Japanese society stresses the ability to understand one’s own position in relation to others. That ability is called wakimae. Bringing up the addressee’s rank or
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professional title proves that the speaker is aware of those facets of his interlocutor.
Table 27: Japanese address from higher ranked persons
When talking to a higher ranking person (eg. boss in the workplace or teacher at school), how do you want to be addressed?
Answer Options ɸ +san +sama +chan +kun Response Count
FIRST NAME 2 19 0 2 7 24
LAST NAME 5 34 0 2 12 45
NICKNAME 1 1 0 2 2 4
KINSHIP TERMS
(E.G. PAPA) 1 3 0 0 0 4
RANK NAME
(E.G. BUCHO) 7 1 0 0 0 8
OMAE 1 1 0 0 0 2
KIMI 2 1 0 0 0 3
ANATA 1 1 0 0 0 2
ANTA 0 1 0 0 0 1
OTHER (PLEASE SPECIFY) 1
Some speakers commented that the address towards someone ranked higher in the workplace is dependent on the situation in which the conversation takes place. Even if it is the same person, a superior during working hours will be addressed by the name of his position or rank, but outside of the working place he will be given an address term unrelated to the professional context.
As with kinship terms in family relations, the informants note that names can also be combined with names of professional positions.
Suzuki (1999 : 114) claims that the Japanese language does not have any second-person pronominal forms that would be appropriate when speaking to a superior. Suzuki’s observations are corroborated by the very low number of responses preferring such forms in this kind of power relation.
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Table 28: Japanese address to higher ranked persons
When talking to a higher ranking person (eg. boss in the workplace or teacher at school), how do you address that person?
Answer Options ɸ +san +sama +chan +kun Response Count
FIRST NAME 1 13 1 0 0 13
LAST NAME 2 29 1 0 0 29
NICKNAME 0 3 0 0 0 3
KINSHIP TERMS
(E.G. PAPA) 0 1 1 0 0 2
RANK NAME
(E.G. BUCHO) 31 11 1 0 0 40
OMAE 0 1 0 0 0 1
KIMI 0 1 0 0 0 1
ANATA 0 1 1 0 0 2
ANTA 0 1 0 0 0 1
OTHER (PLEASE SPECIFY) 4