Figure 3-1: Language-in-Education System from Colonial Period to Early Independence
allowed the continuation of the English system of education, the Malay system of education, the Chinese system of education, and the Indian system of education.
As a result, English-educated students and graduates continued to find employment in both the public and private sectors. Chinese-educated students and graduates were involved in the business sector while the Malay-educated students either worked as teachers or continued their ancestors’ work. The Indian-educated students worked in the rubber plantations. This created a wide income disparity among the three races, and between urban and rural areas. After the 1969 election, only then the government began implementing the transition from English to Malay in the education system beginning in 1970.14
The transition from English to Malay was gradual; it was completed in 1983 for Peninsular Malaysia and in 1985 for the states of Sabah and Sarawak. Since 1970, all English primary and secondary schools and some Indian and Chinese primary schools were converted into national schools with Malay as the medium of instruction. Chinese and Indian schools continue at the primary level until present, as a mark of respect for Malaysia’s multicultural society. Chinese and Indian schools are known as national-type schools in the Razak Report in 1956. The Malay language became a compulsory subject for national–type schools. English is the second language in all national schools and national-type schools.
3.4.1 A Historical Analysis
Communal knowledge was still strong in Malaysia. There were still national schools; Malay medium and English medium national schools. There were also Chinese and Indian schools known as national-type schools with their own curriculum. As they completed their study, the students resumed their career in the field opted by their ancestors. There was no widespread of inter-cultural communication and inter-ethnic relationship except for those who studied in the
14 The alliance in Peninsular Malaysia consisted of the United Malays National Organization (UMNO), Malaysian Chinese Association (MCA) and Malaysian Indian Congress (MIC) political parties, who lost most of their constituency to Democratic Action Party (DAP). This led to riots between the Chinese and Malays.
Indians and Malay Elites.
The direction of the language policy was se toward the sentiments of nationalism and patriotism sentiments, since the new independent government was predominantly ruled by the Malays leaders, even though the ruling party was an alliance of three major parties. In the early independence, the ruling party comprised of the United Malays National Organization (UMNO), the Malaysian Chinese Association (MCA) and the Malaysian Indian Congress (MIC).
In the Malay leaders’ opinion, Malay language was the best choice, because Malays are the majority in Malaysia and also because of its role as a lingua franca, its position as the main inter-ethnic communication tool before and after independence, its possession of high literature, and its previous use as a language of diplomacy and administration in the Malay archipelago (Omar, 1979 and 1987).
To ensure that the Malay language was widely accepted, it was mandated for a wide range of activities, including media, government and most importantly, education. Although the Malay language is the national and official language as stated in the Federal Constitution, the implementation was not efficient because the political parties that made up the government believed that the English language is still considered important for the development of the country. English schools still existed under the supervision of the government.
The education system compartmentalized the ethnic groups in economic fields.
This created a wide income disparity among the ethnic groups which made the society aware of their economic deficiency.
3.4.2 Agenda Setting
The policy-making process during the early independence period reflected the shift of knowledge sharing, acquisition, and utilization by the ruling parties.
3.4.2.1 Knowledge Sharing
Knowledge sharing in the policy-making process was concentrated on the ruling parties’ beliefs and values. They legalized the Malay language for the
Chinese and Indian national-type schools with their respective language and curriculum. The ethnic groups were compartmentalized in term of economic, socio-cultural and geographical location due to the continuation of the colonial education system.
3.4.2.2 Knowledge Acquisition
Knowledge acquisition occurred among the politicians who ruled the government and through the existence of the education system. In the early independence, education system was the continuation of the colonial education system and the emphasis of Malay as the national and official language happened through diffusion of knowledge. After the 1969 election, knowledge acquired was based on the economic and social situation.
3.4.2.3 Knowledge Utilization
Knowledge utilization concentrated in the Federal Constitution and statues related to education. The government only utilized societal level feedback after the public exercised their electoral rights and there was a racial riot in 1969. The Alliance party did not win the election in most of the main cities in Malaysia.15 This displayed that societal knowledge is subordinate to the policy makers’
interests, and society’s best interests only became a priority if they coincided with the policy makers’ interest.
At this stage, internal crisis influenced the utilization of knowledge in the policy-making process. In 1970, the National Economic policy (NEP) and a foreign economic approach were applied to resolve the problems. The foreign approach, however, did not resolve domestic problems since it was not adapted to local settings.
15The second election after Malaysia independence in 1957.
3.4.3 Policy Formulation
Language policy is always incorporated in a nation’s Constitution. The Malay language as the national and official language and the rights of Malay are secured since independence in 1957. In 1969, the declaration of a state of national emergency led to the suspension of parliament, and the National Operation Council governed the country from 1969 to 1971. The outcome after 1969 was a transition from English to Malay at all levels of the education system (Figure 3-2).
The transition only affected all English schools and some Chinese and Indian schools. There are still vernacular schools until present. To date there is no strong collaboration until present between the education sector and the industrial sector in term of market force.
NEP and the racial quota for public universities enrollment were examples of affirmative actions to address income imbalance, and emphasized development for the Malays (since many Malays’ standard of living was still low) since 1970.
1970 was the beginning of public policies in Malaysia being directly or indirectly linked to economic policy.
Figure 3-2: Language-in-Education System Early Independence to the1980s