POPULIST RADICAL-RIGHT PARTIES IN EUROPE TODAY
Òàáëèöà 2. Ó÷àñòèå â ïðàâèòåëüñòâå ïðàâîðàäèêàëüíûõ ïîïóëèñòñêèõ ïàðòèé, 1980-2012 ãã
Ñòðàíà Ïàðòèÿ Ïåðèîä (û) Êîàëèöèÿ
Ïàðòíåð(û) Àâñòðèÿ Àâñòðèéñêàÿ ïàðòèÿ ñâîáîäû (ÀÏÑ)
Àëüÿíñ çà áóäóùåå Àâñòðèè (ÀÁÀ)
2000-2002 2002-2005 2005-2006
ÖVP ÖVP ÖVP Õîðâàòèÿ Õîðâàòñêèé äåìîêðàòè÷åñêèé ñîþç (ÕÄÑ) 1990-2000 Äàíèÿ 1 Äàòñêàÿ íàðîäíàÿ ïàðòèÿ (ÄÍÏ) 2001-2005
2005-2007 2007-2011
V & KF V & KF V & KF Ýñòîíèÿ Ïàðòèÿ íàöèîíàëüíîé íåçàâèñèìîñòè Ýñòîíèè
(ÏÍÍÝ)
1992-1995 Isamaa Ãðåöèÿ Íàðîäíûé ïðàâîñëàâíûé ïðèçûâ (ËÀÎÑ) 2011-2012 ND & PASOK Èòàëèÿ Ëèãà Ñåâåðà (ËÍ)
1994 2001-2005 2008-2011
AN & FI
AN & FI & MDC PdL & MpA Ëàòâèÿ Íàöèîíàëüíûé àëüÿíñ (ÍÀ) 2011 - Unity & ZRP Íèäåðëàíäû 1 Ïàðòèÿ ñâîáîäû (ÏÑ) 2010-2012 CDA & VVD Ïîëüøà Ëèãà ïîëüñêèõ ñåìåé (ËÏÑ) 2005-2006 PiS & Samoorona
Ó÷èòûâàÿ, ÷òî çàêîíû â çàïàäíûõ äåìîêðàòèÿõ îáû÷íî èíèöèèðóþòñÿ è ïðèíèìàþòñÿ ïðàâèòåëü-ñòâåííûìè ïàðòèÿìè, òîò ôàêò, ÷òî ïî÷òè 95% âñåõ åâðîïåéñêèõ ïðàâèòåëüñòâ íå èìåþò â ñâîåì ñîñòà-âå ÏÐÏÏ, äîëæåí, âðîäå áû, ñäåðæèâàòü âëèÿíèå ýòèõ ïàðòèé. Òåì íå ìåíåå, íåïðàâèòåëüñòâåííûå ïàðòèè â ñèëàõ îêàçûâàòü âëèÿíèå íà ïîâåäåíèå ïðà-âèòåëüñòâ, èñïîëüçóÿ ðàçëè÷íûå ìåõàíèçìû. Íèæå äàåòñÿ îöåíêà âëèÿíèÿ ÏÐÏÏ íà ÷åòûðå àñïåêòà åâ-ðîïåéñêîé ïîëèòèêè: íàñåëåíèå, ïàðòèè, ïîëèòèêà è ãîñóäàðñòâåííîå óñòðîéñòâî [24].
Ìíîãî ñïîðÿò î òîì, ÿâëÿåòñÿ ëè ðîñò âëèÿíèÿ ÏÐÏÏ ïðè÷èíîé èëè ñëåäñòâèåì ïîÿâëåíèÿ îïðå-äåëåííûõ öåííîñòíûõ óñòàíîâîê? Êàê ïîêàçàë Ðî-íàëüä Èíãëõàðò, íà÷èíàÿ ñ 1960-õ ãîäîâ, Åâðîïà ïðîøëà ÷åðåç «òèõóþ ðåâîëþöèþ», â ðåçóëüòàòå êî-òîðîé ðåçêî âîçðîñëî çíà÷åíèå ñîöèàëüíî-êóëüòóð-íûõ âîïðîñîâ ïî ñðàâíåíèþ ñ
ñîöèàëüíî-ýêîíîìè-÷åñêèìè [25].  òî âðåìÿ, êàê Èíãëõàðò è åãî ïîñëåäîâàòåëè èñïîëüçîâàëè ýòîò òåîðåòè÷åñêèé ïîñûë äëÿ îáîñíîâàíèÿ ïðè÷èí ïîÿâëåíèÿ â 1970-å ãîäû íîâûõ ñîöèàëüíûõ äâèæåíèé, à â 1980-å ãîäû è ïàðòèé çåëåíûõ, äðóãèå èññëåäîâà-òåëè âñòàëè íà òî÷êó çðåíèÿ, ÷òî íåçàêîííûìè äåòü-ìè ýòîé «òèõîé ðåâîëþöèè» ÿâëÿþòñÿ òàêæå ÏÐÏÏ [26]. Ñóùåñòâóåò äàæå òî÷êà çðåíèÿ, ÷òî îíè âûç-âàëè «òèõóþ êîíòððåâîëþöèþ» [27].
Ëîãè÷íî ðàññóæäàÿ, ÏÐÏÏ äîëæíû áûëè îêà-çûâàòü íàèáîëüøåå âëèÿíèå íà òå ïîäõîäû è öåííî-ñòè, êîòîðûå íåïîñðåäñòâåííî ñâÿçàíû ñ èõ èäåîëî-ãè÷åñêèì ñòåðæíåì.  òîì, ÷òî êàñàåòñÿ íàòèâèçìà, òî ýòî èììèãðàöèÿ è åâðîïåéñêàÿ èíòåãðàöèÿ, àâòî-ðèòàðèçìà – ïðåñòóïíîñòü, à ïîïóëèçìà – êîððóïöèÿ, íåóäîâëåòâîðåííîñòü äåìîêðàòèåé è ïîëèòè÷åñêîé ñèñòåìîé.
Ìíîãèå ó÷åíûå óòâåðæäàþò, ÷òî ÏÐÏÏ, ñòðå-ìÿñü ïðèéòè ê âëàñòè, äåéñòâèòåëüíî, ïîâëèÿëè íà îñíîâíûå ïîçèöèè åâðîïåéöåâ, ïîâûñèâ òåì ñàìûì çíà÷èìîñòü ñâîèõ âçãëÿäîâ [28]. Ïîäòâåðæäàÿ ýòîò ïîïóëÿðíûé òåçèñ ðåçóëüòàòàìè îïðîñîâ, ×àðëüç Óýñòèí ñôîðìóëèðîâàë ñëåäóþùèé âûâîä: «Êîãäà
ïðîòåñòíûå ïàðòèè… ïîëó÷àþò çíà÷èòåëüíóþ äîëþ ãîëîñîâ, öåíòð òÿæåñòè îáùåñòâåííîãî ìíåíèÿ
çíà-÷èòåëüíî ñìåùàåòñÿ âïðàâî» [29]. Ïðàâäà, â äðóãèõ èññëåäîâàíèÿõ ïðèâîäÿòñÿ èíûå äàííûå, ÷òî ìîæåò áûòü ñëåäñòâèåì ëèáî èõ îãðàíè÷åííîñòè, ëèáî ïðî-áëåìàòè÷íîñòè ïðèìåíåííûõ ìåòîäîâ îïðîñà.
Âîò íåêîòîðûå ïðèìåðû
Ðàññìàòðèâàÿ îòíîøåíèå íàñåëåíèÿ ê èììèãðà-öèè è èíòåãðàèììèãðà-öèè, îòäåëüíûå èññëåäîâàòåëè çàôèê-ñèðîâàëè ñóùåñòâåííîå âëèÿíèå ÏÐÏÏ [30]. Äðó-ãèå æå ñ÷èòàþò åãî îãðàíè÷åííûì [31], à òî è ïîë-íîñòüþ îòñóòñòâóþùèì [32].
Íåìíîãèì ÿñíåå êàðòèíà, êîãäà ðå÷ü çàõîäèò î åâðîñêåïòèöèçìå, ïðåñòóïíîñòè è íåóäîâëåòâî-ðåííîñòè ïðîâîäèìîé ïîëèòèêîé [33]. Íå îçíà÷à-åò ëè ýòî, ÷òî ó ÏÏÐÏ âîîáùå íå áûëî íåîáõîäè-ìîñòè ìåíÿòü ïîçèöèè çíà÷èòåëüíîé ÷àñòè åâðî-ïåéñêîé îáùåñòâåííîñòè, ïîòîìó ÷òî ýòè ïîçèöèè óæå â çíà÷èòåëüíîé ñòåïåíè ñîîòâåòñòâîâàëè îñ-íîâíûì ïðîãðàììàì ïðàâîðàäèêàëüíûõ ïîïóëèñ-òñêèõ ñèë [34].
Î÷åíü ðàñïðîñòðàíåíà èäåÿ, ñîãëàñíî êîòîðîé ÏÏÐÏ ïîäòàëêèâàþò äðóãèå, ãëàâíûì îáðàçîì ïðà-âûå ïàðòèè åùå äàëüøå «âïðàâî». Æàí-Èâ Êàìþ [35]
âûñêàçûâàåò ýòî ìíåíèå, ññûëàÿñü íà ôðàíöóçñêèé ïðèìåð: «Èäåè ÍÔ – îòìå÷àåò îí – (...) îêàçàëè âëè-ÿíèå íà ïîëèòè÷åñêóþ ïîâåñòêó äíÿ ïðàâûõ ïî òà-êèì âîïðîñàì, êàê èììèãðàöèÿ, çàêîííîñòü è ïðàâî-ïîðÿäîê, ìóëüòèêóëüòóðàëèçì è îïðåäåëåíèå íàöè-îíàëüíîé èäåíòè÷íîñòè». Ýòî æå êîíñòàòèðîâàëè è äðóãèå èññëåäîâàòåëè [36].
 öåëîì êàðòèíà îñòàåòñÿ äîâîëüíî ñëîæíîé, ïîñêîëüêó âëèÿíèå ñëåäóåò îöåíèâàòü, êàê ïî ñèëå, òàê è ïî øèðîòå îõâàòà. ÏÐÏÏ ìîãëè øèðîêî âëè-ÿòü íà äðóãèå ïàðòèè ïî âîïðîñàì èììèãðàöèè, îöåíêè óðîâíÿ èììèãðàöèîííîãî êîíòðîëÿ. Âìåñòå ñ òåì, êîãäà ðå÷ü çàõîäèëà î èíòåãðàöèè çàìåòíîå âëèÿíèå óäàâàëîñü îêàçûâàòü ëèøü íà ïðàâûå ïîëè-òè÷åñêèå ñèëû [37]. Ïî òàêèì âîïðîñàì êàê ïðåñòóï-íîñòü è åâðîñêåïòèöèçì, âëèÿíèå ÏÐÏÏ îêàçûâà-ëîñü ñêðîìíåå. È, âîîáùå, â áîëüøèíñòâå ñëó÷àåâ
Ñòðàíà Ïàðòèÿ Ïåðèîä (û) Êîàëèöèÿ
Ïàðòíåð(û)
( )
Ðóìûíèÿ Ïàðòèÿ Ðóìûíñêîãî Íàöèîíàëüíîãî Åäèíñòâà (ÏÐÍÅ)
Ïàðòèÿ «Âåëèêàÿ Ðóìûíèÿ» (ÏÂÐ)
1994-1996 1995
PDSR & PSM PDSR & PSM Ñåðáèÿ Ñåðáñêàÿ ðàäèêàëüíàÿ ïàðòèÿ (ÑÐÏ) 1998-2000 SPS & JUL Ñëîâàêèÿ Ñëîâàöêàÿ íàöèîíàëüíàÿ ïàðòèÿ (ÑÍÏ) 1994-1998
2006-2010
HZDS & ZRS HZDS & Smer Øâåéöàðèÿ Øâåéöàðñêàÿ íàðîäíàÿ ïàðòèÿ (ØÍÏ) 2000 - SPS & FDP & CVP
1 ïðàâèòåëüñòâà ìåíüøèíñòâà, â êîòîðûõ ÏÐÏÏ ôóíêöèîíèðóþò â êà÷åñòâå îôèöèàëüíûõ ïàðòèé ïîääåðæêè.
.
îñíîâíûì ïàðòèÿì ïðàâîãî òîëêà íå òðåáîâàëîñü âíåøíèõ ñòèìóëîâ äëÿ ñìåùåíèÿ âïðàâî.
Íå âûçûâàåò ñîìíåíèé, ÷òî áîëüøèíñòâî åâðî-ïåéñêèõ ñòðàí, ñ òåõ ïîð êàê â êîíöå 1980-õ ãîäîâ íàìåòèëñÿ ðîñò âëèÿíèÿ ÏÐÏÏ, ñòàëè ïðèäåðæè-âàòüñÿ áîëåå àâòîðèòàðíîé ïîëèòèêè â îáëàñòè èì-ìèãðàöèè è èíòåãðàöèè, à òàêæå íàöèîíàëüíîé áå-çîïàñíîñòè è áîðüáû ñ ïðåñòóïíîñòüþ. Îäíàêî ðîëü ýòîãî ðîñòà â äàííîì ïðîöåññå áûëà íåçíà÷èòåëü-íîé. Èíûìè ñëîâàìè, íè óñïåõè ÏÐÏÏ íà âûáîðàõ, íè èõ ó÷àñòèå â ïðàâèòåëüñòâàõ, íå áûëè ôàêòîðà-ìè, îáóñëîâèâøèìè íàðàùèâàíèå àâòîðèòàðíîé ïî-ëèòèêè [38]. Íå ñëó÷àéíî, ïî÷òè âñå èññëåäîâàíèÿ ïîëèòèêè ïðàâèòåëüñòâ, â ðàáîòå êîòîðûõ ó÷àñòâî-âàëè ïðåäñòàâèòåëè ÏÐÏÏ, ôèêñèðóþò îãðàíè÷åí-íîå âëèÿíèå ïðàâîðàäèêàëüíîé ïîïóëèñòñêîé èäåî-ëîãèè [39]. Ýòî â ïîëíîé ìåðå îòíîñèòñÿ äàæå ê ïðà-âèòåëüñòâàì Áåðëóñêîíè [40] è èõ ïîçèöèè ïî òàêî-ìó êëþ÷åâîòàêî-ìó âîïðîñó, êàê èììèãðàöèÿ [41].
 ñâåòå îãðàíè÷åííîãî âëèÿíèÿ ÏÐÏÏ íà íàñå-ëåíèå, ïàðòèè è ïîëèòèêó íå óäèâèòåëüíî, ÷òî èõ äåÿòåëüíîñòü íå îêàçàëà áîëüøîãî âëèÿíèÿ íà ãîñó-äàðñòâåííîå óñòðîéñòâî åâðîïåéñêèõ ñòðàí. Äàæå â òåõ ñëó÷àÿõ, êîãäà ïðåäñòàâèòåëè ÏÐÏÏ ïîïàäàëè â ïðàâèòåëüñòâà, îíè ñóùåñòâåííî íå ìåíÿëè ñëîæèâ-øåéñÿ ïîëèòè÷åñêîé ñèñòåìû.  ðàìêàõ
èäåîëîãè-÷åñêîé êîíêóðåíöèè íåêîòîðûå èç ÏÐÏÏ ïûòàëèñü ïîäîðâàòü ëèáåðàëüíûå àñïåêòû ñâîåé
äåìîêðàòè-÷åñêîé ñèñòåìû. Âðåìÿ îò âðåìåíè èì ïîìîãàëè â ýòîì íåêîòîðûå íåëèáåðàëüíûå äåìîêðàòè÷åñêèå ïàðòèè [43]. Îäíàêî âî âñåõ ýòèõ ñëó÷àÿõ àòàêè áûëè îòáèòû ñòîéêîé êîàëèöèåé îïïîçèöèîííûõ ïàðòèé, ãðàæäàíñêîãî îáùåñòâà è, ÷òî ñàìîå ãëàâíîå, – ñó-äåáíîé ñèñòåìîé.
Âûâîäû
Ïðàâîðàäèêàëüíûå ïîïóëèñòñêèå ïàðòèè ïåðå-æèâàþò ñåé÷àñ ñàìûé áîëüøîé ýëåêòîðàëüíûé è ïîëèòè÷åñêèé óñïåõ â èñòîðèè ïîñëåâîåííîé Åâðî-ïû.  òî æå âðåìÿ îíè îñòàþòñÿ îòíîñèòåëüíî âòî-ðîñòåïåííûìè ïîëèòè÷åñêèìè èãðîêàìè. Ïðåäîñòå-ðåæåíèÿ, ñîãëàñíî êîòîðûì ãðÿäåò «íàñòóïëåíèå íîâîé Âåéìàðñêîé ýïîõè», ñèëüíî ïðåóâåëè÷èâàþò ñåãîäíÿøíèå âûçîâû è íåäîîöåíèâàþò ñîâðåìåííûå äåìîêðàòè÷åñêèå óñòîè (îñîáåííî â Çàïàäíîé Åâðî-ïå) [44]. Èçâåñòíî, ÷òî óëüòðàïðàâûå ñèëû íà÷àëà XX âåêà áûëè ïðèíöèïèàëüíî àíòèäåìîêðàòè÷åñêè-ìè, îòâåðãàÿ, êàê íàðîäíûé ñóâåðåíèòåò, òàê è ïðàâ-ëåíèå áîëüøèíñòâà.  îòëè÷èå îò íèõ ïðàâîðàäè-êàëüíûå ïîïóëèñòñêèå äâèæåíèÿ íà÷àëà XXI âåêà, áóäó÷è àíòèëèáåðàë-äåìîêðàòè÷åñêèìè, îòâåðãàÿ çàùèòó ìåíüøèíñòâ è ïëþðàëèçì, òåì íå ìåíåå ïîä-äåðæèâàþò ïðèíöèïû íàðîäíîãî ñóâåðåíèòåòà è
ïðàâëåíèÿ áîëüøèíñòâà. Åùå áîëåå âàæíî òî, ÷òî â 30 ãîäû ÕÕ âåêà áîëüøèíñòâî åâðîïåéñêèõ äåìîê-ðàòèé áûëè îòíîñèòåëüíî ìîëîäûìè è èì íå õâàòà-ëî íàðîäíîé ïîääåðæêè. Ñåãîäíÿ æå îíè ÿâëÿþòñÿ çðåëûìè è ïîëüçóþòñÿ øèðîêèì äîâåðèåì íàñåëå-íèÿ.
Òåì íå ìåíåå, ÏÐÏÏ ÿâëÿþòñÿ íûíå íàèáîëåå óñïåøíûì íîâûì ïàðòèéíûì ñåìåéñòâîì ïîñëåâî-åííîé Åâðîïû. Èõ ïðåäñòàâèòåëè âñå ÷àùå âõîäÿò â ñîñòàâ íàöèîíàëüíûõ ïðàâèòåëüñòâ, ïðàâäà, íå äî-áèâàÿñü ïîêà îñîáûõ óñïåõîâ. Ìîæíî íàçâàòü, ïî êðàéíåé ìåðå, ïÿòü ïðè÷èí èõ ñëàáîé ãîñóäàðñòâåí-íîé äååñïîñîáíîñòè. Âî-ïåðâûõ, îíè ñîñðåäîòà÷è-âàþò ñâîå âíèìàíèå ëèøü íà íåñêîëüêèõ âîïðîñàõ, ïðåæäå âñåãî íà èììèãðàöèè è èíòåãðàöèè. Âî-âòî-ðûõ, ïîëèòè÷åñêèå ïàðòèè ÿâëÿþòñÿ íûíå ëèøü îä-íèì èç ãëàâíûõ äåéñòâóþùèõ ëèö â ïðîöåññå ðàçðà-áîòêè ïîëèòèêè. À ó ÏÐÏÏ, êàê ïðàâèëî, íåò ñîþç-íèêîâ ñðåäè äðóãèõ êðóïíûõ èãðîêîâ (íàïðèìåð, áþðîêðàòèè è ÍÏÎ). Â-òðåòüèõ, ÏÐÏÏ âñåãäà ïðå-áûâàþò â ðîëè ìëàäøåãî ïàðòíåðà, à èõ ïðåäñòàâè-òåëè â ïðàâèòåëüñòâàõ, êàê ïðàâèëî, ñóùåñòâåííî ìåíåå îïûòíû, ÷åì èõ êîëëåãè ïî êîàëèöèÿì. Â-÷åò-âåðòûõ, êîàëèöèîííûå ñîãëàøåíèÿ îáû÷íî ÿâëÿþò-ñÿ ðåçóëüòàòîì ïðåäøåñòâóþùåé êîíâåðãåíöèè [45].
À ÏÐÏÏ â íåé, êàê ïðàâèëî, íå ó÷àñòâóþò. Â-ïÿòûõ, ÏÐÏÏ ïðåäïî÷èòàþò ñòîÿòü «îäíîé íîãîé â ïðàâè-òåëüñòâå, à äðóãîé – âíå åãî» [46].
Íåò íèêàêèõ îñíîâàíèé ñ÷èòàòü, ÷òî òàêîå ïî-ëîæåíèå äåë áóäåò ïðîäîëæàòüñÿ âå÷íî. Òåçèñ, ñî-ãëàñíî êîòîðîìó ïîïóëèñòñêèå ïàðòèè îáðå÷åíû íà óñïåõ â îïïîçèöèè è íà íåóäà÷è â ïðàâèòåëüñòâå, ïîïóëÿðíûé â íàó÷íîé ëèòåðàòóðå [47], íåâåðåí.
Ïîäîáíî ñîöèàë-äåìîêðàòè÷åñêèì ïàðòèÿì ïåðåä Âòîðîé ìèðîâîé âîéíîé è ïàðòèÿì çåëåíûõ â 90-å ãîäû, ïðàâîðàäèêàëüíûå ïîïóëèñòñêèå ïàðòèè âïîë-íå ìîãóò ñîâåðøèòü ïåðåõîä îò óñïåøíîãî ïðåáûâà-íèÿ â îïïîçèöèè ê ýôôåêòèâíîìó ó÷àñòèþ âî âëàñ-òè [48]. Ïîñêîëüêó ïîñëåäñòâèÿ ýêîíîìè÷åñêîãî êðè-çèñà áóäóò âëèÿòü íà âûáîðû åùå ìíîãèå ãîäû, à îñíîâíûå ïîëèòè÷åñêèå ïàðòèè ïðîäîëæàò ñáëè-æàòüñÿ ñ ïðàâîðàäèêàëüíûìè ïîïóëèñòñêèìè ñèëà-ìè â âîïðîñàõ ñîöèàëüíî-êóëüòóðíîé ïîëèòèêè, ÏÐÏÏ áóäóò ïî-ïðåæíåìó áðîñàòü âûçîâû ëèáå-ðàëüíûì äåìîêðàòèÿì Åâðîïû. Íî äàæå â ñëó÷àå áåñïðåöåäåíòíîãî óñïåõà ïðàâîðàäèêàëüíûõ ïîïó-ëèñòîâ ïðîèñõîäÿùèå èçìåíåíèÿ íå ïðèâåäóò ê êàð-äèíàëüíîé òðàíñôîðìàöèè ïîëèòè÷åñêîé ñèñòåìû, òàê êàê ïðàâîðàäèêàëüíàÿ ïîïóëèñòñêàÿ èäåîëîãèÿ – ýòî íå «ïàòîëîãè÷åñêàÿ íîðìà» åâðîïåéñêîé äåìîê-ðàòèè, íå ñâÿçàííàÿ ñ åå îñíîâíûìè öåííîñòÿìè, à, íàïðîòèâ, òàêàÿ «ïàòîëîãè÷åñêàÿ íîðìà», êîòîðàÿ ñòðåìèòñÿ ê èõ ðàäèêàëüíîìó èçìåíåíèþ.
Ïðèìå÷àíèÿ:
1. Ñì.: Hobsbawm, E. The Age of Extremes: A History of the World, 1914-1991. – New York, 1995.
2. Von Beyme, K. Right-Wing Extremism in Post-War Europe // West European Politics. – 1988. – Vol. 11, No.
2. – P. 1-18.
3. Bale, T. Supplying the Insatiable Demand: Europe’s Populist Radical Right // Government & Opposition. – 2012. – Vol. 47, No. 2. – P. 256-274.
4. Ïîäðîáíåå î äèñêóññèè ïî âîïðîñàì îïðåäåëåíèÿ è èäåîëîãèè ñì. ïåðâóþ ãëàâó â êíèãå: Mudde, C.
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5. Ibid. – P. 18-20.
6. Ibid. – P. 22-23.
7. Mudde, C. The Populist Zeitgeist // Government &
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Ïî âîïðîñàì èäåîëîãèè ÏÐÏÏ ñì., â ÷àñòíîñòè:
Harrison, S.; Bruter, M. Mapping Extreme Right Ideology: An Empirical Geography of the European Extreme Right. – Basingstoke, 2011; Mudde, C. The Ideology of the Extreme Right. – Manchester, 2000;
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10. Îáñóæäåíèå â äàííîé ñòàòüå âñåõ êëàññèôèêàöèé çà-âåëî áû íàñ ñëèøêîì äàëåêî (ñì. Mudde, C. Populist Radical Right Parties in Europe … – P. 32ff). Íèæå
ïåðå-÷èñëåíû íàèáîëåå âàæíûå ïàðòèè, èñêëþ÷åííûå ìíîþ èç àíàëèçà, êîòîðûå èçó÷àþòñÿ äðóãèìè àâòîðàìè: ãîë-ëàíäñêàÿ «Ñïèñîê Ïèìà Ôîðòåéíà» (ÑÏÔ), ôèíñêàÿ
«Èñòèííûå ôèííû» (ÈÔ), ãðå÷åñêàÿ «Çîëîòàÿ Çàðÿ»
(ÇÇ), «Âåíãåðñêèé ãðàæäàíñêèé ñîþç» (ÔÈÄÅÑ), èòà-ëüÿíñêèå «Âïåðåä, Èòàëèÿ!» (ÂÈ) è «Íàöèîíàëüíûé àëüÿíñ» (ÍÀ), íîðâåæñêàÿ «Ïàðòèÿ ïðîãðåññà» (ÏÏ), øâåäñêàÿ ïàðòèÿ «Íîâàÿ äåìîêðàòèÿ» (ÍÄ) è òóðåöêàÿ
«Ïàðòèÿ íàöèîíàëüíîãî äåéñòâèÿ» (ÏÍÄ). Âñå îíè îáëàäàþò íåêîòîðûìè (íî íå âñåìè) ñõîæèìè îñîáåí-íîñòÿìè ïðàâîðàäèêàëüíûõ ïîïóëèñòñêèõ ïàðòèé.  áîëüøèíñòâå ñëó÷àåâ äèñêóññèÿ âåäåòñÿ ïî âîïðîñó î òîì, ÿâëÿåòñÿ ëè íàòèâèçì (÷àùå âñåãî, íàñòðîåíèÿ, íàïðàâëåííûå ïðîòèâ èììèãðàíòîâ) èäåîëîãè÷åñêèì èëè îïïîðòóíèñòè÷åñêèì òå÷åíèåì, ò.å. èñïîëüçóåìûì òîëüêî ñòðàòåãè÷åñêè â èçáèðàòåëüíûõ êàìïàíèÿõ.
Èñêëþ÷åíèåì ÿâëÿåòñÿ ãðå÷åñêàÿ ïàðòèÿ «Çîëîòàÿ Çàðÿ» (CA), òàê êàê ýòî óëüòðàïðàâàÿ, ò.å. àíòèäåìî-êðàòè÷åñêàÿ ïàðòèÿ, êîòîðàÿ îòâåðãàåò íàðîäíûé ñóâå-ðåíèòåò è ïðàâëåíèå áîëüøèíñòâà.
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ÓÄÊ 329 ÁÁÊ 66.1