- 24 -
- 25 -
users can develop affinity with other users even though they may be denied these nonverbal cues which are readily available in face -to-face interaction. CMC users, the theories assert, can simply seek other ways to relay relational messages from the cues available in text based CMC. These empirical findings which offered a contrast to the cues filtered out approach create what is known as the ‘interpersonal perspective’ of CMC.
1.4.1 Cues Filtered Out Theories
The advent of CMC inspired discussions on how the foundation of
interpersonal communication is achieved, how the impressions we receive on first face to face encounters are duplicated online and how the expression of emotion and
relation communication is expressed in text based CMC. This has l ed researchers to state that the lack of nonverbal or social cues diminishes CMC ’s ability to foster impression formation and management (Kiesler, 1986; Kiesler, et al., 1984; Short et al, 1976).
Culnan & Markus (1987) combines these approaches and refers to them as the cues filtered out model. Their common ground is that they all share the claim that the functions that nonverbal cues serve in face to face communication go unmet in CMC as these cues are not readily available or absent.
These cues filtered out theories are predominant within perspectives on social interaction in CMC. However, the initial theories which stemmed from this approach originally placed a focus on other media and were created before the advent of CMC as it is known now. The social presence theory is an example of this.
1.4.2 Social Presence Theory
The social presence theory was conceived in 1976 by Short, Williams and Christie long before the widespread use of the internet as a communication tool.
The basic premise of the theory state Spears & Lea (1992) is that “Social presence is
- 26 -
conceived as a single factor that comprises a number of dimensions relating to the degree of interpersonal contact. It is closely related to the notions of ‘intimacy’ and
‘immediacy’” (p.32). Social presence is, therefore, to what extent the interlocutor is aware of the emotional state as represented in auditory and nonverbal cues of the person he is interacting with. In rating social presence Short et al. (1976) characterized whether communications media could be ranked according to their dimensions of unsociable-sociable, insensitive-sensitive, cold-warm, and impersonal-personal. These ratings suggested that media could be ranked according to a high or low social
presence. If we extrapolate this data to electronic mail for example this communication medium would be low on this rating scale as it is a text based medium void of these nonverbal cues (Spears & Lee, 1992).
In measuring bandwidth, which refers to the number of communication cue systems (visual and auditory) a technology can convey, the theory states that the lower the bandwidth the lower the ability for social presence. The assumption the theory makes is that for task orientated communication such as business correspondence CMC may serve the purpose well, however in relationship orientated communication which requires a ‘high personal involvement’ CMC may be lacking as the nonverbal cues necessary for the successful completion of social orientated interaction are missing.
Therefore, the theory leads to the assumption that text based CMC is less socially orientated in comparison to what can be achieved in face-to-face (interpersonal) communication.
1.4.3 Reduced Social Cues Theory
The reduced social cues theory is another influential approach within CMC theory and unlike the social presence theory it is directly related to CMC. It parallels the social presence theory in that it states that the absence of nonverbal cues can explain the social psychological effects linked with CMC.
However, Kiesler et al. (1984) worked within the field which collectively is termed the reduced social cues theory, and focused on the notion that the CMC text
- 27 -
only environment is deplete of social and contextual cues as a result of the lack of rich nonverbal and environmental cues that are present in face to face interaction. This can lead to the reduced impact of social norms and constraints.
The theory examines the effects that a text based CMC void of socioemotive cues can have, one that leads negatively to a disinhibition effect and the other more positively to a liberation effect. The disinhibition effect suggests that as a result of the lack of cues that express roles, status and setting, hostility and flaming ( the sending of offensive messages to people on the internet) are more frequent in comparison to a face-to-face environment (Kiesler, 1986). Spears, Lea, & Postmes (2001) suggest that the disinhibition effect is the consequence of slow and inefficient of information
exchange in CMC.
However Kiesler et al (1984) and Kiesler (1986) state that there are also advantages to the inability to present socio -emotive cues and term them the liberation effect. It can democratize relationships as hierarchy found in face-to-face interaction is absent in CMC, especially in anonymous interactions, and this can, therefore, lead to less inhibited communication as it can liberate users from the constraints that social hierarchy imposes in relationships. Social position, gender and age can all be
concealed within CMC, and Sproull & Kiesler (1991) states that the absences of these perceived social barriers allow people to express themselves more openly.
Regardless of the cues filtered out mo del’s intuitive appeal these theories came under criticism as research from a larger variety of online settings were conduced which gave alternative perspectives and theories to this model.
Walther (1992) points out that it may simply take longer to achie ve the same degree of content exchange in CMC than in face to face communication and that this may be the cause of task orientated rather than social orientated communication styles.
Walther, Anderson & Park (1994) dispute early research that states that C MC is unable to convey relational dynamics and suggest that time limitations within CMC are the primary causes for their findings. In other words, “CMC takes a great deal longer than face to face interaction to accomplish more than simple data transfer ” (Walther et al;.1994.p.80). They suggest that alternatively CMC users develop ‘individuating
- 28 -
impressions of others’ through the accumulation of interaction within the online environment.
The cues filtered out model has been largely rejected within CMC research. It has been, however, revisited by Galagher, Sproull, & Kiesler (1998). These studies, only evaluated the first generation of CMC, notably text based only communications such as e-mail. The new second generation of CMC arrived along with new technology that permits the use of photos, self created avatars and videos. Walther (2011) writes that although the notion that CMC is inferior to traditional means of communication in respect to social presence has been rejected there are still studies that evaluate social presence in the second generation CMC. This is testament to the fact that the concept of social presence as an inherent consequence of missing multiple cues is still a topic of research. As recently as 2008, Bente et al analyzed the influence of avatars on social presence, interpersonal trust, and perceived communication quality. Nevertheless, even with the advent of a new second generation of CMC, text based CMC is still alive and well as witnessed though the widespread use of e -mail, smart phones and twitter.
Therefore, there still remains a need to examine how relational nonver bal cues are conveyed in a CMC faceless medium.
The following perspectives can be grouped together under the umbrella term
‘cues filtered in’ and argue that the absence of nonverbal cues does not mean users cannot convey a more interpersonal communication style.
1.4.4 Social Identity Model of Deindividuation Effects (SIDE model)
The SIDE model concurs with assumptions that missing nonverbal cues within CMC filters out interpersonal and individual identity information (Lea & Spears, 1992;
Spears & Lea, 1992). However, there is a shift from self awareness and identity from a personal level to a group level. Therefore, individual CMC users are not defined as separate entities, but rather by which group they belong to. For example, gender, ethnicity and occupation.
The theory looks at how contextual cues that display the common
- 29 -
characteristics and social categories of the group influence CMC interaction. Users can utilize these clues about these collectives or groups as a basis for relating to group members. Lea, O’Shea, Fung & Spears (1992) suggest that CMC users can evaluate the content of group user messages not on the basis of individuating characteristics, but on the basis of the cues that create or reinforce group norms. Thus, rather than base their impressions of others based on the little individual information available, they base they impressions based on similarity and common ground, resulting in an attraction to the group and subsequently its group members.
Lea & Spears (1992) suggest that through pa ralinguistic or typographic cues within online interaction users developed stronger positive feelings to in-group
members rather than to out-group members. In a further study in 1995, they argue that the theory can help explain the development of romantic relationships online. Rather than physical attraction, intimacy can be a consequence of online user perceptions of their similarities that stem from a couple ’s shared membership of a variety of social categories.
In contrast to the ‘liberation effect’ as proposed in the ‘reduced social cues theory’, Postmes, Spears, & Lea (1998) insist that CMC reinforces existing social boundaries as people tend to display behavior according to the groups they belong to.
Postmes, Spears, & Lea (1998) state that if identity is concealed but gender is known then individuals tend to behave according to gender norms. The assumption is that these social categories remain unaltered or effected in anonymous CMC. According to the theory, the anonymous CMC environment reduces individual differences and subsequently enhances group identity.
1.4.5 Social Information Processing (SIP) Model
The SIP model acknowledges that CMC is devoid of the nonverbal cues that are present in face-to-face interactions but that these do not hinder the development of relational communication online. The model implies that if CMC users interact with each other over time that social relationships will be formed. Not at just a group level
- 30 -
as in the SIDE model but at a personal individual level. Walther (1992) writes “If the relational tone effects of the cues-filtered-out research are indeed limited to initial interactions among strangers, what changes take place when such communicators continue their interactions over time? ” (p.67). The development of relationships in CMC, he argues, is dependent on the passing of time and sufficient message exchange.
As nonverbal cues are absent this requires that users adapt their interpersonal
communication to whatever cues remain available through the channel they are using.
Walther (1997) and Walther & Burgoon (1992) found that CMC users achieved relational communication through their e-mails to the same degree or higher than face-to-face interaction.
The SIP theory originally focused on language content and chronemic adaptations as methods to convey an interpersonal communication style. Through a series of studies conducted by Walther users are able to bypass the lack of cues through questions and disclosures (Tidwell & Walther, 2002), ca reful observation of chronemic cues, or the timing of communication, as in a swift versus slow reply and work or after work hours (Walther &Tidwell, 1995).
Walther (1992) suggests that ‘other devices’ can also be employed as
strategies to enhance relationality online. These devices can include UMCs which will be detailed in the UMC section within this chapter. The theory did not specify
extra-linguistic signs such as emoticons or graphical symbols as devices that can promote interpersonal communication, and writing in 2011, Walter states that language and style content as more primary conduits of interpersonal information. However, researchers have adopted his theory in an explanation of the role of emoticons (Derks, Bos, & von Grumbkow, 2007, Utz (2000).
1.4.6 Hyper-personal Model
In an extension of the SIP model above, Walther (1996) suggests through his hyper-personal model that CMC message senders can depict themselves in a favorable light socially or otherwise in order to capture the attention of the person to whom the
- 31 -
message is being relayed. This he argues can lead to friendly conversation that may surpass face to face conversation in terms of sociality. Message receivers may
consequently enhance the image of the sender by overvaluing these text-based cues. In addition, in the case of asynchronous CMC the sender and the receiver of messages have enough time to edit their communication, making interactions in CMC more controllable and thoughtful in character. These edits are opportunities to review a nd revise their communications which can further facilitate favourable self-presentation online (Walther, 1997).
In summary, Walther (2007) offers 4 methods that users appropriate to enhance relational communication and interpersonal communication. The model specifies several concurrent dynamics in sender, receiver, channel and feedback systems that are affected by CMC attributes, which promote the development and potential exaggeration of impressions and relationships online. These are
Step 1 Sender of the message and their selective self-presentation