Introduction
InordertodeterminewhetherfemaleJapaneseundergraduate・sfeministawarenessisin linewithuniversalmodernization,individualizationandthefeministwaves,andtheeffectof astudy abroadexperience;thispapergatheredprimary dataofstudentcommentson five imagesfrom stockimagesandsocialmedia.However,onlyoneimage,whichrelatestosocial mediawasfocusedoninthispaper.Overall,thissmallpilotstudywasinformedbyseveral researchareas.Intheliteraturereview,thesearecoveredinthefollowingorder.Atfirst,the natureofstudyabroad,genderandindividualizationtrendswillbecovered.Thisisfollowedby acloserinvestigationinlightofmodernizationinregionalAsiantrendsandJapantrendsin genderandindividualizationdevelopment.Withthelatteralsobeingtiedtoinstitutionalchange andmorepurchasingpower.Thisisthenparalleledwithabriefoutlineofthesecondandthird 学苑 No.893（49）～（64）（20153）
Femi
ni
stAwarenessthroughImages:
JapaneseFemal
eUndergraduateStudents
Kri
sti
eSage,TomokoSugi
hashiandSumi
koMi
yafusa
Abstract
Thisshortpaperoutlinesselectedresearchresultsfrom asmallpilotstudywhichsought toascertain,viathediscourseofimages,thechangeinfeministawarenessofJapanesefemale undergraduatestudentsdueto a study abroad experience.Commentsby theexperimental group who wasexposed to Boston and thecontrolgroup on theTokyo campuson oneof thoseimagesagenderedAmericanshirtadvertisementwithasocialmediacampaignhashtag wereanalyzedasprimarydata.Inthissmallpilotstudy,thestudyabroadexperienceofthe experimentalgroups・commentscouldnotdemonstrateasignificantshiftinfeministawareness. Rather,oncomparisontheexperimentalgroupshowedaslightindicationtowardsconceptsof thethird wavefeminism than thecontrolgroup.However,both groupsdisplayed asimilar lack ofpoliticization,anothertenantofthirdwavers.In both groups,theimagewasviewed foritsliterality asan advertisement;moreover,very few commentsreferredtothepolitical aspectofthesocialmediacampaign#NotBuyingIt.Depoliticizationisconsistentwiththethird waveoffeministthought.Although,theremaybesomeculturalconventionsspecifictoAsia whichconfoundpureexemplificationofEuropeanandWesternmodernizationandfeminism of thethirdwavemovement,coupledwith theinstitutionalization ofJapaneseindividualization. FurtherinvestigationwithalargersamplesizeisanticipatedtorevealthatJapanesefemale undergraduatestudentsexhibituniversalthirdwaveanddepoliticizednorms.
Keywords:Japan,pilotstudy,studyabroad,stockimage,feministawareness,thethirdwave, socialmedia,#NotBuyingIt,depoliticization
wavetheoriesoffeminism asisalsoconsidereduniversalin termsofthemodernizationof women.Socialandtraditionalmediaarealsocovered,andthenatureofaudienceandusersare detailedrespectively.Inaddition,abriefoutlineintowhatstockimagescanimplyforfeminism isaddressed.Aftertheliteraturereview,themethodologyofthepilotstudyisoutlined.The findingsofthepilotstudyarethenpresented,andbasedonadiscussionoftheresults,thefinal conclusionismade.Thispaperanalyzesprimaryandsecondaryresearchinrelationtofemale undergraduatestudentsinJapanandsuggeststheyfallintothethirdwaveoffeminism which issynonymouswithuniversaltrends.Theissuethispaperraisesistheconcernwiththethird wavemovement・slackofpoliticalinterestinthewaywomenarerepresentedandconsumedinthe mediaasfashionableandsexy.Theauthorsaim merelytogiveasnapshotofthenatureof awarenessoffeminism amongfemaleundergraduateuniversitystudentsinJapan.
1.Literaturereview
1.1 Studyabroad:Genderdevelopment
InJapan,Yonezawaetal.(2009)statesthatasalientdimensionforprivateuniversities istoofferdomesticstudentstheopportunity tolearn in an internationalatmosphereand societyfortheexperience,knowledge,deeperunderstandingandforeignlanguagestudy.In terms ofthe study abroad experience,Jessup-Anger (2008)cites studies by Davis,2002; Erikson,1968;Jones,1997;Jones& McEwen,2000;Josselson,1987,1996;McEwen,1996who concur that the identity formation ofundergraduate students during this period often coincideswiththeiradolescence.Heisquotedasfollows:
・Notonly doesstudyabroadservetoenhancestudents・understanding ofothercultures,itmay beinfluentialto theformation ofself.Understanding how study abroad participantsinterpret theircross-culturalexperiencescanprovidevaluableinformationtoanyoneinterestedinfostering thedevelopmentofstudents・identitiesandtheirunderstandingofdifference(Jessup-Anger,2008: 360).・
Regarding gender,Jessup-Anger (2008)believesthatprior to students・study abroad they may only havetheunderstanding ofitfrom theirown homeculture.Thatis,an understanding offeminineand masculinequalitieswhich areculturally assigned to one・s biologicalsex from birth and which remain unchallenged.However,when studentsstudy abroad,Grewal& Kaplan(2002)(citedbyJessup-Anger,2008)arguethatabroadenedview manifestsandlessresistant,eithersubtleordistinctfeeling,towardsgenderlimitsconcerning how itisassignedanddefinedcanoccur.
1.2 Asiansocieties:Gender,individualization& culture
Kim (2014)putsforwardthatononehand,AsiansocietysimilarlyreflectsaWestern/ Europeanmodernizationprocessinthebreakawayfrom moretraditionallydefinedgender
roles.Thatis,youngwomenarefreertopursuealifeoftheirown,aremobile,havework andcareeraspirations.Asaresult,theyhavemoreeconomicpower,independence,andthe freedom toseekself-fulfillment.Moreover,thosewomenwhospeakEnglishcanaspiretoor participateintransnationalculture(Kim,2014).Yet,duetogenderedmarketlaborinequity presentinsomeAsiannations,suchasKoreaorJapan,Kim (2014)positsthatparticipation islimited,marginalizingwomen・ssocioeconomicposition.Thiscanbefurthersupportedby the2014GlobalGenderGapreport・scategory,EconomicParticipation,wherethedeveloped Asian nations,aforementioned,stilllag behind theirEuropeanandWesterncounterparts (WEF,2014).Kim (2014)explainsthisdifferentiates one way in which the individualizing trends in the Asian region differ from the West and Europe. Since extensive individualization isnotconsideredattheheartofthesocially constructednormsofAsian culture;rather,familyisprioritizedasthebasicunitofsocialreproduction.
1.2.1 Japaneseindividualism:Institutionalchange
InthecaseofJapan,Matsutani(2012)statesthatinstitutionalchangesinpolicytothe Japaneseeducation system werekey contributorstoJapaneseindividualism.In particular, Matsutani(2012)highlighted thatin 1985 the Japanese governmentintroduced a policy calledkoseijyushinogensokuwhichsoughttoaccountforindividuality.Moreover,from 1992it wasnolongermandatoryforschooltobeheldonSaturday.Thiswasfurtherreinforcedin 2002whentheJapaneseeducationalphilosophyofyutoriwasinitiated;whichinpartmeans divestingfrom educationthatprioritizestheneedtocram.Suchpolicychanges,asstatedby Matsutani(2012),gavetheadolescentyouthofJapanmoreindividualtime.
Indoingso,femalehighschoolstudentshadmorefreetimetoexploretheirindividualization throughtheconsumptionofproducts.Plus,theywerefinancedindependently,attributedto parttimejobsatfastfood outletsorfamily restaurantsand etcetera (Matsutani,2012; Yamane,1991).Withthispurchasingpowertheyboughtconsumablestargetedtothefemale market.In particular:fashionabledrinks,such asPikoeand Kissoura;gimmicky fortune sweets,suchasKoalanomarch(therewasthebeliefamongfemalestudentsthathappiness wouldensueifyoufoundakoalabearwitheyebrowsinthepack);puri-kura,anadvanced instant snapshot photo vending booth with colorful photo editing tools; and, group communication was facilitated through pokeberu,a pager system and personalhandy/ cellularphones(Matsutani,2012:7071).
Therefore,duetomoretimeandmoney,magazinesandcosmeticsalsobecamekey to youngfemales・lives.Asaresult,Nishii(2011)documentsthetrendofchangingappearances throughmakeup,asdisseminatedbymagazinesandfriendswhowerereadersofthese,and largely consideredaway in which they couldbecomemoreconfident,aswellasmaximize theirfemininecharm (Nishii,2011).Onenotabletrendwasthe・ThreeSacredTreasures・of: 1)falseeyelashes,2)coloredcontactlensesand,3)eyelidwideningstickers;whichcombined,
madeeyesappeardoublethesize(Nishii,2011:143).
Itisfurtherpositedby Matsutani(2012)thattheaforementionedtrends,aproductof institutionalchange,andwhatwasseenasfeminine,aresynchronouswithJapanesefemale fashiontimeperiodsreferredtoinbriefinTable1.Thiscombinationservedtocontinueto strengthenaburgeoningconsumerbaseandtoreinforcetheirindividualism.
1.3 Secondandthirdwavefeminism:Femininity& politicization
Oneaspectthatthesecondandthirdwavesoffeminism differistheapproachtowards femalefemininity and thelevelofpoliticizationwithin thewave.In termsofthesecond wave,Schippers& Sapp(2012)outlinethatfemininitywasperceivedtobeasaresultofa dominantpatriarchalsocialmodelwhichembodiedsubordinationorwasembodiedbyaset ofpracticesimposedonfemalesbymales.Thesecondwaversputforwardthatiffemininity ischaracterizedbyamaledefinition,itcannotbeliberating.Therefore,theonlychoiceisto rejectand overcometheestablished frameworkswhich reinforcethis(Schippers& Sapp, 2012).Thus,thesecondwavecriticizesfemininityandrejectstheaforementionedembodiment and/orseeksthesocialchangerequiredtodoso.Inshort,thesecondwaveisapoliticized struggleagainstestablishednorms.
By contrast,thethird waveconsidersthatfemininity isassumed to bedefined by a socialorculturalsetofidealsofwhatwomen should beand isembodied asa surface performance(Schippers& Sapp,2012).Assuch,itisnotimposedonthethirdwaversbecause theyaresubordinate,ratheritisavailabletoallandfemininitycanalsobeembodiedbyall (Schippers& Sapp,2012).In thisway,itisconsidered asnotreiterating a hegemon of femininity which makes men feelinferior,nor one that perpetuates gender inequality. Instead,thethird waveseekspowerby undermining hegemony and hierarchiesthrough beingsubversivetomaledominanceandgenderinequalitythroughoutwardexpressionsof
Table1.Japanesetimelineoffemininefashiontrendperiods(adaptedfrom Matsutani,2012) Trendperiod& description:
1.1980s1990s:BodyConscious(198794)
Womenintheir20・sdesiredtoshow theirbodylinesoffbywearingshort& tightfitteddresses 2.1990s2000s:a)Ko-Gal19902000;b)YamambaGirls(19982000)& c)Goth-Lori(19982008)
a)Ko-Gal:Representedbylong,lightbrownhair,shortskirts& loosesocks,resemblingtheones balletdancerswore
b)YamambaGirls:Longuntidyhair& uniquefacialmake-up
c)Goth-Lori:A combinationofgothic& Lolita-esquefashiontrends;appearedintermittently 3.1990s-present:Singers:NamieAmuro(1990);AyumiHamasaki(2000)
ThesesingersappearedontheTV,andgirlsdreamedtobecomelikethem 4.2006-present:a)Age-jomodels;b)Magazines(Forexample,JJ)
a)Age-jo:Girlswithheavymake-up
fashion.Thesedefinetheirindividualizedapproachtofemininity(Schippers& Sapp,2012). Though M ann & Huffman (2005)acknowledgethatthenew generation ofthethird waveoffeministsmayreceivecriticism from thesecondwave;theypositthatthethirdwavers are attempting to broaden feminism with less restrictive ideas.This includes ways and strategiesofreconceptualizingfeminism.Furthermore,thethirdwaveoffeministscelebrate contradictionsthrough hybridity in orderto resistcategorization and revoltagainstthe anti-feminineand anti-joy perceptionsofthesecond wave(Mann & Huffman 2005).For example,aGirlieFeministbelievesmaterialism isantiquated,whichthereforefacilitatesthe wearing ofpink,nailpolish andthecelebration ofpretty aspowerandfeminism asfun. Mendes(2012)supports,addingthatthethirdwavemovementallowsforbeinganindividual andalsobeingmodern,funandsexy.Takentotheextentthatbeingfemale,whileconsidered equalto men,hastheadvantageoffemininity (Mendes,2012).In sum,individualization meansa・cando・attitudeprevailswherefemininityisflaunted,andthisisenhancedwith thepurchaseofgoodsassignsofempowermentandachievement(Mendes,2012).
Conversely,Mann & Huffman (2005)citecriticism by Baumgardener& Richards(1997: 164165)thatthis・babefeminism・is・lightonissuesandheavyonvanity・.Mann& Huffman (2005)citeanothercritic,Wurtzel(2000),whoclaimsthatone・spretty powerand putting forwardthesexualelementofgender,despiteitbeingforpopularconsumption,isnolonger consideredtodraw criticism ofbeingabimbo.Moreover,examplessuchasMadonnaarenot objectified,ratherimagesofpositivesubjectification.Mann& Huffman(2005)furtherrefer toKary (1999),whogoessofarastosay thatthethirdwaveencouragesusing women・s bodypartsaspowertools.
Although M ann & Huffman (2005)statethatthethird waveispolitically regressive, theyalsobelievethatthewayitchallengesthesecondwavehassomebenefittothefeminist movement.Yetcontendthatthepoliticsofgendercannotbeignorediffeminism isgoing tobetransformativeoftheindividualandsociety,asitneedstobe.Mendes(2012)agrees, arguing thatthe mass media and popular culture can refocus women・s attention from politicaland economic power to purchasing and sexualpower.This ・choice・ to look beautiful,sexyorbetraditionallyfeminineisconsideredproblematicasitisdifficulttobe bothfeminineobjectsandfeminineagents.Nonetheless,thethirdwavebelievesithasthis right.Meanwhile,thepoliticalaspectisirrelevantorundiscussed(Mendes,2012).Mann & Huffman (2005)citeBaumgardner& Richards(2000:166):・Withoutabody ofpolitics,the nailpolishisreallygoingtowaste・(Mann& Huffman,2005).
1.4 Themediadiscourse:Itsinfluenceonfeminism & femininity
Media,irrespective if it is traditionalor contemporary (that is social),influences feminism and femininity in thesameway acrossthewavesoffeminism.Mendes・(2012) research,which in partcoveredthetransition from thesecondtothirdwaveoffeminism,
examinedmediadiscourse,relatedtowomen,from 2008to2012innewspapers.Overthistime period,Mendes(2012)claimedthattherewasamarkedincreasein・softerstories・-categorized asissueswhich involvefashion,leisureand popularculture.Asfortraditionaloutletsof media,thepassiveaudienceisarguedbyMeehan(2002:217)andcitedbyShepherd(2014)as notonly measurableby audienceratingsbutalso created asa commodity which reflects certain gendered assumptions.The passive audience is key to traditionalmedia,which enablesformarketsegmentation,suchasdemography,andfurthersegmentationaccording togenderwhichShepherd(2014)claims,institutionalizessexism.Shepherd(2014)statesthat theaudienceisagenderedcommodity,andthusaproductofexistinggenderedconstructions whichisintegraltocapitalaccumulation.
In socialmedia,theexploration ofpersonalnarrativesthatexemplify thethirdwave, arecoupledwiththethirdwaversmedia-savvyusageoftheinternet,alsoconsideredavessel toexpandtheirvoice(Mann& Huffman,2005).Inasimilarveintotraditionalmediahowever, Shepherd(2014)positsthatsocialmediausers,despitetheterm users,notaudience,arealso genderedcommodities.Sincewhenanaudienceisagenderedcommodity,userscanbetranslated ormappedontosocialmediamediums.Even though asenseofagency existsin users,or rather,activeinternetcontributors,Shepherd(2014)contends,inthesamewayanaudience receivestraditionalmedia,thatistheyworkforthatmedium,theyalsoascribetogendered patterns;asdoesthelaborofusers.Thisisduetothesimilarityandprevalenceoftheone click on advertising model,common to platforms for socialmedia and which can be gendered.Furthermore,users supply their personalinformation as a function oftheir participation(Shepherd,2014).Althoughinherentlymorecomplexduetotheuserlabouras anadditionallayer,clickingpowerisboughtandsoldbetweensitesandthereforeShepherd (2014)concludesthattheviewingpowerofnew mediahasbecomecommodifiedinthesame wayastraditionalmediaoutlets.
1.4.1 Stockmedia
AsMiller(2014)quotes,Jonathan Klein,co-founderandchiefexecutiveofGetty says: ・Imageryhasbecomethecommunicationmedium ofthisgeneration,andthatreallymeans how peopleareportrayedvisuallyisgoingtohavemoreinfluenceonhow peopleareseen and perceived morethan anything else・.Theusageofstock photography forcommercial purposesinadvertising,isthesameasstockimagesusedontheinternet.OfwhichGetty Imagesisrenownedasa・giant・inthisindustry(Wikipedia,2014)andashasevolvedacross mediums.In2014,GettyImagescollaboratedwithSherylSandberg・snon-profitorganization forwomen・sempowerment,Lean In,and developed theLean In Collection (Getty Images, 2014;Examiner,2014).Itfeaturesmorethan2500imagesofwomenincontemporarywork and lifesituations,and showcaseswomen・sleadership (Getty Images,2014).Thislibrary showswomen in allprofessionsfrom surgeonsto painters.In addition,fatherschanging
nappies (Miller,2014).Therefore,italso seeks to showcase men supportive ofassisting women in their careersand imageswherefathersarespending quality timewith their daughters(Examiner,2014).GettyImages(2014)statesthatthiscollectionisanonlinelibrary ・devotedtothepowerfuldepictionofwomen,girlsandthepeoplewhosupportthem・.
Miller(2014)highlightsthatthecollection combatsthepresentubiquitousstandardof internet stock images which showcase women as images of sex icons, shopaholics, multitasking and smiling whilepouring milk into cerealbowlsatthebreakfasttable,or simply obsoleteonesofchecking theirpagers,ofwhich allarestillused in magazines, advertisements,brochures,andetcetera.Miller(2014)quotesSherylSandberg:・Whenwesee imagesofwomenandgirlsandmen,theyoftenfallintothestereotypesthatwe・retryingto overcome,andyou can・tbe what you can・t see・.Therefore,the Getty Images Lean In Collectionaimstoportrayamoreaccurateperceptionofthemind,bodyandspiritofthe contemporaryfemalefrom allagesandwalksoflife.
1.4.2 Socialmediaandpoliticization
In Macnamara・s(2012)article,referenceismadetothedemocraticdeficit,auniversal concern by governments with the lack of formal political interest by the younger generation.Youth have transitioned from receiving information from traditionalmedia outlets to whatMacnamara (2012)refers to as Democracy 2.0.Thatis,to ・participate politically・,socialmediausers:・follow・,forexamplehashtag (#)issueson Twitter;・like・ using athumbs-up icon on Facebook;commenton blogsand/orinteractwith theirpeers overthesemediums.Thisdiffersfrom traditionalpoliticalparticipation.Forinstance,being membersofpoliticalparties,voting,andsubmitting formalletterstoministriesbasedon reactionstotraditionalmediareports(Macnamara,2012).Moreover,fortheUnitedStates, Duggan・s (2013)Pew Research report entitled,・It・s a woman・s (socialmedia)world・, highlightsAmericanwomenasthelargestusersofsocialmediaplatforms.
2.Methodology 2.1 Subjects
This smallpilotstudy soughtto determine whether Japanese female undergraduate studentschanged theirconceptoffeminism by asking them tocommenton asetoffive imagestakenfrom bothstockimagesandsocialmediabeforeandaftertheirexposuretoa study abroad environment.Itutilized descriptive research to selectively sample research subjectsbased on ・information-rich caseswhosestudy［of］ willilluminatethequestions understudy・(Patton,2002:230).Subjectsselectedforthisresearchwerecategorizedintoan experimentalgroup comprised of22 studentswho studied abroad for oneyear and six monthsinBoston,U.S.A.;andacontrolgroupof14studentswhostudiedonlyinTokyo. TheexperimentalgroupwasenrolledforthreeconsecutivesemestersattheShowaBoston
Campusfrom 2013to2014.Meanwhile,thecontrolgroupwasenrolledforthesameperiod atShowaWomen・sUniversityinTokyo.Allstudentsarestudyingundergraduatedegreesat theDepartmentofEnglishLanguageandCommunication.
2.2 Datacollectionprocedure
Researchersallocatedtimetoconductdatacollectionwiththeexperimentalandcontrol group subjects within formaluniversity contexts,based on departmentalapproval.The researchersexplained thedata-gathering requirementsand provided a consentnotification thatsubjectswouldbeaskedtocommentonasetoffiveimages.Oncegainingtheiragreement toparticipateinthisresearch,theresearchersdistributedtheworksheets.Thedataanalysis in thisstudy focused on thecriticaldiscourseanalysisofstock and socialmedia images from theinternet(Wodak & Meyer,2009).To collectdata,thisstudy used a structured worksheetprotocol.Basedonthemainresearchquestion,categoriesofimagesandthemes weredescribedaccordingtoemergingtrendsincombinationwiththeliteratureandtheoretical frameworks.Exactly the same worksheet was distributed to students twice.The first worksheetswerecompletedbyallstudentsinJuly,2013,Tokyo,andthesecondworksheets on February,2014in both Boston fortheexperimentalgroup and Tokyoforthecontrol group.Table2showsthesubjectsandchronologicalcollectionofdatafrom theexperimental andcontrolgroupsforData1andData2timeperiods.Thispaperonly examinesoneof fiveimagesasshowninFigure1.
Duetocopyright,thisimageadaptedfrom the American Apparelonlinewebsiteby thefeminist activistmovement,Miss Representation,cannotbe published.Instead Figure 1 willbe described as follows;theadvertisementisforthesameunisex shirt.However,MissRepresentationhighlights,by placing theway itisadvertised on theAmerican Apparelwebsiteformalesversesfemalesalongside
eachother,thecommodificationofsexism.Thatis,themalehashisarmsbyhissideand hisshirtisfullybuttoneduptohisneckandalsopicturedwithasweaterontop.Whilethe female is posing seductively with the shirtundone exposing her nakedness and is also pictured with her bare bottom showing.Thus,the differentialtreatment of the shirt
Table2.Subjects,timeperiods:Data1& 2
Experimental(E)Group(N＝22) ControlGroup(C)(N＝14) Data collected Data1 2013July Data2 2014February Data1 2013July Data2 2014February Tokyo Boston Tokyo Tokyo
Figure1.#NotBuyingItCampaign: (MissRepresentation,2014) AmericanApparel WebsiteofSame UnisexShirt: MaleImages #NotBuyingIt verses AmericanApparel WebsiteofSame UnisexShirt: FemaleImages
advertisement for males and females by American Apparelled to Miss Representation creatingthehashtagcampaign#NotBuyingItinordertostirupcondemnationofthesexist commodificationofthefemalebodyonsocialmedia.
3.Findings
Subjects・commentsareclassifiedintofivecategoriesasin Table3.Thecommentsare copiedverbatim andthespelling andgrammarmistakesremain asisin Tables4to7.In thesetables,thecoding in frontofeach commentreferstotheindividualsubjectnumber andE standsfortheexperimentalgroup,andC,thecontrolgroup.
3.1 ExperimentalGroup(E)comments 3.1.1 ExperimentalGroup-Data1
Table4.
a)Shirtadvertisement:4examplesfrom 11comments E1.peoplesellssomeclothontwodifferentpage.
E2.Ithinkthesetwophotosshow how differentwearingsamecloth. E4.fashionnetshopping
E7.evenifitisthesameclotheswecanwearitinourownway.
Researchercomment:11outof22commentswererecordedfora).Itseemsthatmanysubjectsfind thetwoimagesvisuallyinteresting.Astheabovecommentssuggest,thesameshirtcanlookdifferent dependingonhow youwearit.
b)Positive:8comments
E5.Ithink thatwomen・sonlineshopping pageisa gay[guy]pagebutmen・sonlineshopping pageisanunembellishedpage.
E11.Men・sonlineshoppingpageisgoodbutwomenissexyanddaring. E17.Therightoneshowssexy.Theleftoneshowsafeelingofcleanriness.
E19.w[h]ethermenorwomen,itdoesn・tmatter.Wecanwearsameshirtsandbothlookgood. E20.Rightoneismorecoolthanleftone,becausethemodelofrightoneisverysexyandcool.But
themodelofleftoneisn・tseeingfashionable,itlooksquietlydressed.Ithinkmodelisvery important.Modelcanchangeimageoftheclothes.
E21.evenifthepersonwhom afigurehasgoodwearsanything.Ilookgood.[authors・interpretation: apersonwithagoodfigurecanwearanythingandlooksgood]
Table3.Commentcategorization:Themesa)－e) Theme Categories
a)Shirtadvertisement Commentsdescribingtheimageasanadvertisement b)Positive Commentsinterpretingtheimagesomewhatpositively c)Positive/negative Commentswheresubjects・attitudesarenotveryclear
d)Genderinequality Commentsshowingcriticism orfeelingsunfavourabletothewomen・simage e)#NotBuyingIt
E22.women・sonlineshoppingpageusegoodmodelsoitisgoodadvertisement.
Researchercomment:Theyseem tonoticehow thesameoutfitisstyled,apossiblereasonwhyeight comments(morethan onethird ofthetotalcommend theway thewoman isportrayed in the pictureincategoryb).Subjectsalsofindthefemalemodelattractive.Studentsuse・sexy・,・daring・, ・cool・or・good・,andcommendthewaythefemalemodelwearstheshirtwhiletheyuse・cleanliness・ (E17)and・notfashionable・and・quiet・(E20)forthemalemodel.Onemorecommentfollows,which iscategorizedinthisgroup,andthoughpossiblyambiguousatfirst,sincethesubjectleftthesentence inJapanese,ithelpstounderstandwhatsheactuallymeans.Sothereareeightcommentsinb)all together.
E6.Itshowsthatthedifferenceofhow tolooksmartbetweenmenandwomen.
男性より女性の方が着こなしが上手［Translation:Thiswomanisdressedmorefashionablythan thisman.］
c)Positive/negative:0commentsmade d)Genderinequality:3comments
E10.Ithinkthiswoman・sphotoisn・tabletorefertothewayIwearthisclothe.
E12.manwearbottomshoweverwomanwearanything!Ithinkwhyisit??Inthisworldhow do menthinkaboutwomen??Itisnotcomfortableforme.
E16.theyshow how Americanapparelmarketssellwomen・sclothessexiness.
Researchercomment:Comparedwiththeeightpositiveremarksinb),ind)therearethreecomments whichshow feelingsofunease.
e)#NotBuyingItcampaign:0commentsmade
3.1.2 ExperimentalGroup-Data2
Data2,collectedfivemonthsafterData1,aremorepositivelyinclined(seeb),following).
Table5.
a)Shirtadvertisement:5comments
E3.Thepictureisdifferentwomen・sfrom men・s.
E5.Unisexshirtsisgoodbecausewecanweardifferfashionstyle. E15.Thisshirtisusedunisex.
E18.Theycanshow thedifferencewhenwomanandmenwearsameshirt. E22.Ithoughttwopatternssellingclothing.
Researchercomment:Thefollowingcommentsinb)show subjects・positivefeedbackandtheiruseof ・fashionable・,・good・,・effective・,・stylish・over・sexy・.Alsothereismoreexpressionoffeelings. b)Positive:10comments
E4.IthinkthatIwanttobuyrightsidebecause,rightsidefashionsence[sic]isgood. E6.A womeniswearingaT-shirtfashionably,howeveramanisn・t.
E8.Thetwoshirtsarethesame,butitisbetterwhatwomenwearthanwhatmenwear. E13.Itshowsthatbothmenandwomencanbuythesameshirts.Andtherearemanywayswhich
youcanwere[wear]it.Itdependsontheperson!
lookingpersonasmodel.
E17.Themanputsonitproperlybutthewomanputsonitmorefashionablethantheman. E19.women・spagelooksmorefashionable.
E20.women・smodelshavemoreexpressionthanmen・smodel.
E21.Ipreferrightonebecauseitseemslikemorestylishtoexpresssomefeelings.
Researchercomment:Thereisonemorecommentforb)whichmayatfirstseem ambiguousoreven toshow disgust,yetherJapanesecommenthelpstounderstandherreactionandsoitisincluded inb).
E7.Theunisexproductlooksmoreattractivebyusingwomenmodel.Andbycomparingmanand woman,wecan seewhich genderreallyfitsthoseclothes.Comparingtwoproducts,notthe shirtsbuttheproductismenandwomen.
モデルが良ければ，買う人も多い［Translation:Ifthemodelswerebetter,morepeoplewould buy(theshirt)・.］
Researchercomment:Fouradditionalcommentsuse・sexy・,butitisnotclearwhethertheyareused positivelyinc)asfollows:
c)Positive/negative:4comments E1.womenwanttobesexy.
E2.Thedifferencebetweenwomenandmen・spage.Women・spageismoresexythanmen・s. E11.woman・slooksmoresexythanman・s.
E14.thereisastilldifferencebetweenwomenandmen. d)Genderinequality:2comments
E9.Ithink thisshirtslookson hermorethat[than]a man.HoweverIdon・tknow why the womanissexy.
E10.Thisphotostrytoshow clothingmoreattractive.Butthepicturesshouldshow how towear prettysotheseespeciallywomen・sarenotappropriate.
Researchercomment:Thereisonecommentfore),(following)which refersto the#NotBuyingIt hashtag,yetthesubjectseemstobecomeconfused,likelynotknowingwhatitmeans.
e)#NotBuyingItcampaign:1comment
E12.Icouldn・tunderstandwellaboutthisadvertisement.Thisisbecauseitiswritten・unisexshirts・ intop.Butitisalsowritten・#NotBuyingIt・inthebottom.
3.2 ControlGroup(C)comments
AsintheexperimentalgroupinData1,mostofthecommentsareofa),describingit asanadvertisement.
3.2.1 ControlGroup-Data1
Table6.
a)Shirtadvertisement:4examplesfrom 9comments C1.itshowstwopatternswearing.
C3.Ithinkthisissameclosebutwearingisdifferentinmenandwomen. C7.itwasinventednew typeofshirt.Bothofsexcanwearthisshirt.
C10.thesetwopicturesshow usuful[sic]shirts
Researchercomment:Twostudentsfindtheimagepositive,buttheydidnotuse・sexy・,shownas follows:
b)Positive:2comments
C2.thetwophotosshow thisshirtismadeforwomen.
C14.eachshirtsaresome[same]typebutdifferentwearingstyleandwhenIonlywatchwomen・s onlyIfeelitiscuteandgooddesignforgirls.
c)Positive/negative:0commentsmade d)Genderinequality:3comments
C4.InAmerica,whenthecompanywantstoselltheclothesespeciallywomen,theyusesexygirl orwomentoappealtheirgoods.
C11.Man・sphotoisgood.Ithink so,butwoman・sphotoisnotgood.Shedidn・twearpantsor skirts.
C12.MenandWomenwearthesameshirtbutitlooksdifferent.Women・sphotoisclearlytoshow nude.Thepagemayshow thatwomencanwearthisshirtbutmenalsocanbeinterestedin thisone.
e)#NotBuyingItcampaign:0commentsmade
3.2.2 ControlGroup-Data2
Ascan beseen,thechangein commentsfrom Data1toData2overthefivemonth periodisnotdrastic.Mostofthecommentsareofa),lookingattheimageasaunisexshirt advertisement without adding any analysis;though the students show less feelings of discomfortasseenind).Noticethecommentsinb)useweakercriticism thanData1.
Table7.
a)Shirtadvertisement:3examplesfrom 8comments
C5.Ithink thatthephoto showsthattherearenotdifferencesofthefashion sence[sense] betweenmen・sandwomens[sic]recently.
C10.bothmenandwomencanwearthischeckshirt C14.TheysharingsameT-shirtsbutitlooksdiffer.
Researchercomment:Twocommentsareofthistypeb).Theword・better・and・unique・areused ascanbeseeninthefollowing:
b)Positive:2comments
C1.Thephotoofa manssidecan beused in public,woman・ssidecan・t.butwomanssideis unique,Ithink.
C13.Ithinkwomen・sonlineshoppingpageshowsthattheshirtsbetterthanmen・sonlineshopping page.
c)Positive/negative:1comment
d)Genderinequality:1comment
C11.IthinkMen・sonlineshoppingpageisgood.ButWomen・sonlineshoppingpageistoosexy. Researchercomment:SimilarlytotheentryintheexperimentalgroupinData2,thesesubjectsare alsoconfusedaboutthe#NotBuyingIthashtagmeaning.
e)#NotBuyingItcampaign:2comments C8.wedon・thavetobuymensclothes.
C12.bothoftwoisthesameshirtbutmenmustn・tbuyit.Moreover,Ithinkit・snotrighthow towear.
4.Discussion
In thispilotstudy,even though thesamplesizesweresmall,twomain findingshave beenidentified.Firstly,thatinData1forbothgroups,theexperimental(Table8)andthe control(Table9)commentedliterallyonFigure1(seep.56).However,aftertheexperimental group (Table8,Data 2)experienced study abroad,theirliteralcommentsofcategory a) decreased,whereasforthecontrolgroup(Table9,Data2)remainedthesame.
SinceFigure1represented theimagesofan American maleand femalefrom ashirt advertisement,itisinterestingtonotethattheexperimentalgroupmadesignificantlymore positivecommentsabouttheseimagesbeforeand during study abroad,than thecontrol group made.Furthermore,their language ofdescription changed to include fashionable, good,effective,and stylish rather than sexy after exposureto study abroad.Although furtherinvestigation andalargersamplesizearewarrantedbeforesignificantconclusions canbemade;itcouldbesurmisedfrom thissmallpilotstudythattheexperimentalgroup reflectsmoreuniversalnormsofmodernization and can beplaced in thethird waveof feminism prior to exposure(Table8,Data 1 b)),aswellasduring their study abroad experience(Table8,Data2b))(3semestersoftheirundergraduateprogram inBoston),than thecontrolgroup(Table9,Data1& 2b)).
Thesecondfinding isthatboth groupsexhibitalack ofknowledgeofthepoliticized socialmediahashtagine)#NotBuyingItwithonlythreestudentsoutoftheentiresample of36,(Experimental(n＝22)andControlGroup(n＝14))commentingonit.(Onefrom Table 8,Data2e)andtwofrom Table9,Data2e)).Thisconcurswiththeliteraturereview since politicization is more affiliated with the second wavers, who would not accept the commodification ofsexinessandrevealing advertisementsasbeing fashionable.Yetamong thethird wavers,thereislittleinterestin a feminism which rejects,asdoesthesecond wave,theembodimentofwomen according tostandardswhich appealtomen.Despitethe popularityofsocialmedia,imagesareoftenderivedfrom stockimageswhichareusedfor advertising on the internet;and this method merely reflects traditionalmedia.Thus, althoughtheaudienceoftraditionalmediaistransitioningtoasocialmediauser,thelatter
remainstargetedwith imagesin advertising reflectiveoftraditionalmediaandwhich still reinforcespersistentgenderednorms.Theresearchersareconcernedaboutsuchindifference by femaleJapanesestudentsto politicalactivismthough itistypicalofthethird wave offeminismsinceitshowsthatthey donotrejectsuch genderedcommodification asin Figure1.
4.1 Tabulatedfindingssummary
5.Conclusion
Despiteasmallsamplesizeandthenatureofthisresearchasapilotstudy,thispaper haspresentedsomeprimarydatatoindicatethatthesefemaleJapaneseuniversitystudents are in the third wave of feminism.Therefore,they are relatively depoliticized when compared with thesecond wave,notably in termsofhow imagesin themedia portray women.Theliteraturereview highlightedhow study abroadexperiencescan enablewomen
Table8.
ExperimentalGroup(N＝22)
Category Entry Students・Data1 Entry Students・Data2 a)ShirtAdvertisement 11 E1,E2,E3,E4,E7,E8,
E9,E13,E14,E15,E18 Comments on visual differences 5 E3,E5,E15,E18,E22 b)Positive 8 E5,E6,E11,E17,E19, E20,E21,E22
The female is sexy, daring,cool,good Male:clean,quiet, notfashionable
10 E4,E6,E7,E8,E13, E16,E17,E19,E20,E21 No ・sexy・,but good, fashionable, effective, moreexpression c)Notclear 0 4 E1,E2,E11,E14 d)Genderinequality 3 E10,E12,E16 2 E9,E10
e)#NotBuyingItcampaign 0 1 E12 Table9.
ControlGroup(N＝14)
Category Entry Students・Data1 Entry Students・Data2 a)ShirtAdvertisement 9 C1,C3,C5～C10,C13 8 C2～C6,C9～C10,C14 b)Positive 2 C2,C14
No useof・sexy・,but cute, good design, shirt-madeforwomen
2 C1,C13
Female:better,unique Male:public c)Notclear 0 1 C7 d)Genderinequality 3 C4,C11,C12 1 C11 Female:toosexy Male:good e)#NotBuyingItcampaign 0 2 C8,C12
toescapethesociallyorculturallyconstructedconceptsofgenderthattheyhavegrownup with.However,theexperimentalgroup could notbesurmised to show thiseffectrather reflectinguniversalfeministideals.Thisgivesrisetodiscussionintheliteraturereview that despite some developed Asian nations lagging regarding the economic participation of women,Western and European normsofmodernization and individualization dosimilarly prevailin Japan.Thiscan beattributed tothefactthatasJapaneseinstitutionalpolicy changed,high schoolstudents were able to dedicate more time to individualization and especially from acommercialaspect.Thisisfurtherhighlighted throughouttheJapanese femininefashion trendperiods.Such progressionsaresynonymouswith thethirdwaveof feminism whichprioritizesindividualandoutwarddemonstrationsoffemininepowerofwhich femininitycanbebothsexyandfashionable.
Theconcernofthedepoliticizationoffeminism isoftenputforthbythesecondwavers andacademicstonameafew asitispervasiveinmedia,andsinceitalsoservestoreinforce commodification, irrespective of both traditional or more contemporary social media mediums.For example,interpreting the #NotBuyingIt correctly by the subjects would indicate an interest in politicizing the commodification of females.Yet,this is more demonstrativeoftheanti-femininevaluesheld by thesecond waveoffeminism,notthe third.TheLeanInCollectionaimstochangethecirculationofstockimagesontheinternet whichdepictwomeninwaysthesecondwaverejects.Ontheotherhand,thethirdwaveis apathetictothis,duetoamoreprevailing beliefthatsexy and fashionableisaform of individualization essentialto subverting the hegemony by using the power ofoutward displaysofindividualizedfemininity.
Whilethefindingsofthissmallpilotstudydidnothaveasignificantsampletosupport a clearresearch conclusion;thispaperhaspresented someanalysisofprimary data that warrants further investigation.In particular,the researchers wish to pursue why the experimentalgroupofJapanesefemaleundergraduatestudentsshow agreaterlikelihoodof positioningintheuniversalnormsofthethirdwaveoffeminism thanthecontrolgroup.It isthereforeargued thatwhiletheLean In Collection ofstock imagesand #NotBuyingIt campaignattemptstopoliticizethethirdwavers,thethirdwaversaredepoliticized,despite being socialmedia users,who arenotdifferentiated from audiencesastraditionalmedia receivers.Hence,despitetheissueofthecommodificationoffemalesasbeingaspervasivein thesecondasitisthethirdwave;thefeministsofthelatterbelievethattheyareincharge ofthiscommodificationbyusingtheirfemininityassexy,fashionable,andpowerful.This papersuggeststhatfemalestudentsinJapanaresimilarlyinlinewithuniversaltrendsof modernization andindividualization thatseek nottobepolitically engagedforthepursuit offeminism.Thisisaconcernrelevanttothesecondwaversandtotheresearchersofthis paper,butnottothethirdwavefeminists.
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（クリスティーセイジ 英語コミュニケーション学科） （杉橋 朝子 英語コミュニケーション学科）
