謝辞
本稿を終えるにあたり，終始懇切丁寧な御指導，御校閲を賜りました指導教員の後藤一 成准教授に心から謝意を表します．先生の背中を追いかけ，必死に走り抜けた 5 年間でし た．先生から学んだこと，そのすべてが私の財産です．ありがとうございました．
また，ご多忙の中副査を引き受けてくださった，筑波大学・徳山薫平教授，立命館大学・
家光素行教授，橋本健志准教授には，貴重な御指導，御助言を賜りました．実験を進める 上では，立命館大学・浜岡隆文教授，栗原俊之助教に多大な御指導を賜りました．諸先生 方に深く感謝いたします．
最後に，本研究にご協力くださいましたすべての皆様，後藤研究室の皆様，いつでも私 を支えてくれた家族に，厚く御礼申し上げます．
参考文献
1. Adrian, T.E., et al., Human distribution and release of a putative new gut hormone, peptide YY. Gastroenterology, 1985. 89(5): p. 1070-7.
2. Arciero, P.J., et al., Comparison of short-term diet and exercise on insulin action in individuals with abnormal glucose tolerance. J Appl Physiol, 1999. 86(6): p. 1930-5.
3. Ariyasu, H., et al., Stomach is a major source of circulating ghrelin, and feeding state determines plasma ghrelin-like immunoreactivity levels in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 2001. 86(10): p. 4753-8.
4. Bailey, D.M., et al., Implications of moderate altitude training for sea-level endurance in elite distance runners. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol, 1998. 78(4): p. 360-8.
5. Barnes, B.R., et al., Isoform-specific regulation of 5' AMP-activated protein kinase in skeletal muscle from obese Zucker (fa/fa) rats in response to contraction. Diabetes, 2002.
51(9): p. 2703-8.
6. Batterham, R.L., et al., Inhibition of food intake in obese subjects by peptide YY3-36. N Engl J Med, 2003. 349(10): p. 941-8.
7. Batterham, R.L., et al., Gut hormone PYY(3-36) physiologically inhibits food intake.
Nature, 2002. 418(6898): p. 650-4.
8. Baynard, T., et al., Short-term exercise training improves aerobic capacity with no change in arterial function in obesity. Eur J Appl Physiol, 2009. 107(3): p. 299-308.
9. Beidleman, B.A., et al., Substrate oxidation is altered in women during exercise upon acute altitude exposure. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 2002. 34(3): p. 430-7.
10. Benelam, B., Satiety and the anorexia of ageing. Br J Community Nurs, 2009. 14(8): p.
11. Benso, A., et al., Endocrine and metabolic responses to extreme altitude and physical exercise in climbers. Eur J Endocrinol, 2007. 157(6): p. 733-40.
12. Borg, G.A., Perceived exertion. Exerc Sport Sci Rev, 1974. 2: p. 131-53.
13. Bouissou, P., et al., Metabolic and endocrine responses to graded exercise under acute hypoxia. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol, 1986. 55(3): p. 290-4.
14. Boyer, S.J. and F.D. Blume, Weight loss and changes in body composition at high altitude.
J Appl Physiol Respir Environ Exerc Physiol, 1984. 57(5): p. 1580-5.
15. Brooks, G.A., et al., Increased dependence on blood glucose after acclimatization to 4,300 m. J Appl Physiol, 1991. 70(2): p. 919-27.
16. Brooks, G.A., et al., Muscle accounts for glucose disposal but not blood lactate appearance during exercise after acclimatization to 4,300 m. J Appl Physiol, 1992. 72(6): p. 2435-45.
17. Broom, D.R., et al., Influence of resistance and aerobic exercise on hunger, circulating levels of acylated ghrelin, and peptide YY in healthy males. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol, 2009. 296(1): p. 29-35.
18. Broom, D.R., et al., Exercise-induced suppression of acylated ghrelin in humans. J Appl Physiol, 2007. 102(6): p. 2165-71.
19. Burtscher, M., et al., Benefits of training at moderate altitude versus sea level training in amateur runners. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol, 1996. 74(6): p. 558-63.
20. Butterfield, G.E., et al., Increased energy intake minimizes weight loss in men at high altitude. J Appl Physiol, 1992. 72(5): p. 1741-8.
21. Cartee, G.D., et al., Stimulation of glucose transport in skeletal muscle by hypoxia. J Appl Physiol, 1991. 70(4): p. 1593-600.
22. Castillo, O., et al., Residents at high altitude show a lower glucose profile than sea-level residents throughout 12-hour blood continuous monitoring. High Alt Med Biol, 2007. 8(4):
p. 307-11.
23. Chanoine, J.P., et al., GLP-1 and appetite responses to a meal in lean and overweight adolescents following exercise. Obesity, 2008. 16(1): p. 202-4.
24. Chapman, R.F., J. Stray-Gundersen, and B.D. Levine, Individual variation in response to altitude training. J Appl Physiol, 1998. 85(4): p. 1448-56.
25. Chen, Y.C., et al., The effects of altitude training on the AMPK-related glucose transport pathway in the red skeletal muscle of both lean and obese Zucker rats. High Alt Med Biol, 2011. 12(4): p. 371-8.
26. Chiu, L.L., et al., Effect of prolonged intermittent hypoxia and exercise training on glucose tolerance and muscle GLUT4 protein expression in rats. J Biomed Sci, 2004. 11(6): p.
838-46.
27. Christiansen, T., et al., Exercise training versus diet-induced weight-loss on metabolic risk factors and inflammatory markers in obese subjects: a 12-week randomized intervention study. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, 2010a. 298(4): p. 824-31.
28. Christiansen, T., et al., Diet-induced weight loss and exercise alone and in combination enhance the expression of adiponectin receptors in adipose tissue and skeletal muscle, but only diet-induced weight loss enhanced circulating adiponectin. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 2010b. 95(2): p. 911-9.
29. Chung, D.S., et al., The effcts of altitude training on blood cells, maximal oxygen uptake and swimming performance. Korean J Sci, 1995. 7: p. 35-46.
30. Considine, R.V., et al., Serum immunoreactive-leptin concentrations in normal-weight and
31. Consolazio, C.F., et al., Metabolic aspects of acute altitude exposure (4,300 meters) in adequately nourished humans. Am J Clin Nutr, 1972. 25(1): p. 23-9.
32. Constable, S.H., et al., Muscle glucose transport: interactions of in vitro contractions, insulin, and exercise. J Appl Physiol, 1988. 64(6): p. 2329-32.
33. Cummings, D.E., et al., A preprandial rise in plasma ghrelin levels suggests a role in meal initiation in humans. Diabetes, 2001. 50(8): p. 1714-9.
34. de Glisezinski, I., et al., Decrease of subcutaneous adipose tissue lipolysis after exposure to hypoxia during a simulated ascent of Mt Everest. Pflugers Arch, 1999. 439(1-2): p. 134-40.
35. Dehnert, C., et al., Erythropoiesis and performance after two weeks of living high and training low in well trained triathletes. Int J Sports Med, 2002. 23(8): p. 561-6.
36. Deighton, K., et al., Appetite, energy intake, and PYY3-36 responses to energy-matched continuous exercise and submaximal high-intensity exercise. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab, 2013. 38(9): p. 947-52.
37. Dela, F., et al., Physical training increases muscle GLUT4 protein and mRNA in patients with NIDDM. Diabetes, 1994. 43(7): p. 862-5.
38. Dela, F. and B. Stallknecht, Effect of physical training on insulin secretion and action in skeletal muscle and adipose tissue of first-degree relatives of type 2 diabetic patients. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, 2010. 299(1): p. E80-91.
39. Devlin, J.T., et al., Enhanced peripheral and splanchnic insulin sensitivity in NIDDM men after single bout of exercise. Diabetes, 1987. 36(4): p. 434-9.
40. Devlin, J.T. and E.S. Horton, Effects of prior high-intensity exercise on glucose metabolism in normal and insulin-resistant men. Diabetes, 1985. 34(10): p. 973-9.
41. Dominguez Coello, S., et al., High density lipoprotein cholesterol increases with living altitude. Int J Epidemiol, 2000. 29(1): p. 65-70.
42. Dressendorfer, R., Effect of internal body temperature on energy intake soon after aerobic exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 1993. 25(5): p. 42.
43. Druce, M.R., et al., Subcutaneous administration of ghrelin stimulates energy intake in healthy lean human volunteers. Int J Obes (Lond), 2006. 30(2): p. 293-6.
44. Druce, M.R., et al., Ghrelin increases food intake in obese as well as lean subjects. Int J Obes, 2005. 29(9): p. 1130-6.
45. Dube, J.J., et al., Exercise-induced alterations in intramyocellular lipids and insulin resistance: the athlete's paradox revisited. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, 2008. 294(5): p.
E882-8.
46. Dubouchaud, H., et al., Endurance training, expression, and physiology of LDH, MCT1, and MCT4 in human skeletal muscle. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, 2000. 278(4): p.
E571-9.
47. Dufour, S.P., et al., Exercise training in normobaric hypoxia in endurance runners. I.
Improvement in aerobic performance capacity. J Appl Physiol, 2006. 100(4): p. 1238-48.
48. Easton, P.A., L.J. Slykerman, and N.R. Anthonisen, Ventilatory response to sustained hypoxia in normal adults. J Appl Physiol, 1986. 61(3): p. 906-11.
49. Elahi, D., et al., The enteric enhancement of glucose-stimulated insulin release. The role of GIP in aging, obesity, and non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Diabetes, 1984. 33(10):
p. 950-7.
50. Erdmann, J., et al., Plasma ghrelin levels during exercise - effects of intensity and duration.
Regul Pept, 2007. 143(1-3): p. 127-35.
51. Faiss, R., et al., Significant molecular and systemic adaptations after repeated sprint training in hypoxia. PLoS One, 2013. 8(2): p. 56522.
52. Ferrannini, E., The theoretical bases of indirect calorimetry: a review. Metabolism, 1988.
37(3): p. 287-301.
53. Flanagan, D.E., et al., The influence of insulin on circulating ghrelin. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, 2003. 284(2): p. 313-6.
54. Flint, A., et al., Glucagon-like peptide 1 promotes satiety and suppresses energy intake in humans. J Clin Invest, 1998. 101(3): p. 515-20.
55. Friedmann, B., et al., Exercise with the intensity of the individual anaerobic threshold in acute hypoxia. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 2004. 36(10): p. 1737-42.
56. Fujii, N., N. Jessen, and L.J. Goodyear, AMP-activated protein kinase and the regulation of glucose transport. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, 2006. 291(5): p. 867-77.
57. Galvin, H.M., et al., Repeated sprint training in normobaric hypoxia. Br J Sports Med, 2013.
47(1): p. 74-9.
58. Gamboa, J.L., M.L. Garcia-Cazarin, and F.H. Andrade, Chronic hypoxia increases insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in mouse soleus muscle. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol, 2011. 300(1): p. 85-91.
59. Ge, R.L., et al., The body weight loss during acute exposure to high-altitude hypoxia in sea level residents. Sheng Li Xue Bao, 2010. 62(6): p. 541-6.
60. Gierach, M., J. Gierach, and R. Junik, Insulin resistance and thyroid disorders. Endokrynol Pol, 2014. 65(1): p. 70-6.
61. Goodyear, L.J., et al., Glucose transporter number, function, and subcellular distribution in rat skeletal muscle after exercise training. Diabetes, 1992. 41(9): p. 1091-9.
62. Grosfeld, A., et al., Transcriptional effect of hypoxia on placental leptin. FEBS Lett, 2001.
502(3): p. 122-6.
63. Grosfeld, A., et al., Hypoxia increases leptin expression in human PAZ6 adipose cells.
Diabetologia, 2002. 45(4): p. 527-30.
64. Guelfi, K.J., C.E. Donges, and R. Duffield, Beneficial effects of 12 weeks of aerobic compared with resistance exercise training on perceived appetite in previously sedentary overweight and obese men. Metabolism, 2013. 62(2): p. 235-43.
65. Guerre-Millo, M., A. Grosfeld, and T. Issad, Leptin is a hypoxia-inducible gene. Obes Res, 2002. 10(8): p. 856; author reply 857-8.
66. Guilland, J.C. and J. Klepping, Nutritional alterations at high altitude in man. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol, 1985. 54(5): p. 517-23.
67. Hamad, N. and S.P. Travis, Weight loss at high altitude: pathophysiology and practical implications. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol, 2006. 18(1): p. 5-10.
68. Hardie, D.G. and K. Sakamoto, AMPK: a key sensor of fuel and energy status in skeletal muscle. Physiology, 2006. 21: p. 48-60.
69. Haufe, S., et al., Influences of normobaric hypoxia training on metabolic risk markers in human subjects. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 2008. 40(11): p. 1939-44.
70. Hayashi, T., et al., Evidence for 5' AMP-activated protein kinase mediation of the effect of muscle contraction on glucose transport. Diabetes, 1998. 47(8): p. 1369-73.
71. Heath, G.W., et al., Effects of exercise and lack of exercise on glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity. J Appl Physiol Respir Environ Exerc Physiol, 1983. 55(2): p. 512-7.
muscle. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, 2003. 284(3): p. 453-67.
73. Hoppeler, H., et al., Morphological adaptations of human skeletal muscle to chronic hypoxia. Int J Sports Med, 1990. 11(1): p. 3-9.
74. Hordern, M.D., et al., Acute response of blood glucose to short-term exercise training in patients with type 2 diabetes. J Sci Med Sport, 2011. 14(3): p. 238-42.
75. Houmard, J.A., et al., Effect of short-term exercise training on leptin and insulin action.
Metabolism, 2000. 49(7): p. 858-61.
76. Houmard, J.A., et al., Effect of short-term exercise training on insulin-stimulated PI 3-kinase activity in human skeletal muscle. Am J Physiol, 1999. 277(6 Pt 1): p. E1055-60.
77. Irving, B.A., et al., Nine days of intensive exercise training improves mitochondrial function but not insulin action in adult offspring of mothers with type 2 diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 2011. 96(7): p. 1137-41.
78. Janoski, A.H., et al., Electrolyte patterns and regulation in man during acute exposure to high altitude. Fed Proc, 1969. 28(3): p. 1185-9.
79. Jensen, K., et al., High-altitude training does not increase maximal oxygen uptake or work capacity at sea level in rowers. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, 1993. 3: p. 256-262.
80. Jones, T.E., et al., Long-term exercise training in overweight adolescents improves plasma peptide YY and resistin. Obesity, 2009. 17(6): p. 1189-95.
81. Kalson, N.S., et al., Do changes in gastro-intestinal blood flow explain high-altitude anorexia? Eur J Clin Invest, 2010. 40(8): p. 735-41.
82. Katayama, K., et al., Substrate utilization during exercise and recovery at moderate altitude.
Metabolism, 2010. 59(7): p. 959-66.
83. Kayser, B., Nutrition and high altitude exposure. Int J Sports Med, 1992. 13(1): p. S129-32.
84. Kelly, K.R., et al., Acute altitude-induced hypoxia suppresses plasma glucose and leptin in healthy humans. Metabolism, 2010. 59(2): p. 200-5.
85. Khan, S., et al., Impairment of mitochondrial-nuclear cross talk in neutrophils of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Indian J Clin Biochem, 2014. 29(1): p. 38-44.
86. King, N.A. and J.E. Blundell, High-fat foods overcome the energy expenditure induced by high-intensity cycling or running. Eur J Clin Nutr, 1995. 49(2): p. 114-23.
87. King, N.A., V.J. Burley, and J.E. Blundell, Exercise-induced suppression of appetite: effects on food intake and implications for energy balance. Eur J Clin Nutr, 1994. 48(10): p.
715-24.
88. King, N.A., et al., Dual-process action of exercise on appetite control: increase in orexigenic drive but improvement in meal-induced satiety. Am J Clin Nutr, 2009. 90(4): p. 921-7.
89. Kirwan, J.P., et al., Effects of 7 days of exercise training on insulin sensitivity and responsiveness in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, 2009. 297(1): p.
151-6.
90. Klausen, T., et al., Maximal oxygen uptake and erythropoietic responses after training at moderate altitude. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol, 1991. 62(5): p. 376-9.
91. Kohrt, W.M., et al., Insulin resistance in aging is related to abdominal obesity. Diabetes, 1993. 42(2): p. 273-81.
92. Koopman, R., et al., A single session of resistance exercise enhances insulin sensitivity for at least 24 h in healthy men. Eur J Appl Physiol, 2005. 94(1-2): p. 180-7.
Med Biol, 2003. 4(1): p. 81-91.
94. Lee, W.C., et al., Effects of hiking at altitude on body composition and insulin sensitivity in recovering drug addicts. Prev Med, 2004. 39(4): p. 681-8.
95. Levine, B.D. and J. Stray-Gundersen, "Living high-training low": effect of moderate-altitude acclimatization with low-altitude training on performance. J Appl Physiol, 1997. 83(1): p. 102-12.
96. Lim, S., et al., Insulin-sensitizing effects of exercise on adiponectin and retinol-binding protein-4 concentrations in young and middle-aged women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 2008.
93(6): p. 2263-8.
97. Lindgarde, F., et al., Body adiposity, insulin, and leptin in subgroups of Peruvian Amerindians. High Alt Med Biol, 2004. 5(1): p. 27-31.
98. Lippl, F.J., et al., Hypobaric hypoxia causes body weight reduction in obese subjects.
Obesity, 2010. 18(4): p. 675-81.
99. Loshbaugh, J.E., J.A. Loeppky, and E.R. Greene, Effects of acute hypobaric hypoxia on resting and postprandial superior mesenteric artery blood flow. High Alt Med Biol, 2006.
7(1): p. 47-53.
100. Lundby, C. and G. Van Hall, Substrate utilization in sea level residents during exercise in acute hypoxia and after 4 weeks of acclimatization to 4100 m. Acta Physiol Scand, 2002.
176(3): p. 195-201.
101. Macdonald, J.H., et al., Body composition at high altitude: a randomized placebo-controlled trial of dietary carbohydrate supplementation. Am J Clin Nutr, 2009. 90(5): p. 1193-202.
102. Mackenzie, R., et al., Acute hypoxia and exercise improve insulin sensitivity (S(I) (2*)) in individuals with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Metab Res Rev, 2011. 27(1): p. 94-101.
103. Maffei, M., et al., Leptin levels in human and rodent: measurement of plasma leptin and ob RNA in obese and weight-reduced subjects. Nat Med, 1995. 1(11): p. 1155-61.
104. Major, G.C. and E. Doucet, Energy intake during a typical Himalayan trek. High Alt Med Biol, 2004. 5(3): p. 355-63.
105. Manetta, J., et al., Fuel oxidation during exercise in middle-aged men: role of training and glucose disposal. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 2002. 34(3): p. 423-9.
106. Martins, C., et al., The effects of exercise-induced weight loss on appetite-related peptides and motivation to eat. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 2010. 95(4): p. 1609-16.
107. Martins, C., et al., Effect of chronic exercise on appetite control in overweight and obese individuals. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 2013. 45(5): p. 805-12.
108. Martins, C., et al., Effects of exercise on gut peptides, energy intake and appetite. J Endocrinol, 2007. 193(2): p. 251-8.
109. Mazzeo, R.S., Physiological responses to exercise at altitude : an update. Sports Med, 2008.
38(1): p. 1-8.
110. McArdle, W.D., F.I. Katch., and V.L. Katch, Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger. Exercise Physiology, 1991.
111. McClelland, G.B., et al., High-altitude acclimation increases the triacylglycerol/fatty acid cycle at rest and during exercise. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, 2001. 281(3): p. 537-44.
112. Mekjavic, I.B., et al., Exercise breathing pattern during chronic altitude exposure. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol, 1991. 62(1): p. 61-5.
113. Mikines, K.J., et al., Effect of physical exercise on sensitivity and responsiveness to insulin in humans. Am J Physiol, 1988. 254(3 Pt 1): p. 248-59.
114. Mizuno, M., et al., Limb skeletal muscle adaptation in athletes after training at altitude. J Appl Physiol, 1990. 68(2): p. 496-502.
115. Morgane, P.J. and H.L. Jacobs, Hunger and satiety. World Rev Nutr Diet, 1969. 10: p.
100-213.
116. Morishima, T. and K. Goto, Successive exposure to moderate hypoxia does not affect glucose metabolism and substrate oxidation in young healthy men. Springerplus, 2014. 3: p.
370.
117. Morishima, T., et al., Whole body, regional fat accumulation, and appetite-related hormonal response after hypoxic training. Clin Physiol Funct Imaging, 2014a. 34(2): p. 90-7.
118. Morishima, T., et al., Impact of exercise and moderate hypoxia on glycemic regulation and substrate oxidation pattern. PLoS One, 2014b. 9(10): p. 108629.
119. Morris, D.L. and L. Rui, Recent advances in understanding leptin signaling and leptin resistance. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, 2009. 297(6): p. 1247-59.
120. Mortimer, E.A., Jr., R.R. Monson, and B. MacMahon, Reduction in mortality from coronary heart disease in men residing at high altitude. N Engl J Med, 1977. 296(11): p. 581-5.
121. Mufunda, J., et al., The prevalence of hypertension and its relationship with obesity: results from a national blood pressure survey in Eritrea. J Hum Hypertens, 2006. 20(1): p. 59-65.
122. Musi, N. and L.J. Goodyear, AMP-activated protein kinase and muscle glucose uptake.
Acta Physiol Scand, 2003. 178(4): p. 337-45.
123. Muza, S.R., Military applications of hypoxic training for high-altitude operations. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 2007. 39(9): p. 1625-31.
124. Nair, C.S., M.S. Malhotra, and P.M. Gopinath, Effect of altitude and cold acclimatisation on the basal metabolism in man. Aerosp Med, 1971. 42(10): p. 1056-9.
125. Neary, N.M., A.P. Goldstone, and S.R. Bloom, Appetite regulation: from the gut to the hypothalamus. Clin Endocrinol, 2004. 60(2): p. 153-60.
126. Netzer, N.C., R. Chytra, and T. Kupper, Low intense physical exercise in normobaric hypoxia leads to more weight loss in obese people than low intense physical exercise in normobaric sham hypoxia. Sleep Breath, 2008. 12(2): p. 129-34.
127. Nishiwaki, M., et al., Vascular adaptations to hypobaric hypoxic training in postmenopausal women. J Physiol Sci, 2011. 61(2): p. 83-91.
128. O'Connor, A.M., et al., The gastroenteroinsular response to glucose ingestion during postexercise recovery. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, 2006. 290(6): p. 1155-61.
129. O'Gorman, D.J., et al., Insulin and exercise differentially regulate PI3-kinase and glycogen synthase in human skeletal muscle. J Appl Physiol, 2000. 89(4): p. 1412-9.
130. Ohkawara, K., et al., Effects of increased meal frequency on fat oxidation and perceived hunger. Obesity, 2013. 21(2): p. 336-43.
131. Ou, L.C., et al., Polycythemic responses to hypoxia: molecular and genetic mechanisms of chronic mountain sickness. J Appl Physiol, 1998. 84(4): p. 1242-51.
132. Peronnet, F., et al., Substrate utilization during prolonged exercise with ingestion of (13)C-glucose in acute hypobaric hypoxia (4,300 m). Eur J Appl Physiol, 2006. 97(5): p.
527-34.
133. Perseghin, G., et al., Increased glucose transport-phosphorylation and muscle glycogen synthesis after exercise training in insulin-resistant subjects. N Engl J Med, 1996. 335(18):
p. 1357-62.
134. Pestell, R.G., et al., Impaired glucose tolerance after endurance exercise is associated with
277-82.
135. Pialoux, V., et al., Effects of exercise and training in hypoxia on antioxidant/pro-oxidant balance. Eur J Clin Nutr, 2006. 60(12): p. 1345-54.
136. Picon Reategui, E., Intravenous Glucose Tolerance Test at Sea Level and at High Altitudes.
J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 1963. 23: p. 1256-61.
137. Ploug, T., et al., Kinetics of glucose transport in rat muscle: effects of insulin and contractions. Am J Physiol, 1987. 253(1 Pt 1): p. 12-20.
138. Richalet, J.P., et al., Control of erythropoiesis in humans during prolonged exposure to the altitude of 6,542 m. Am J Physiol, 1994. 266(3 Pt 2): p. 756-64.
139. Richards, J.C., et al., Short-term sprint interval training increases insulin sensitivity in healthy adults but does not affect the thermogenic response to beta-adrenergic stimulation. J Physiol, 2010. 588(Pt 15): p. 2961-72.
140. Richter, E.A., et al., Muscle glucose metabolism following exercise in the rat: increased sensitivity to insulin. J Clin Invest, 1982. 69(4): p. 785-93.
141. Roberts, A.C., et al., Acclimatization to 4,300-m altitude decreases reliance on fat as a substrate. J Appl Physiol, 1996a. 81(4): p. 1762-71.
142. Roberts, A.C., et al., Altitude and beta-blockade augment glucose utilization during submaximal exercise. J Appl Physiol, 1996b. 80(2): p. 605-15.
143. Rodnick, K.J., et al., Improved insulin action in muscle, liver, and adipose tissue in physically trained human subjects. Am J Physiol, 1987. 253(5 Pt 1): p. 489-95.
144. Roels, B., et al., Effects of intermittent hypoxic training on amino and fatty acid oxidative combustion in human permeabilized muscle fibers. J Appl Physiol, 2007. 102(1): p. 79-86.
145. Rose, A.J., et al., Effect of prior exercise on glucose metabolism in trained men. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, 2001. 281(4): p. 766-71.
146. Roth, C.L., et al., Peptide YY is a regulator of energy homeostasis in obese children before and after weight loss. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 2005. 90(12): p. 6386-91.
147. Rowell, L.B., Human cardiovascular adjustments to exercise and thermal stress. Physiol Rev, 1974. 54(1): p. 75-159.
148. Rusko, H.K., et al., Effects of altitude training on sea level aerobic and anaerobic power of elite athletes. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 1996. 28(5): p. S124.
149. Salera, M., et al., Gastric inhibitory polypeptide release after oral glucose: relationship to glucose intolerance, diabetes mellitus, and obesity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 1982. 55(2): p.
329-36.
150. Saltiel, A.R. and J.M. Olefsky, Thiazolidinediones in the treatment of insulin resistance and type II diabetes. Diabetes, 1996. 45(12): p. 1661-9.
151. Saltin, B., et al., Morphology, enzyme activities and buffer capacity in leg muscles of Kenyan and Scandinavian runners. Scand J Med Sci Sports, 1995. 5(4): p. 222-30.
152. Schobersberger, W., et al., Austrian Moderate Altitude Study 2000 (AMAS 2000). The effects of moderate altitude (1,700 m) on cardiovascular and metabolic variables in patients with metabolic syndrome. Eur J Appl Physiol, 2003. 88(6): p. 506-14.
153. Sharma, S., Clinical, biochemical, electrocardiographic and noninvasive hemodynamic assessment of cardiovascular status in natives at high to extreme altitudes (3000m-5500m) of the Himalayan region. Indian Heart J, 1990. 42(5): p. 375-9.
154. Shintani, M., et al., Ghrelin, an endogenous growth hormone secretagogue, is a novel orexigenic peptide that antagonizes leptin action through the activation of hypothalamic