Introduction

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Chapter 6 Public acceptance of nuclear power plants in

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deployment of NPP projects in Indonesia experience a number of substantial delays. Public opposition to NPP has also become a major concern in many countries, particularly after the Fukushima nuclear accident (see, for instance (Kim et al., 2013; Kim et al., 2014)). Previous studies show that there are at least two major reasons behind t he strong opposition to nuclear energy. First, nuclear energy is considered a high -risk technology that is usually associated with potential hazards from radioactivity, nuclear accidents, or even nuclear weapons (Adamantiades and Kessides, 2009; Siegrist and Visschers, 2013). Second, many nuclear decision-making processes have focused only on technol ogical and economical aspects, disregarding the importance of public engagement that will eventually lead to public distrust (Mah et al., 2014; NEA-OECD, 2010; Sohn et al., 2001). This experience suggests the necessity to comprehend how perceptions of nuclear energy among stakeholders are developed and to identify the factors that positively influence their acceptance, since the decision-making process in nuclear-related projects involves a wide range of stakeholders with different kinds of background, knowledge, and interests.

Previous studies (e.g., (Baskaran et al., 2013; Huijts et al., 2012;

Park and Ohm, 2014; Perlaviciute and Steg, 2014; Savvanidou et al., 2010;

Wüstenhagen et al., 2007)) have investigated the determinants of public acceptance of energy technology and found that trust in the managing authorities is one of the key factors that positively influences the acceptance of new energy technology. Furthermore, with a specific reference to nuclear energy, Kim et al. (2014) found that although trust in the managing authorities is not a driver for the strong acceptance of nuclear energy, it is essential for moderating opposition to nuclear energy.

However, the aspect of trust in their study referred only to the nuclear energy authorities which might not be applicable in a highly decentralized country such as Indonesia. The implementation of a nuclear energy policy in Indonesia is more challenging since it involves multilevel managing

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authorities, including the central government, nuclear energy authorities and the local government. Therefore, the context of trust should be extended not only to the nuclear energy authorities but also to the central and local governments that also have significant roles in the decision -making process. To our knowledge, there is no comprehensive study that has investigated the different impact of trust in these authorities in shaping community acceptance of nuclear energy. By making use of the data from public opinion polls conducted by the National Nuclear Energy Agency of Indonesia (BATAN) in 2010 and 2011, this paper aims to fill the gap. The results from this study are very important for establishing the social sustainability of nuclear energy policy in Indonesia.

Additionally, the findings from this study might also be applicable to the deployment of other new energy technologies.

6.1.1 Nuclear Energy Development in Indonesia

Nuclear energy-related activity in Indonesia is well established and dates back to 1954 with the establishment of the State Committee for the Investigation of Radioactivity, having a main duty to observe the possibility of radioactive fall-out from nuclear weapon tests in the Pacific Ocean in Indonesia Territory. On 5^th December 1958, the GoI established the Atomic Energy Council and the Atomic Energy Institute which had the task of developing the utilization of nuclear e nergy for improving national welfare. In 1964, according to Law No.31/1964 regarding the Basic Stipulations on Atomic Energy, the Atomic Energy Institute was renamed the National Atomic Energy Agency. To proceed with the development of the nuclear power sector, the GoI issued Law No.10/1997 regarding the Utilization of Nuclear Energy which stipulated the separation between the implementing agency, which was assigned to the National Nuclear Energy Agency (BATAN), and the regulatory body, which was assigned t o the Nuclear Energy Regulatory Agency (BAPETEN).

Indonesia had its first nuclear research reactor in the early 1960s

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with the construction of the TRIGA Mark II facility in Bandung. This facility was followed by the construction of the Kartini research re actor in Yogyakarta, which started its operation in 1979, and a 30 MW multipurpose research reactor in Serpong Nuclear Complex, which came into operation in 1987. Having experience with the construction, commissioning, operation, maintenance and utilizatio n of research reactors, the GoI attempted to start an NPP project in the mid -1970s by conducting the first prefeasibility study for the introduction of an NPP which was assisted by the government of Italy. Following this study, the GoI decided to postpone the project until the nuclear research facilities in Serpong became fully operational. In 1989, the GoI decided to carry out a new and more comprehensive NPP feasibility study on the Muria Peninsula as a candidate site for NPPs. The study was completed in 1996, concluding that the Ujung Lemahabang area, which is located at the tip of Muria Peninsula, was the best candidate for the NPP site, evaluated from both technical and economic aspects. The study also suggested that the first NPP should be introduced in the early 2000s to the Java-Bali electric system (Soentono, 1997). BATAN had also completed the second feasibility studies for NPPs on Bangka Island, Bangka Belitung Islands Province, in 2013, suggesting two potential sites for NPPs.

However, the Integrated Nuclear Infrastructure Review (INIR) Mission which was conducted in 2009 by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) concluded that although the GoI had fulfilled most of the infrastructure requirements in the first phase of the NPP project and was ready to proceed to the second phase, there were three aspects of infrastructure issues that required significant actions and further improvement i.e., national position, management, and stakeholder involvement (BATAN, 2014). BATAN is aware that stakeholder involvement is one of the important factors for achieving the social sustainability of nuclear energy policy. A lack of stakeholder involvement in the decision-making process is likely to create public distrust that will

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eventually lead to public opposition to nuclear energy (NEA-OECD, 2010;

Sohn et al., 2001). In regard to this matter, BATAN had been carrying out sustained and concerted efforts to gain higher public support for NPPs.

Effective communication with key stakeholders has been carried out in an extensive manner. BATAN also provides clear and detailed information on nuclear energy that can be easily accessed by the public through mass media. In addition to these efforts, a series of nuclear energy -related events is regularly held by BATAN to widely disseminate nuclear energy to the public and to encourage greater public involvement in the deci sion-making process. Based on the evaluation of the readiness of its supporting infrastructure, the first NPP in Indonesia is expected to be ready for commissioning in 2027, with an initial capacity of 2,000 MW. The capacity is then expected to increase up to 12,000 MW in 2050 (BATAN, 2014).